Carnivorous plants (sometimes called insectivorous plants) are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients (but not energy) from trapping and consuming animals or protozoans, typically insects and other arthropods. Nepenthes mirabilis (nəˈpɛnθiːz mɪɹəˈbɪlɪs/ or /mɪˈɹæbɪlɪs from Latin: mirabilis = wonderful or the Common Swamp Pitcher-Plant Palau, officially the Republic of Palau (Beluu er a Belau is an island nation in the Pacific Ocean, some 500 miles (800 km) east Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. A nutrient is food or chemicals that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός Protozoa (in Greek πρῶτον proton "first" and ζῷα zoia "animals" are unicellular Eukaryotes (singular Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described Arthropods are Animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda (from Greek ἄρθρον arthron, " Joint " Carnivorous plants appear adapted to grow in places where the soil is thin or poor in nutrients, especially nitrogen, such as acidic bogs and rock outcroppings. Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 A bog or mire is a Wetland type that accumulates Acidic Peat, a deposit of dead plant material &ndash usually Mosses but also Charles Darwin wrote the first well-known treatise on carnivorous plants in 1875. Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life [1]
True carnivory is thought to have evolved in at least 10 separate lineages of plants, and these are now represented by more than a dozen genera in 5 families. A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic These include about 625 species that attract and trap prey, produce digestive enzymes, and absorb the resulting available nutrients. Additionally, over 300 protocarnivorous plant species in several genera show some but not all these characteristics. A protocarnivorous plant (sometimes also paracarnivorous, subcarnivorous, or borderline carnivore) according to some definitions traps and kills
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Trapping mechanisms
Five basic trapping mechanisms are found in carnivorous plants.
- Pitfall traps (pitcher plants) trap prey in a rolled leaf that contains a pool of digestive enzymes or bacteria. Pitcher plants are Carnivorous plants whose prey-trapping mechanism features a deep cavity filled with Liquid known as a pitfall trap. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have
- Flypaper traps use a sticky mucilage. Mucilage is a gooey polar Glycoprotein; an exopolysaccharide; a Polymer produced by most plants and some microorganisms
- Snap traps utilize rapid leaf movements. Thigmonasty or seismonasty is the nastic response of a Plant or Fungus to touch heat or vibration
- Bladder traps suck in prey with a bladder that generates an internal vacuum. This vacuum means "absence of matter" or "an empty area or space" for the cleaning appliance see Vacuum cleaner.
- Lobster-pot traps force prey to move towards a digestive organ with inward pointing hairs. A lobster trap is a portable trap which traps Lobsters or Crayfish and is used in Lobster fishing. Trichomes, from the Greek meaning "growth of Hair " are fine outgrowths or appendages on Plants and certain Protists These are of diverse
These traps may be active or passive, depending on whether movement aids the capture of prey. For example, Triphyophyllum is a passive flypaper that secretes mucilage, but whose leaves do not grow or move in response to prey capture. Triphyophyllum (tɹɪfɪəʊfɪləm/ or /tɹɪfɪɒfɪləm is a monotypic Plant Genus, containing the single species Triphyophyllum peltatum Meanwhile, sundews are active flypapers whose leaves undergo rapid growth, aiding in the retention and digestion of prey. The Sundews ( Drosera) comprise one of the largest genera of Carnivorous plants with over 170 Species.
Pitfall traps
Pitfall traps are thought to have evolved independently on at least four occasions. Pitcher plants are Carnivorous plants whose prey-trapping mechanism features a deep cavity filled with Liquid known as a pitfall trap. The simplest ones are probably those of Heliamphora, the sun pitcher plant. The genus Heliamphora (hiːliːæmfɔːɹə/ or /hɛliːæmfɔːɹə from Greek: helos = Marsh, amphoreus = Amphora Pitcher plants are Carnivorous plants whose prey-trapping mechanism features a deep cavity filled with Liquid known as a pitfall trap. In this genus, the traps are clearly derived evolutionarily from a simple rolled leaf whose margins have sealed together. A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 These plants live in areas of high rainfall in South America such as Mount Roraima, and consequently have a problem ensuring their pitchers do not overflow. Mount Roraima (also known as Roraima Tepui, or Cerro Roraima in Spanish Monte Roraima in Portuguese marks the border between Venezuela To counteract this problem, natural selection has favoured the evolution of an overflow, similar to that of a bathroom sink - a small gap in the zipped-up leaf margins allows excess water to flow out of the pitcher. Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of In Plumbing, a sink or basin is a bowl-shaped fixture that is used for washing hands or small objects such as Food, dishes
Heliamphora is a member of the Sarraceniaceae, a New World family in the order Ericales (heathers and allies). Sarraceniaceae is a family of Pitcher plants (along with Nepenthaceae) belonging to order Ericales (previously Nepenthales) The New World is one of the names used for the non-Eurasian/non-African parts of the Earth specifically the Americas and Australia. The Ericales are a large and diverse order of Dicotyledons including for example Tea, Persimmon, Blueberry, Brazil nut, and Calluna vulgaris (also known as Ling is the sole species in the Genus Calluna in the family Ericaceae. Heliamphora is limited to South America, but the family contains two other genera, Sarracenia and Darlingtonia, which are endemic to the Southeastern United States (with the exception of one species) and California respectively. Sarracenia (sæɹəsɛniːɑː/ or /sæɹəsiːniːɑː is a Genus comprising 8 to 11 species of North American Pitcher plants Darlingtonia is also a genus of snakes in the family Colubridae. The US Southeast is the eastern portion of the Southern United States, but the Census Bureau does not provide a standard definition of a "Southeast" region California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. S. purpurea subsp. purpurea (the northern pitcher plant) has a more cosmopolitan distribution, found as far north as Canada. Sarracenia purpurea, commonly known as the Purple pitcher plant or Side-saddle flower, is a Carnivorous plant in the family Sarraceniaceae In Biogeography, a Biological category of living things is said to have cosmopolitan distribution if this category can be found almost anywhere around the world Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Sarracenia is the pitcher plant genus most commonly encountered in cultivation, because it is relatively hardy and easy to grow.
In the genus Sarracenia, the problem of pitcher overflow is solved by an operculum, which is essentially a flared leaflet that covers the opening of the rolled-leaf tube, and protects it from rain. In Botany, operculum may be used to describe any of the following A flap of the sporangium of a moss, covering the peristome (appendages surrounding Possibly because of this improved waterproofing, Sarracenia species secrete enzymes such as proteases and phosphatases into the digestive fluid at the bottom of the pitcher; Heliamphora relies on bacterial digestion alone. A protease is any Enzyme that conducts Proteolysis, that is begins protein Catabolism by Hydrolysis of the Peptide bonds that link A phosphatase is an Enzyme that removes a Phosphate group from its Substrate by hydrolysing Phosphoric acid mono Esters into The enzymes digest the proteins and nucleic acids in the prey, releasing amino acids and phosphate ions, which the plant absorbs. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl A nucleic acid is a Macromolecule composed of chains of monomeric Nucleotides In Biochemistry these Molecules carry Genetic information In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this A phosphate, an Inorganic chemical, is a salt of Phosphoric acid. Darlingtonia californica, the cobra plant, possesses an adaptation also found in Sarracenia psittacina and to a lesser extent in Sarracenia minor: the operculum is balloon-like, and almost seals the opening to the tube. Cobras ( are venomous Snakes of the family Elapidae, of several genera, but particularly Naja. This balloon-like chamber is pitted with areolae, chlorophyll-free patches through which light can penetrate. This aritcle is about the breast tissue For the Entomology term see Glossary of Lepidopteran_terms#Wings. Chlorophyll is a green Pigment found in most Plants Algae and Cyanobacteria. Insects, mostly ants, enter the chamber via the opening underneath the balloon. Once inside, they tire themselves trying to escape from these false exits, until they eventually fall into the tube. Prey access is increased by the 'fish tails', outgrowths of the operculum that give the plant its name. Some seedling Sarracenia species also have long, overhanging opercular outgrowths; Darlingtonia may therefore represent an example of neoteny. Neoteny (niːˈɒtɨniː also called juvenilization, is the retention by adults in a species of traits previously seen only in juveniles ( pedomorphosis/paedomorphosis
The second major group of pitcher plants are the monkey cups or tropical pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes. Brocchinia reducta (bɹɒkɪniːə ɹiːdʌktə is one of few carnivorous bromeliads. The Nepenthes (nəˈpɛnθiːz from Greek: ne = not penthos = grief sorrow named after the ancient drug Nepenthe) popularly The Nepenthes (nəˈpɛnθiːz from Greek: ne = not penthos = grief sorrow named after the ancient drug Nepenthe) popularly In the hundred or so species of this genus, the pitcher is borne at the end of a tendril, which grows as an extension to the midrib of the leaf. In Botany, a tendril is a specialized stem, Leaf or petiole with a threadlike shape that is used by Climbing plants for support Most species catch insects, although the larger ones, particularly N. rajah, also occasionally take small mammals and reptiles. Nepenthes rajah (nəˈpɛnθiːz ˈrɑːdʒə is an insectivorous Pitcher plant Species of the Monotypic Nepenthaceae Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands Reptiles, or members of the class Reptilia are air-breathing Cold-blooded Vertebrates that have skin covered in scales as opposed to hair or feathers These pitchers represent a convenient source of food to small insectivores. N. bicalcarata possesses two sharp thorns that project from the base of the operculum over the entrance to the pitcher, providing some protection from raids by freeloading mammals.
The pitfall trap has evolved independently in at least two other groups. The Albany pitcher plant Cephalotus follicularis is a small pitcher plant from Western Australia, with moccasin-like pitchers. Cephalotus (kɛfələʊtəs/ but frequently /sɛfələʊtəs is a Genus of Flowering plants which contains one Species, Cephalotus Western Australia is a state occupying the entire western third of the Australian continent. The rim of its pitcher's opening (the peristome) is particularly pronounced (both secrete nectar) and provides a thorny overhang to the opening, preventing trapped insects from climbing out. The word peristome is derived from the Greek peri, meaning 'around' or 'about' and stoma, 'mouth' Nectar is a Sugar -rich liquid produced by plants It is produced either by the Flowers in which it attracts pollinating animals or by extrafloral The lining of most pitcher plants is covered in a loose coating of waxy flakes, which are slippery for insects, prey that are often attracted by nectar bribes secreted by the peristome, and by bright flower-like anthocyanin patterning. Wax has traditionally referred to a substance that is secreted by Bees ( Beeswax) and used by them in constructing their Not to be confused with Anthocyanidin, their sugar free counterparts In at least one species, Sarracenia flava, the nectar bribe is laced with coniine, a toxic alkaloid also found in hemlock, which probably increases the efficiency of the traps by intoxicating prey. Coniine is a poisonous Alkaloid found in poison hemlock and the Yellow Pitcher Plant, and contributes to hemlock's fetid smell This article is about the chemical compounds alkaloids For the Pharmaceutical company in the Republic of Macedonia see Alkaloid (company. Poison hemlock redirects here For other uses of "hemlock" see Hemlock.
The final carnivore with a pitfall-like trap is the bromeliad, Brocchinia reducta. Brocchinia reducta (bɹɒkɪniːə ɹiːdʌktə is one of few carnivorous bromeliads. Like most relatives of the pineapple, the tightly-packed, waxy leaf bases of the strap-like leaves of this species form an urn. Pineapple ( Ananas comosus) is the common name for an edible Tropical Plant and also its Fruit It is native to the southern part of Brazil An urn is a Vase, ordinarily covered and without handles that usually has a narrowed neck above a footed Pedestal. In most bromeliads, water collects readily in this urn, and may provide habitats for frogs, insects and more usefully for plant, diazotrophic (nitrogen-fixing) bacteria. A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species. This article is about the block cipher algorithm For the ultrafast laser pulse measurement technique see Frequency-resolved optical gating. Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described Diazotrophs are Bacteria that fix atmospheric Nitrogen gas into a more usable form such as Ammonia. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have In Brocchinia, the urn is a specialised insect trap, with a loose, waxy lining and a population of digestive bacteria.
Flypaper traps
The flypaper trap is based on a sticky mucilage, or glue. The leaf of flypaper traps is studded with mucilage-secreting glands, which may be short and nondescript (like those of the butterworts), or long and mobile (like those of many sundews). Mucilage is a gooey polar Glycoprotein; an exopolysaccharide; a Polymer produced by most plants and some microorganisms The butterworts are a group of Carnivorous plants comprising the Genus Pinguicula. The Sundews ( Drosera) comprise one of the largest genera of Carnivorous plants with over 170 Species. Flypapers have evolved independently at least five times.
In the genus Pinguicula, the mucilage glands are quite short (sessile), and the leaf, whilst shiny (giving the genus its common name of 'butterwort'), does not appear carnivorous. The butterworts are a group of Carnivorous plants comprising the Genus Pinguicula. Sessile is a term in Biology with two distinct meanings In botany and medicine In Botany, sessile means "without a stalk The butterworts are a group of Carnivorous plants comprising the Genus Pinguicula. However, this belies the fact that the leaf is an extremely effective trap of small flying insects (such as fungus gnats), and whose surface responds to prey by relatively rapid growth. Fungus gnats are small dark short-lived flies, of the families Sciaridae, Diadocidiidae, Ditomyiidae, Keroplatidae, Bolitophilidae This thigmotropic growth may involve rolling of the leaf blade (to prevent rain from splashing the prey off the leaf surface), or 'dishing' of the surface under the prey, to form a shallow digestive pit. Thigmotropism is a movement in which an Organism moves or grows in response to Touch or Contact stimuli.
The sundew genus (Drosera) consists of over 100 species of active flypapers, whose mucilage glands are borne at the end of long tentacles, which frequently grow fast enough in response to prey (thigmotropism) to aid the trapping process. The Sundews ( Drosera) comprise one of the largest genera of Carnivorous plants with over 170 Species. The Sundews ( Drosera) comprise one of the largest genera of Carnivorous plants with over 170 Species. Tentacles can refer to the elongated flexible organs that are present in some animals especially Invertebrates and sometimes to the hairs of the leaves of some insectivorous Thigmotropism is a movement in which an Organism moves or grows in response to Touch or Contact stimuli. The tentacles of D. burmanii can bend 180° in a minute or so. Sundews are extremely cosmopolitan, and are found on all the continents except the Antarctic mainland. They are most diverse in Australia, the home to the large subgroup of pygmy sundews such as D. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. pygmaea, and to a number of tuberous sundews such as D. peltata, which form tubers that aestivate during the dry summer months. Estivation or aestivation (from Latin aestas, summer also known as "summer sleep" is a state of Dormancy somewhat similar These species are so dependent on insect sources of nitrogen that they generally lack the enzyme nitrate reductase, which most plants require to assimilate soil-borne nitrate into organic forms. Nitrate reductase Enzymes are a group of enzymes that reduce Nitrate to Nitrite.
Closely related to Drosera is the Portuguese dewy pine, Drosophyllum, which differs from the sundews in being passive. The Sundews ( Drosera) comprise one of the largest genera of Carnivorous plants with over 170 Species. The Sundews ( Drosera) comprise one of the largest genera of Carnivorous plants with over 170 Species. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Drosophyllum (dɹɒsəʊfɪləm/ or /dɹəsɒfɪləm is a genus of Carnivorous plants containing the single species Drosophyllum lusitanicum Its leaves are incapable of rapid movement or growth. Unrelated, but similar in habit, are the Australian rainbow plants (Byblis). Byblis (bɪblɪs is a small Genus of Carnivorous plants sometimes termed the rainbow plants for the attractive appearance of their Drosophyllum is unusual in that it grows under near-desert conditions; almost all other carnivores are either bog plants or grow in moist tropical areas. A desert is a Landscape or region that receives very little precipitation. A bog or mire is a Wetland type that accumulates Acidic Peat, a deposit of dead plant material &ndash usually Mosses but also Recent molecular data (particularly the production of plumbagin) indicate that the remaining flypaper, Triphyophyllum peltatum, a member of the Dioncophyllaceae, is closely related to Drosophyllum, and forms part of a larger clade of carnivorous and non-carnivorous plants with the Droseraceae, Nepenthaceae, Ancistrocladaceae and Plumbaginaceae. Plumbagin (5-Hydroxy-2-methyl-14-naphthoquinone is a Plant -derived Naphthoquinone possessing a number of pharmacological activities Flypaper is a Fly-killing device made of Paper coated with an extremely sticky or poisonous substance that traps flies and other flying Insects Triphyophyllum (tɹɪfɪəʊfɪləm/ or /tɹɪfɪɒfɪləm is a monotypic Plant Genus, containing the single species Triphyophyllum peltatum Dioncophyllaceae is the Botanical name for a family of Flowering plants. A clade is a taxonomic group comprising a single Common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor Droseraceae is the Botanical name for a family of Flowering plants. The Nepenthes (nəˈpɛnθiːz from Greek: ne = not penthos = grief sorrow named after the ancient drug Nepenthe) popularly Ancistrocladaceae is the Botanical name for a family of Flowering plants. Plumbaginaceae is a family of Flowering plants, with a Cosmopolitan distribution. This plant is usually encountered as a liana, but in its juvenile phase, the plant is carnivorous. The liana is any of various long-stemmed usually woody vines that are rooted in the soil at ground level and use trees as well as other means of vertical support to climb up to This may be related to a requirement for specific nutrients for flowering.
Snap traps
The only two active snap traps – the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) and the waterwheel plant (Aldrovanda vesiculosa) – are believed to have had a common ancestor with similar adaptations. The Venus Flytrap Dionaea muscipula, is a Carnivorous plant that catches and digests animal prey&mdashmostly Insects and Arachnids The Venus Flytrap Dionaea muscipula, is a Carnivorous plant that catches and digests animal prey&mdashmostly Insects and Arachnids Aldrovanda vesiculosa, known as the waterwheel plant, is the sole extant species in the Flowering plant genus Aldrovanda Aldrovanda (ældɹəʊvændə is a Genus of Carnivorous plants encompassing one extant species ( Aldrovanda vesiculosa) and numerous A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common Ancestor. Their trapping mechanism has also been described as a 'mouse trap' or 'man trap', based on their shape or rapid movement. However, the term snap trap is preferred as other designations are misleading, particularly with respect to the intended prey. Aldrovanda is aquatic, and specialised in catching small invertebrates; Dionaea is terrestrial and catches a variety of arthropods, including spiders. [2]
The traps are very similar, with leaves whose terminal section is divided into two lobes, hinged along the midrib. Trigger hairs (three on each lobe in Dionaea, many more in the case of Aldrovanda) inside the trap lobes are sensitive to touch. When the trigger hairs are bent, stretch-gated ion channels in the membranes of cells at the base of the trigger hair open, generating an action potential that propagates to cells in the midrib. Ion channels are pore-forming Proteins that help establish and control the small Voltage Gradient across the Plasma membrane of all living The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane, plasmalemma, or "phospholipid bilayer" is a Selectively permeable Lipid bilayer In Neurophysiology, the action potential is a self-regenerating Wave of Electrochemical activity that allows Nerve cells to carry a signal [3] These cells respond by pumping out ions, which may either cause water to follow by osmosis (collapsing the cells in the midrib) or cause rapid acid growth. Acid growth refers to the ability of Plant cells and Plant cell walls to elongate or expand quickly at low (acidic PH. [4] The mechanism is still debated, but in any case, changes in the shape of cells in the midrib allow the lobes, held under tension, to snap shut,[3] flipping rapidly from convex to concave[5] and interring the prey. This whole process takes less than a second. In the Venus flytrap, spurious closure in response to raindrops and blown-in debris is prevented by the leaf's having a simple memory: for the lobes to shut, two stimuli are required, 0. In Physiology, a stimulus is a detectable change in the internal or external environment 5 to 30 seconds apart.
The snapping of the leaves is a case of thigmonasty (undirected movement in response to touch). Thigmonasty or seismonasty is the nastic response of a Plant or Fungus to touch heat or vibration Further stimulation of the lobe's internal surfaces by the struggling insects causes the lobes to grow together towards the prey (thigmotropism), sealing the lobes hermetically, and forming a stomach in which digestion occurs over a period of one to two weeks. Thigmotropism is a movement in which an Organism moves or grows in response to Touch or Contact stimuli. A hermetic seal is a seal which for practical purposes is considered airtight In Human anatomy, the stomach is a J-shaped hollow muscular organ of the Gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of Digestion, following Leaves can be reused three or four times before they become unresponsive to stimulation.
Bladder traps
Bladder traps are exclusive to the genus Utricularia, or bladderworts. Bladderwort is the common name given to the plants of the genus Utricularia. The bladders (vesicula) pump ions out of their interiors. An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge Water follows by osmosis, generating a partial vacuum inside the bladder. Osmosis is the Diffusion of a solvent (frequently water through a semi-permeable membrane, from a solution of low solute concentration (high water potential This vacuum means "absence of matter" or "an empty area or space" for the cleaning appliance see Vacuum cleaner. The bladder has a small opening, sealed by a hinged door. In aquatic species, the door has a pair of long trigger hairs. Aquatic invertebrates such as Daphnia touch these hairs and deform the door by lever action, releasing the vacuum. Daphnia are small Planktonic Crustaceans between.2 and 5 mm in length The invertebrate is sucked into the bladder, where it is digested. Many species of Utricularia (such as U. sandersonii) are terrestrial, growing on waterlogged soil, and their trapping mechanism is triggered in a slightly different manner. A terrestrial plant is one that grows on land Other types of plants are aquatic (living in water Epiphytic (living on trees but not Parasitic) Bladderworts lack roots, but terrestrial species have anchoring stems that resemble them. ROOT is an object-oriented program and library developed by CERN. Temperate aquatic bladderworts generally die back to a resting turion during the winter months, and U. A turion (from Latin turio meaning "shoot" is a specialised overwintering bud produced by aquatic herbs especially in the genera Potamogeton macrorhiza appears to regulate the number of bladders it bears in response to the prevailing nutrient content of its habitat.
Lobster-pot traps
A lobster pot trap is a chamber that is easy to enter, and whose exit is either difficult to find or obstructed by inward-pointing bristles. Lobster pots are the trapping mechanism in Genlisea, the corkscrew plants. Genlisea (dʒɛnlɪsiːə the corkscrew plant is a Genus of approximately 21 species of Carnivorous plant in the family Lentibulariaceae A corkscrew is a tool for drawing stopping corks from Wine Bottles Generally it consists of a pointed metallic Helix (often called the "worm" These plants appear to specialise in aquatic protozoa. Protozoa (in Greek πρῶτον proton "first" and ζῷα zoia "animals" are unicellular Eukaryotes (singular A Y-shaped modified leaf allows prey to enter but not exit. Inward-pointing hairs force the prey to move in a particular direction. Prey entering the spiral entrance that coils around the upper two arms of the 'Y' are forced to move inexorably towards a 'stomach' in the lower arm of the 'Y', where they are digested. Prey movement is also thought to be encouraged by water movement through the trap, produced in a similar way to the vacuum in bladder traps, and probably evolutionarily related to it.
Outside of Genlisea, features reminiscent of lobster-pot traps can be seen in Sarracenia psittacina, Darlingtonia californica, and, some horticulturalists argue, Nepenthes aristolochioides. Sarracenia psittacina, also known as the Parrot pitcher plant, is a Carnivorous plant in the Genus Sarracenia. Darlingtonia is also a genus of snakes in the family Colubridae. Nepenthes aristolochioides (nəˈpɛnθiːz ˈærɪstəʊləʊkiˌːɔɪdiːz is a tropical Pitcher plant endemic to Sumatra, where it
Borderline carnivores
To be a fully fledged carnivore, a plant must attract, kill, and digest prey;[6][7] and it must benefit from absorbing the products of the digestion (mostly amino acids and ammonium ions). A protocarnivorous plant (sometimes also paracarnivorous, subcarnivorous, or borderline carnivore) according to some definitions traps and kills Digestion is the breaking down of chemicals in the body into a form that can be absorbed In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this Ammonium is also an old name for the Siwa Oasis in western Egypt. [8] To many horticulturalists, these distinctions are a matter of taste. There is a spectrum of carnivory found in plants: from completely non-carnivorous plants like cabbages, to borderline carnivores, to unspecialised and simple traps, like Heliamphora, to extremely specialised and complex traps, like that of the Venus flytrap. The cabbage ( Brassica oleracea var capitata) is a leafy garden plant of the Family Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae used as a
The borderline carnivores include Roridula and Catopsis berteroniana. Roridula (ɹɔːɹɪduːlə is a South African genus of Plants that whilst having many of the adaptations of a Carnivorous plant, such as Roridula (ɹɔːɹɪduːlə is a South African genus of Plants that whilst having many of the adaptations of a Carnivorous plant, such as Catopsis berteroniana (kətɒpsɪs bɚtəɹəʊniːɑːnə is an epiphytic Bromeliad thought to be a possible Carnivorous plant, similar Catopsis is a borderline carnivorous bromeliad, like Brocchinia reducta. Brocchinia reducta (bɹɒkɪniːə ɹiːdʌktə is one of few carnivorous bromeliads. However, unlike the phosphatase of B. A phosphatase is an Enzyme that removes a Phosphate group from its Substrate by hydrolysing Phosphoric acid mono Esters into reducta, C. berteroniana has not been shown to produce digestive enzymes. [9] In these pitfall traps, prey simply fall into the urn, assisted by the waxy scales located on the rim. Roridula has a more intricate relationship with its prey. The plants in this genus produce sticky leaves with resin-tipped glands, and look extremely similar to some of the larger sundews. However, they do not directly benefit from the insects they catch. Instead, they form a mutualistic symbiosis with species of assassin bug (genus Pameridea), which eat the trapped insects. Mutualism is a Biological interaction between individuals of two different Species, where both individuals derive a fitness benefit for example increased This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek Reduviidae is a large cosmopolitan family of predatory Insects in the suborder Heteroptera. Pameridea is a Genus of Insects comprising two species Symbiosis Pameridea roridulae lives in a Symbiotic The plant benefits from the nutrients in the bugs' faeces. Feces, faeces, or fæces (see spelling differences) is a waste product from an animal's digestive tract expelled through the Anus [10]
A number of species in the Martyniaceae (previously Pedaliaceae), such as Ibicella lutea, have sticky leaves that trap insects. Martyniaceae is a family of Flowering plants in the Lamiales order that are restricted to the New World. Pedaliaceae ( pedalium family or sesame family) is a Flowering plant family classified in the order Scrophulariales in the Ibicella lutea (aɪbɪsɛlə luːtɛə/ or /luːtiːə also known as Martynia lutea, Proboscidea lutea, or 'Devil's claw' grows under dry to However, these plants have not been shown conclusively to be carnivorous. [11] Likewise, the seeds of Shepherd's Purse,[11] urns of Paepalanthus bromelioides,[12] bracts of Passiflora foetida,[13] and flower stalks and sepals of triggerplants (Stylidium)[14] appear to trap and kill insects, but their classification as carnivores is contentious. Capsella bursa-pastoris, known by its common name shepherd's-purse because of its triangular purse-like pods is a small (up to 0 Paepalanthus is a genus in the Flowering plant family Eriocaulaceae. The Foetid Passion Flower or Stinking Passion Flower ( Passiflora foetida) also known as the Wild Maracuja or Running Pop, is a creeping The genus Stylidium (also known as triggerplants or trigger plants) are a group of Dicotyledonous Plants that belong to the family
The production of specific prey-digesting enzymes (proteases, ribonucleases, phosphatases, etc. A protease is any Enzyme that conducts Proteolysis, that is begins protein Catabolism by Hydrolysis of the Peptide bonds that link Ribonuclease, abbreviated commonly as RNase, is a Nuclease that catalyzes the degradation of RNA into smaller components A phosphatase is an Enzyme that removes a Phosphate group from its Substrate by hydrolysing Phosphoric acid mono Esters into ), is sometimes used as a criterion for carnivory. However, this would probably discount Heliamphora,[15] and Darlingtonia,[16] all of which appear to rely on the enzymes of symbiotic bacteria to break down their prey, but are generally considered as carnivores. This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have However, discounting the enzyme-based definition leaves open the question of Roridula. There is no reason why a plant's possession of symbiotic bacteria that allow it to benefit from trapped prey should allow the plant to be considered carnivorous, whilst possession of symbiotic bugs should not.
Evolution
The evolution of carnivorous plants is obscured by the paucity of their fossil record. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. Very few fossils have been found, and then usually only as seed or pollen. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. A seed (in some plants referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic Plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat usually with some stored Pollen is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes ( pollen grains) which produce the male Gametes (sperm cells of Carnivorus plants are generally herbs and their traps primary growth. They generally do not form readily fossilisable structures such as thick bark or wood. The traps themselves would probably not be preserved in any case.
Still, much can be deduced from the structure of current traps. Pitfall traps are quite clearly derived from rolled leaves. The vascular tissues of Sarracenia is a case in point. The keel along the front of the trap contains a mixture of leftward and rightward facing vascular bundles, as would be predicted from the fusion of the edges of an adaxial (stem-facing) leaf surface. This is an article about vascular tissue in plants For transport in animals see Circulatory system. In Botany, a leaf is an above-ground Plant organ specialized for Photosynthesis. Flypapers also show a simple evolutionary gradient from sticky, non-carnivorous leaves, through passive flypapers to active forms. Molecular data show the Dionaea-Aldrovanda clade is closely related to Drosera,[17] but the traps are so dissimilar that the theory of their origin -- very fast-moving flypapers became less reliant on glue -- remains rather speculative.
There are over a quarter of a million species of flowering plants. The flowering plants or angiosperms ( Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most widespread group Of these, only around five hundred are known to be carnivorous. True carnivory has probably evolved independently at least ten times; however, some of these 'independent' groups probably descended from a recent common ancestor with a predisposition to carnivory. Some groups (the Ericales and Caryophyllales) seem particularly fertile ground for carnivorous preadaptation, although in the former case, this may be more to do with the ecology of the group than its morphology, as most of the members of this group grow in low-nutrient habitats such as heath and bog. The Ericales are a large and diverse order of Dicotyledons including for example Tea, Persimmon, Blueberry, Brazil nut, and Caryophyllales is an order of Flowering plants that includes the cacti, carnations Amaranths Ice plants and most In Evolutionary biology, preadaptation describes a situation where an organism uses a preexisting anatomical structure inherited from an ancestor for a potentially unrelated Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of The term morphology in Biology refers to the outward appearance ( Shape, Structure, Colour, Pattern) of an Organism A bog or mire is a Wetland type that accumulates Acidic Peat, a deposit of dead plant material &ndash usually Mosses but also
It has been suggested that all trap types are modifications of a similar basic structure - the hairy leaf. [18] Hairy (or more specifically, stalked-glandular) leaves can catch and retain drops of rainwater, especially if shield-shaped or peltate, thus promoting bacteria growth. In Botany, the following terms are used to describe the shape of plant leaves: Acicular ( acicularis) Slender and pointed needle-like Insects land on the leaf, become mired by the surface tension of the water, and suffocate. For the work of fiction see Surface Tension (short story. Surface tension is a property of the surface of a Liquid that causes it to Bacteria jumpstart decay, releasing from the corpse nutrients that the plant can absorb through its leaves. A cadaver or corpse is a dead Body. "Cadaver" is normally used as a more formal term for a body being used in medical training or research This foliar feeding can be observed in most non-carnivorous plants. Foliar feeding is a technique of feeding plants by applying liquid fertilizer directly to their leaves Plants that were better at retaining insects or water therefore had a selective advantage. Rainwater can be retained by cupping the leaf, leading to pitfall traps. Alternatively, insects can be retained by making the leaf stickier by the production of mucilage, leading to flypaper traps. Mucilage is a gooey polar Glycoprotein; an exopolysaccharide; a Polymer produced by most plants and some microorganisms
The pitfall traps may have evolved simply by selection pressure for the production of more deeply cupped leaves, followed by 'zipping up' of the margins and subsequent loss of most of the hairs, except at the bottom, where they help retain prey.
The lobsterpot traps of Genlisea are difficult to interpret. They may have developed from bifurcated pitchers that later specialised on ground dwelling prey. Or perhaps the prey-guiding protrusions of bladder traps became more substantial than the net-like funnel found in most aquatic bladderworts. Whatever their origin, the helical shape of the lobsterpot is an adaptation that displays as much trapping surface as possible in all directions when buried in moss. Mosses are small soft Plants that are typically 1–10 cm (0
The traps of the bladderworts may have derived from pitchers that specialised in aquatic prey when flooded, like Sarracenia psittacina does today. Escaping prey in terrestrial pitchers have to climb or fly out of a trap, and both of these can be prevented by wax, gravity and narrow tubes. However, a flooded trap can be swum out of, so in Utricularia, a one-way lid may have developed to form the door of a proto-bladder. Later, this may have become active by the evolution of a partial vacuum inside the bladder, tripped by prey brushing against trigger hairs on the door of the bladder.
Flypaper traps include the various true flypapers and the snap traps of Aldrovanda and Dionaea. The production of sticky mucilage is found in many non-carnivorous genera, and the passive glue traps in Byblis and Drosophyllum could easily have evolved.
The active glue traps use rapid plant movements to trap their prey. Rapid plant movement encompasses movement in plant structures occurring over a very short period of time usually under one second Rapid plant movement can result from actual growth, or from rapid changes in cell turgor, which allow cells to expand or contract by quickly altering their water content. ' Turgor pressure' or turgidity is the main pressure of the cell contents against the Cell wall in Plant cells and bacteria cells determined by the water Slow-moving flypapers like Pinguicula exploit growth, but the Venus flytrap uses such rapid turgor changes that glue became unnecessary. The stalked glands that once made it and which are so evident in Drosera have become the teeth and trigger hairs - an example of natural selection hijacking preexisting structures for new functions. In Evolutionary biology, preadaptation describes a situation where an organism uses a preexisting anatomical structure inherited from an ancestor for a potentially unrelated
Recent taxonomic analysis[19] of the relationships within the Caryophyllales indicate that the Droseraceae, Triphyophyllum, Nepenthaceae and Drosophyllum, whilst closely related, are embedded within a larger clade that includes non-carnivorous groups such as the tamarisks, Ancistrocladaceae, Polygonaceae and Plumbaginaceae. Caryophyllales is an order of Flowering plants that includes the cacti, carnations Amaranths Ice plants and most Droseraceae is the Botanical name for a family of Flowering plants. Triphyophyllum (tɹɪfɪəʊfɪləm/ or /tɹɪfɪɒfɪləm is a monotypic Plant Genus, containing the single species Triphyophyllum peltatum The Nepenthes (nəˈpɛnθiːz from Greek: ne = not penthos = grief sorrow named after the ancient drug Nepenthe) popularly Cladistics is the hierarchical classification of Species based on evolutionary ancestry Tamarisk redirects here For other uses of tamarisk see Tamarisk (disambiguation The genus Tamarix ( tamarisk Ancistrocladaceae is the Botanical name for a family of Flowering plants. Polygonaceae is a family of flowering plants also known as the "knotweed family" or "smartweed family" Plumbaginaceae is a family of Flowering plants, with a Cosmopolitan distribution. Interestingly, the tamarisks possess specialised salt-excreting glands on their leaves, as do several of the Plumbaginaceae (such as the sea lavender, Limonium), which may have been co-opted for the excretion of other chemical, such as proteases and mucilage. Sea-lavender (also Sea Lavender, Sealavender) or Statice is any of 120 species of Flowers in the Genus Limonium Some of the Plumbaginaceae (e. g. Ceratostigma) also have stalked, vascularised glands that secrete mucilage on their calyces and aid in seed dispersal and possibly in protecting the flowers from crawling parasitic insects. A sepal (from Latin separatus "separate" + petalum "petal" is a part of the flower of Angiosperms or flower plants These are probably homologous with the tentacles of the carnivorous genera. Perhaps carnivory evolved from a protective function, rather than a nutritional one. The balsams (such as Impatiens), which are closely related to the Sarraceniaceae and Roridula similarly possess stalked glands. Impatiens is a genus of about 900-1000 species of Flowering Plants in the family Balsaminaceae. Sarraceniaceae is a family of Pitcher plants (along with Nepenthaceae) belonging to order Ericales (previously Nepenthales) Roridula (ɹɔːɹɪduːlə is a South African genus of Plants that whilst having many of the adaptations of a Carnivorous plant, such as
The only traps that are unlikely to have descended from a hairy leaf or sepal are the carnivorous bromeliads (Brocchinia and Catopsis). These plants use the urn - a fundamental part of a bromeliad - for a new purpose, and build on it by the production of wax and the other paraphernalia of carnivory.
Ecology and modelling of carnivory
Carnivorous plants are widespread but rather rare. They are almost entirely restricted to habitats such as bogs, where soil nutrients are extremely limiting, but where sunlight and water are readily available. A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species. A bog or mire is a Wetland type that accumulates Acidic Peat, a deposit of dead plant material &ndash usually Mosses but also The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. Only under such extreme conditions is carnivory favoured to an extent that makes the adaptations obvious.
The archetypal carnivore, the Venus flytrap, grows in soils with almost immeasurable nitrate and calcium levels. An archetype ( pronounced: /ˈɑːkɪtaɪp/ (Brit or /ˈɑrkɪtaɪp/ (Amer In Inorganic chemistry, a nitrate is a salt of Nitric acid with an Ion composed of one Nitrogen and three Oxygen atoms Calcium (ˈkælsiəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Ca and Atomic number 20 Plants need nitrogen for protein synthesis, calcium for cell wall stiffening, phosphate for nucleic acid synthesis, and iron for chlorophyll synthesis. A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural A nucleic acid is a Macromolecule composed of chains of monomeric Nucleotides In Biochemistry these Molecules carry Genetic information Chlorophyll is a green Pigment found in most Plants Algae and Cyanobacteria. The soil is often waterlogged, which favours the production of toxic ions such as ammonium, and its pH is an acidic 4 to 5. Waterlogging is a verbal noun meaning the saturation of such as ground or the filling of such as a Boat with Water. Ammonium is also an old name for the Siwa Oasis in western Egypt. pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a Solution. Ammonium can be used as a source of nitrogen by plants, but its high toxicity means that concentrations high enough to fertilise are also high enough to cause damage.
However, the habitat is warm, sunny, constantly moist, and the plant experiences relatively little competition from low growing Sphagnum moss. Sphagnum is a Genus of between 151-350 species of Mosses commonly called peat moss, due to its prevalence in Peat bogs Still, carnivores are also found in very atypical habitats. Drosophyllum lusitanicum is found around desert edges and Pinguicula valisneriifolia on limestone (calcium rich) cliffs. Limestone is a Sedimentary rock composed largely of the Mineral Calcite ( Calcium carbonate: CaCO3 [20]
In all the studied cases, carnivory allows plants to grow and reproduce using animals as a source of nitrogen, phosphorus and possibly potassium. [21][22][23] However, there is a spectrum of dependency on animal prey. Pygmy sundews are unable to use nitrate from soil because they lack the necessary enzymes (nitrate reductase in particular). Nitrate reductase Enzymes are a group of enzymes that reduce Nitrate to Nitrite. [24] Common butterworts (Pinguicula vulgaris) can use inorganic sources of nitrogen better than organic sources, but a mixture of both is preferred. [21] European bladderworts seem to use both sources equally well. Animal prey makes up for differing deficiencies in soil nutrients.
Plants use their leaves to intercept sunlight. The energy is used to reduce carbon dioxide from the air with electrons from water, to make sugars (and other biomass), and a waste product, oxygen, in the process of photosynthesis. The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Leaves also respire, in a similar way to animals, by burning their biomass to generate chemical energy. Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in Organisms cells to convert biochemical energy from This energy is temporarily stored in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which acts as an energy currency for metabolism in all living things. Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy Adenosine is a Nucleoside composed of a Molecule of Adenine attached to a Ribose sugar molecule ( Ribofuranose) moiety via a β-N9- As a waste product, respiration produces carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single
For a plant to grow, it must photosynthesise more than it respires. Otherwise, it will eventually exhaust its biomass and die. The potential for plant growth is net photosynthesis, the total gross gain of biomass by photosynthesis, minus the biomass lost by respiration. Understanding carnivory requires a cost-benefit analysis of these factors. Cost-benefit analysis is a term that refers both to a formal discipline used to help appraise or assess the case for a Project or proposal which itself is [8]
In carnivorous plants, the leaf is not just used to photosynthesise, but also as a trap. Changing the leaf shape to make it a better trap generally makes it less efficient at photosynthesis. For example, pitchers have to be held upright, so that only their opercula directly intercept light. The plant also has to expend extra energy on non-photosynthetic structures like glands, hairs, glue and digestive enzymes. [25] To produce such structures, the plant requires ATP and respires more of its biomass. Hence, a carnivorous plant will have both decreased photosynthesis and increased respiration, making the potential for growth small, and the cost of carnivory high.
Being carnivorous allows the plant to grow better when the soil contains little nitrate or phosphate. In particular, an increased supply of nitrogen and phosphorus makes photosynthesis more efficient, because photosynthesis depends on the plant being able to synthesise very large amounts of the nitrogen-rich enzyme RuBisCO (ribulose-1,5-bis-phosphate carboxylase/oxygenase), the most abundant protein on Earth. Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins Ribulose-15-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, most commonly known by the shorter name RuBisCO, is an Enzyme ( that is used in the Calvin cycle Ribulose is a Ketopentose &mdash a Monosaccharide containing five Carbon Atoms and including a Ketone Functional group Carboxylation in Chemistry is a Chemical reaction in which a Carboxylic acid group is introduced in a Substrate. An oxygenase is any Enzyme that oxidizes a substrate by transferring the Oxygen from molecular oxygen O2 (as in air to it
It is intuitively clear that the Venus flytrap is more carnivorous than Triphyophyllum peltatum. The former is a full-time moving snap-trap, the second is a part-time, non-moving flypaper. The energy 'wasted' by the plant in building and fuelling its trap is a suitable measure of the carnivory of the trap.
Using this measure of investment in carnivory, a model can be proposed. [8] Above is a graph of carbon dioxide uptake (potential for growth) against trap respiration (investment in carnivory) for a leaf in a sunny habitat containing no soil nutrients at all. Respiration is a straight line sloping down under the horizontal axis (respiration produces carbon dioxide). Gross photosynthesis is a curved line above the horizontal axis: as investment increases, so too does the photosynthesis of the trap, as the leaf receives a better supply of nitrogen and phosphorus. Eventually another factor (such as light intensity or carbon dioxide concentration) will become more limiting to photosynthesis than nitrogen or phosphorus supply. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single As a result, increasing the investment will not make the plant grow better. The net uptake of carbon dioxide, and therefore the plant's potential for growth, must be positive for the plant to survive. There is a broad span of investment where this is the case, and there is also a non-zero optimum. In Mathematics, the term optimization, or mathematical programming, refers to the study of problems in which one seeks to minimize or maximize a real function Plants investing more or less than this optimum will take up less carbon dioxide than an optimal plant, and hence growing less well. These plants will be at a selective disadvantage. At zero investment the growth is zero, because a non-carnivorous plant cannot survive in a habitat with absolutely no soil borne nutrients. Such habitats do not exist, so for example, Sphagnum absorbs the tiny amounts of nitrates and phosphates in rain very efficiently, and also forms symbioses with diazotrophic cyanobacteria. Sphagnum is a Genus of between 151-350 species of Mosses commonly called peat moss, due to its prevalence in Peat bogs Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or Cyanophyta, is a phylum of Bacteria that obtain their energy
In a habitat with abundant soil nutrients but little light (as shown above), the gross photosynthesis curve will be lower and flatter, because light will be more limiting than nutrients. A plant can grow at zero investment in carnivory; this is also the optimum investment for a plant, as any investment in traps reduces net photosynthesis (growth) to less than the net photosynthesis of a plant that obtains its nutrients from soil alone.
Carnivorous plants exist between these two extremes: the less limiting light and water are, and the more limiting soil nutrients are, the higher the optimum investment in carnivory, and hence the more obvious the adaptations will be to the casual observer.
The most obvious evidence for this model is that carnivorous plants tend to grow in habitats where water and light are abundant, and where competition is relatively low: the typical bog. Those that do not tend to be even more fastidious in some other way. Drosophyllum lusitanicum grows where there is little water, but it is even more extreme in its requirement for bright light and low disturbance than most other carnivores. Pinguicula valisneriifolia grows in soils with high levels of calcium, but requires strong illumination and lower competition than many butterworts. Competition is a rivalry between individuals groups nations or animals for territory or resources [26]
In general, carnivorous plants are poor competitors, because they invest too heavily in structures that have no selective advantage in nutrient-rich habitats. They succeed only where other plants fail. Carnivores are to nutrients what cacti are to water. A cactus (plural cacti) is any member of the Spine plant family Cactaceae, native to the Americas Carnivory only pays off when the nutrient stress is high and where light is abundant. [27] When these conditions are not met, some plants give up carnivory temporarily. Sarracenia spp. produce flat, non-carnivorous leaves (phyllodes) in winter. In Botany, the petiole is the small stalk attaching the Leaf blade to the stem. Light levels are lower than in summer, so light is more limiting than nutrients, and carnivory does not pay. The lack of insects in winter exacerbates the problem. Damage to growing pitcher leaves prevent them from forming proper pitchers, and again, the plant produces a phyllode instead.
Many other carnivores shut down in some season. Tuberous sundews die back to tubers in the dry season, bladderworts to turions in winter, and non-carnivorous leaves are made by most butterworts and Cephalotus in the less favourable seasons. A turion (from Latin turio meaning "shoot" is a specialised overwintering bud produced by aquatic herbs especially in the genera Potamogeton Cephalotus (kɛfələʊtəs/ but frequently /sɛfələʊtəs is a Genus of Flowering plants which contains one Species, Cephalotus Utricularia macrorhiza varies the number of bladders its produces based on the expected density of prey. [28] Part-time carnivory in Triphyophyllum peltatum may be due to an unusually high need for potassium at a certain point in the life cycle, just before flowering. Triphyophyllum (tɹɪfɪəʊfɪləm/ or /tɹɪfɪɒfɪləm is a monotypic Plant Genus, containing the single species Triphyophyllum peltatum
The more carnivorous a plant is, the more conventional its habitat is likely to be. Venus flytraps live in a very stereotypical, and very specialised habitat, whereas less carnivorous plants (Byblis, Pinguicula) are found in more unusual habitats (i. A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + týpos = "solid impression" is a generalized perception of first impressions behaviors presumed by a group e. those typical for non-carnivores). Byblis and Drosophyllum both come from relatively arid regions, and are both passive flypapers, arguably the lowest maintenance form of trap. Venus flytraps filter their prey using the teeth around the trap's edge, so as not to waste energy on hard-to-digest prey. In evolution, laziness pays, because energy can be used for reproduction, and short term benefits in reproduction will outweigh long-term benefits in anything else.
Carnivory rarely pays, so even carnivorous plants avoid it when there is too little light, or an easier source of nutrients, and they use as few carnivorous features as are required at a given time or for a given prey item. There are very few habitats stressful enough to make investing biomass and energy in trigger hairs and enzymes worthwhile. Many plants occasionally benefit from animal protein rotting on their leaves, but carnivory that is obvious enough for the casual observer to notice is rare.
Bromeliads seem very well preadapted to carnivory, but only one or two species can be classified as truly carnivorous. By their very shape, bromeliads will benefit from increased prey-derived nutrient input. In this sense, bromeliads are probably carnivorous, but their habitats are too dark for more extreme, recognisable carnivory to evolve. Most bromeliads are epiphytes, and most epiphytes grow in partial shade on tree branches. An epiphyte is an organism that grows upon or attaches to a living plant Brocchinia reducta, on the other hand, is a ground dweller.
Classification
- See also: List of carnivorous plants
The classification of all flowering plants is currently in a state of flux. This list of carnivorous plants is a comprehensive listing of all known Carnivorous plant species The flowering plants or angiosperms ( Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most widespread group In the Cronquist system, the Droseraceae and Nepenthaceae were placed in the order Nepenthales, based on the radial symmetry of their flowers, and their possession of insect-traps. A system of plant taxonomy, the Cronquist system is a scheme for the classification of flowering plants (or Angiosperms) The Sarraceniaceae was placed either in the Nepenthales, or in its own order, the Sarraceniales. The Byblidaceae, Cephalotaceae, and Roridulaceae were placed in the Saxifragales; and the Lentibulariaceae in the Scrophulariales (now subsumed into the Lamiales[29]).
In more modern classification, such as that of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, the families have been retained, but they have been redistributed amongst several disparate orders. The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, or APG, refers to two international groups of systematic botanists who came together to try to establish a consensus view of the It is also recommended that Drosophyllum be considered in a monotypic family outside the rest of the Droseraceae, probably more closely allied to the Dioncophyllaceae. The current recommendations are shown below (only carnivorous genera are listed):
Dicots
- Asterales (sunflower and daisy order)
- Stylidiaceae
- Stylidium (trigger plants, a borderline carnivore)
- Stylidiaceae
- Caryophyllales, (carnation order)
- Dioncophyllaceae
- Drosophyllaceae
- Drosophyllum (Portuguese dewy pine)
- Droseraceae (sundew family)
- Aldrovanda (waterwheel plant)
- Dionaea (Venus flytrap)
- Drosera (sundews)
- †Droserapollis
- †Droserapites
- †Droseridites
- †Fischeripollis
- †Palaeoaldrovanda
- †Saxonipollis
- Nepenthaceae (tropical pitcher-plant family)
- Nepenthes (tropical pitcher plants or monkey-cups, including Anurosperma)
- Ericales (heather order)
- Roridulaceae
- Roridula (a borderline carnivore)
- Sarraceniaceae (trumpet pitcher family)
- †Archaeamphora
- Sarracenia (North American trumpet pitchers)
- Darlingtonia (cobra plant/lily)
- Heliamphora (sun or marsh pitchers)
- Roridulaceae
- Lamiales (mint order)
- Byblidaceae
- Lentibulariaceae (bladderwort family)
- Pinguicula (butterworts)
- Genlisea (corkscrew plant)
- Utricularia (bladderworts, including Polypompholyx, the fairy aprons or pink petticoats and Biovularia an obsolete genus)
- Martyniaceae (all borderline carnivores, related to the sesame plant)
- Oxalidales (wood sorrel order)
- Cephalotus (Albany pitcher plant)
Monocots
- Poales (grass order)
- Bromeliaceae (bromeliad or pineapple family)
- Brocchinia (a terrestrial bromeliad)
- Catopsis (a borderline carnivore)
- Eriocaulaceae (pipewort family)
- Paepalanthus (a borderline carnivore)
- Bromeliaceae (bromeliad or pineapple family)
Cultivation
Although different species of carnivorous plants have different requirements in terms of sunlight, humidity, soil moisture, etc. , there are commonalities.
Most carnivorous plants require rainwater, or water that has been distilled, deionised by reverse osmosis, or acidified to around pH 6. Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Reverse osmosis (RO is a separation process that uses pressure to force a Solution through a membrane that retains the Solute on one side and allows the 5 using sulfuric acid. Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. Common tap or drinking water contains minerals (particularly calcium salts) that will quickly build up and kill the plant. Calcium (ˈkælsiəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Ca and Atomic number 20 This is because most carnivorous plants have evolved in nutrient-poor, acidic soils and are consequently extreme calcifuges. A calcifuge is a Plant that does not tolerate Alkaline (basic soil They are therefore very sensitive to excessive soil-borne nutrients. Since most of these plants are found in bogs, almost all are very intolerant of drying. There are exceptions: tuberous sundews require a dry (summer) dormancy period, and Drosophyllum requires much drier conditions than most. Estivation or aestivation (from Latin aestas, summer also known as "summer sleep" is a state of Dormancy somewhat similar
Outdoor-grown carnivorous plants generally catch more than enough insects to keep themselves properly fed. Insects may be fed to the plants by hand to supplement their diet; however, carnivorous plants are generally unable to digest large non-insect food items; bits of hamburger, for example, will simply rot, and this may cause the trap, or even the whole plant, to die. A carnivorous plant that catches no insects at all will rarely die, although its growth may be impaired. In general, these plants are best left to their own devices: after underwatering with tap-water, the most common cause of Venus flytrap death is prodding the traps to watch them close and feeding them cheese and other inappropriate items.
Most carnivorous plants require bright light, and most will look better under such conditions, as this encourages them to synthesise red and purple anthocyanin pigments. Not to be confused with Anthocyanidin, their sugar free counterparts Nepenthes and Pinguicula will do better out of full sun, but most other species are happy in direct sunlight.
Carnivores mostly live in bogs, and those that do not are generally tropical. Hence, most require high humidity. On a small scale, this can be achieved by placing the plant in a wide saucer containing pebbles that are kept permanently wet. Small Nepenthes species grow well in large terraria. A vivarium (Latin literally for "place of life" plural vivaria or vivariums) is an area usually enclosed for keeping and raising animals or
Many carnivores are native to cold temperate regions and can be grown outside in a bog garden year-round. Most Sarracenia can tolerate temperatures well below freezing despite most species being native to the southeastern United States. Species of Drosera and Pinguicula also tolerate subfreezing temperatures. Nepenthes species, which are tropical, require temperatures from 20 to 30 °C to thrive.
Carnivorous plants require appropriate nutrient-poor soil. Most appreciate a 3:1 mixture of Sphagnum peat to sharp horticultural sand (coir is an acceptable, and more ecofriendly substitute for peat). Sphagnum is a Genus of between 151-350 species of Mosses commonly called peat moss, due to its prevalence in Peat bogs Coir (from Malayalam kayar, cord is a coarse fibre extracted from the fibrous outer shell of a Coconut. Nepenthes will grow in orchid compost, or in pure Sphagnum moss. Sphagnum is a Genus of between 151-350 species of Mosses commonly called peat moss, due to its prevalence in Peat bogs
Ironically, carnivorous plants are themselves susceptible to infestation by parasites such as aphids or mealybugs. Mealybug is the common name of insects in Pseudococcidae, a family of unarmored Scale insects found in moist warm climates Although small infestations can be removed by hand, larger infestations necessitate use of an insecticide. An insecticide is a Pesticide used against Insects in all developmental forms Isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol) is effective as a topical insecticide, particularly on scale insects. Isopropyl alcohol (also isopropanol, iso, isopro, Rubbing alcohol, or the abbreviation IPA) is a common name for The scale insects are small Insects of the order Hemiptera, generally classified as the Superfamily Coccoidea. Diazinon is an excellent systemic insecticide that is tolerated by most carnivorous plants. Diazinon (OO-diethyl-O-(2-isopropyl-6-methyl-pyrimidine-4-ylphosphorothioate a colorless to dark brown liquid is a thiophosphoric acid ester developed in 1952 by Malathion and Acephate (Orthene) have also been reported as tolerable by carnivorous plants. Malathion is an Organophosphate Parasympathomimetic which binds irreversibly to Cholinesterase. Acephate is an Organophosphate Foliar Insecticide of moderate persistence with residual systemic activity of about 10-15 days at the recommended use Acephate is an Organophosphate Foliar Insecticide of moderate persistence with residual systemic activity of about 10-15 days at the recommended use
Although insects can be a problem, by far the biggest killer of carnivorous plants (besides human maltreatment) is grey mould (Botrytis cinerea). Botrytis cinerea is a Fungus that affects many plant species although its most notable hosts may be Wine Grapes In Viticulture This thrives under warm, humid conditions, and can be a real problem in winter. To some extent, temperate carnivorous plants can be protected from this pathogen by ensuring that they are kept cool and well ventilated in winter, and that any dead leaves are removed promptly. If this fails, a fungicide is in order. Fungicides are Chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill or inhibit fungi or fungal spores
The easiest carnivorous plants for beginners are those from the cool temperate zone. These plants will do well under cool greenhouse conditions (minimum 5 °C in winter, maximum 25 °C in summer) if kept in wide trays of acidified or rain water during summer, and kept moist during winter:
- Drosera capensis, the Cape sundew: attractive strap-leaved sundew, pink flowers, very tolerant of maltreatment. Drosera capensis, commonly known as the Cape sundew, is a small rosette -forming species of perennial Sundew native to the Cape
- Drosera binata, the fork-leaved sundew: large, Y-shaped leaves. Drosera binata, commonly known as the Fork-leaved sundew This species occurs naturally in Australia primarily in coastal areas from Fraser Island
- Sarracenia flava, the yellow trumpet pitcher: yellow, attractively veined leaves, yellow flowers in spring. Sarracenia flava, the Yellow pitcher plant, is a Carnivorous plant in the family Sarraceniaceae.
- Pinguicula grandiflora, the common butterwort: purple flowers in spring, hibernates as a bud (hibernaculum) in winter. Pinguicula grandiflora, commonly known as the large-flowered Butterwort, is a Temperate insectivorous plant in the Lentibulariaceae Fully hardy.
- Pinguicula moranensis, the Mexican butterwort: pink flowers, non-carnivorous leaves in winter. Pinguicula moranensis (pɪŋˈɡwɪkjʊlə ˌmɒrəˈnɛnsɪs is a perennial rosette -forming insectivorous herb native to Mexico
Venus flytraps will do well under these conditions, but are actually rather difficult to grow: even if treated well, they will often succumb to grey mould in winter unless well ventilated. Some of the lowland Nepenthes are very easy to grow, as long as they are provided with relatively constant, hot and humid conditions.
Cultural depictions
Carnivorous plants have long been the subject of popular interest and exposition, much of it highly inaccurate. A cult film is a Film that has acquired a highly devoted but relatively small group of fans. The Little Shop of Horrors is a 1960 Comedy film directed by Roger Corman. Fictional plants have been featured in a number of books, movies, television series, and video games. Typically, these fictional depictions include exaggerated characteristics, such as enormous size or possession of abilities beyond the realm of reality, and can be viewed as a kind of artistic license. Artistic license (also known as dramatic license, poetic license, narrative license, licentia poetica, or simply license) is a colloquial The most famous examples of fictional carnivorous plants in popular culture include the 1960's black comedy The Little Shop of Horrors, the triffids of John Wyndham's The Day of the Triffids, and others. Black comedy, also known as black humor or dark comedy, is a sub-genre of Comedy and Satire where topics and events that are usually regarded The Little Shop of Horrors is a 1960 Comedy film directed by Roger Corman. The triffid is a highly venomous fictional plant species, the titular antagonist from the 1951 novel The Day of the Triffids by John Wyndham John Wyndham was the main Pen name used by the often post-apocalyptic British Science fiction writer John Wyndham Parkes Lucas Beynon Harris The Day of the Triffids is a post-apocalyptic novel written in 1951 by the English science fiction author John Wyndham. Other movies and television series utilize accurate depictions of carnivorous plants for cinematic purposes.
The earliest known depiction of carnivorous plants in popular culture was a case where a large man-eating tree was reported to have consumed a young woman in Madagascar in 1878, as witnessed by "Dr Carl Liche". Man-eating tree can refer to any of various legendary Carnivorous plants that are large enough to kill and consume a person or other large animal Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern Liche reported the events in the South Australian Register in 1881. The Register, originally the South Australian Gazette and Colonial Register, was the first South Australian newspaper The woman, pictured in an accompanying artwork, was supposed to have been a member of the Mkodos, a 'little known but cruel tribe'. The account has been debunked as pure myth as it appears Dr Liche, the Mkodos, and the tree were all fabrications. [30]
See also
References
- ^ Darwin C (1875). Aggressive mimicry is a form of Mimicry where predators, Parasites or Parasitoids share similar Carnivorous fungi or predaceous fungi are fungi that derive some or most of their Nutrients from trapping and digesting microscopic or other minute Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Insectivorous plants. London: John Murray.
- ^ Famous Insect Eating Plant Catches Many Spiders, The Science Newsletter, March 23, 1935, issue
- ^ a b Hodick D, Sievers A (1989). Events 1174 - Jocelin, Abbot of Melrose, is elected Bishop of Glasgow. Year 1935 ( MCMXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. "The action potential of Dionaea muscipula Ellis". Planta 174: 8-18. doi:10.1007/BF00394867. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ Hodick D, Sievers A (1988). "On the mechanism of closure of Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula Ellis)". Planta 179: 32-42. doi:10.1007/BF00395768. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ Forterre Y, Skotheim JM, Dumais J, Mahadevan L (2005). "How the Venus flytrap snaps". Nature 433 (7024): 421-5. Nature is a prominent Scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869 doi:10.1038/nature03185. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ Juniper, B. E. ; Robbins, R. J. , and Joel, D. M. (1989). The Carnivorous Plants. Academic Press. ISBN 0-1239-2170-8.
- ^ Albert, V. A. , Williams, S. E. , and Chase, M. W. (1992). "Carnivorous plants: Phylogeny and structural evolution". Science 257: 1491-1495. Science is the Academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and is considered one of the world's most prestigious Scientific
- ^ a b c Givnish TJ, Burkhardt EL, Happel RE, Weintraub JD (1984). "Carnivory in the bromeliad Brocchinia reducta, with a cost-benefit model for the general restriction of carnivorous plants to sunny, moist, nutrient-poor habitats". American Naturalist 124: 479-497. American Naturalist is a monthly Scientific journal, founded in 1867 and associated with the American Society of Naturalists. (Requires JSTOR subscription)
- ^ Plachno, B. J. ; Jankun, A. (2005). "Phosphatase activity in glandular structures of carnivorous plant traps". Proc. of the International Botanical Congress: 1716.
- ^ Hartmeyer, S. (1998). "Carnivory in Byblis revisited II: The phenomenon of symbiosis on insect trapping plants". Carnivorous Plant Newsletter 27 (4): 110-113.
- ^ a b Schnell, Donald E. (2002). Carnivorous plants of the United States and Canada. Timber Press. ISBN 0-88192-540-3.
- ^ Rice, Barry A. (2006). Growing Carnivorous Plants. Timber Press. ISBN 0-88192-807-0.
- ^ Radhamani, T. R. , Sudarshana, L. , and Krishnan, R. (1995). "Defence and carnivory: Dual role of bracts in Passiflora foetida". Journal of Biosciences 20 (5): 657-664. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ Darnowski, D. W. , Carroll, D. M. , Płachno, B. , Kabanoff, E. , and Cinnamon, E. (2006). "Evidence of protocarnivory in triggerplants (Stylidium spp.; Stylidiaceae)". Plant Biology (Stuttgart) 8 (6): 805-812. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ Jaffe, K. , Michelangeli, F. , Gonzalez, J. M. , Miras, B. , and Ruiz, M. C. (1992). "Carnivory in pitcher plants of the genus Heliamphora (Sarraceniaceae)". New Phytologist 122 (4): 733-744.
- ^ Ellison, A. M. and Farnsworth, E. J. (2005). "The cost of carnivory for Darlingtonia californica (Sarraceniaceae): Evidence from relationships among leaf traits". American Journal of Botany 92 (7): 1085-1093. The American Journal of Botany ( is a peer-reviewed scientific journal which includes research papers on all aspects of plant biology
- ^ Cameron K, Wurdack KJ, Jobson RW (2002). "Molecular evidence for the common origin of snap-traps among carnivorous plants". American Journal of Botany 89: 1503-1509. The American Journal of Botany ( is a peer-reviewed scientific journal which includes research papers on all aspects of plant biology
- ^ Slack A (1988). Carnivorous plants. London: Alphabooks, 18-19. ISBN ISBN 0-7136-3079-5.
- ^ Cameron KM, Chase MW, Swensen SM (1995). "Molecular evidence for the relationships of Triphyophyllum and Ancistrocladus". American Journal of Botany 82 (6): 117-118. The American Journal of Botany ( is a peer-reviewed scientific journal which includes research papers on all aspects of plant biology Discussion of this paper at the International carnivorous plant society website (original paper requires JSTOR subscription).
- ^ Zamora R, Gomez JM, Hodar JA (1997). "Responses of a carnivorous plant to prey and inorganic nutrients in a Mediterranean environment". Oecologia 111: 443-451. Oecologia is an international peer-reviewed English language journal that publishes original research into topics related to Ecology.
- ^ a b Thoren LM, Karlsson PS (1998). "Effects of supplementary feeding on growth and reproduction of three carnivorous plant species in a subarctic environment". Journal of Ecology 86: 501-510. The Journal of Ecology (not to be confused with another journal called Ecology) is a bi-monthly scientific journal focused on all aspects of the Ecology
- ^ Hanslin HM, Karlsson PS (1996). "Nitrogen uptake from prey and substrate as affected by prey capture level and plant reproductive status in four carnivorous plant species". Oecologia 106: 370-375. Oecologia is an international peer-reviewed English language journal that publishes original research into topics related to Ecology.
- ^ Deridder F, Dhondt AA (1992). "A positive correlation between naturally captured prey, growth and flowering in Drosera intermedia in two contrasting habitats". Belgian Journal of Botany 125: 30-44.
- ^ Karlsson PS, Pate JS (1992). "Contrasting effects of supplementary feeding of insects or mineral nutrients on the growth and nitrogen and phosphorus economy of pygmy species of Drosera". Oecologia 92: 8-13. Oecologia is an international peer-reviewed English language journal that publishes original research into topics related to Ecology.
- ^ Gallie, D. R. & Chang, S. C. (1997). "Signal transduction in the carnivorous plant Sarracenia purpurea - regulation of secretory hydrolase expression during development and in response to resources". Plant Physiology 115: 1461-1471. Plant Physiology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that publishes articles on the physiology, biochemistry cellular and molecular biology genetics biophysics
- ^ Zamora R, Gomez JM, Hodar JA (1988). "Fitness responses of a carnivorous plant in contrasting ecological scenarios". Ecology 79: 1630-1644. Ecology is a Scientific journal (not to be confused with the Journal of Ecology) concerning Ecology.
- ^ Brewer JS (2002). "Why don't carnivorous pitcher plants compete with non-carnivorous plants for nutrients?". Ecology 84 (2): 451-462. Ecology is a Scientific journal (not to be confused with the Journal of Ecology) concerning Ecology.
- ^ Knight SE, Frost TM (1991). "Bladder control in Utricularia macrorhiza - lake-specific variation in plant investment in carnivory". Ecology 72: 728-734. Ecology is a Scientific journal (not to be confused with the Journal of Ecology) concerning Ecology.
- ^ Muller K, Borsch T, Legendre L, Porembski S, Theisen I, Barthlott W (2004). "Evolution of carnivory in Lentibulariaceae and the Lamiales". Plant Biology (Stuttgart) 6: 477-490.
- ^ Ron Sullivan and Joe Eaton. "The Dirt: Myths about man-eating plants - something to chew on", San Francisco Chronicle, October 27, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-10-26. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 740 - An Earthquake strikes Constantinople, causing much damage and death
Further reading
- Slack A (1986). Insect-eating plants and how to grow them. Sherborne UK: Alphabooks. ISBN ISBN 0-906670-42-X.
- Juniper BE, Robins RJ, Joel DM (1989). The carnivorous plants. Academic Press, San Diego.
- Carnivorous Plant Database, provides an up to date, searchable database of all the published species of carnivorous plant
- Carnivorous Plant FAQ at Sarracenia. com.
- List of films and TV shows that feature carnivorous plants-most of them fictional
- Botanical Society of America - Carnivorous Plants Online
- Ellison, A. M. 2006. Nutrient Limitation and Stoichiometry of Carnivorous Plants.PDF (334 KiB) Plant Biol. A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International 8: 740–747.
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