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A car crash in Tokyo, Japan.
A car crash in Tokyo, Japan.

A car accident is a road traffic incident which usually involves at least one road vehicle being in collision with, either another vehicle, another road user, or a stationary roadside object, and which may result in injury or property damage. Vehicles, derived from the Latin word vehiculum, are non-living Means of transport. A collision is an isolated event in which two or more bodies (colliding bodies exert relatively strong forces on each other for a relatively short time Phrases used to describe accidents include: auto accident, car crash, car smash, car wreck, fender bender, motor vehicle accident (MVA), personal injury collision (PIC), road accident, road traffic accident (RTA), road traffic collision (RTC), road traffic incident (RTI), traffic collision.

Contents

Background

Road crashes, causing death, injury, and damage have always happened. History tells of many notable historic personalities who were the victim of such incidents. Louis IV of France died in 954 after falling from his horse, as did at least two kings of England: William I (William the Conqueror) in 1087 and William III in 1702. Louis IV ( 10 September 920 – 30 September 954) called d'Outremer or Transmarinus (both meaning "from overseas" William I of England ( 1027 His reign which brought Norman culture to England had an enormous impact on the subsequent course of England in the Middle Ages William III or William of Orange (14 November 1650 &ndash 8 March 1702 He is informally known in Northern Ireland and Scotland as "King Billy" Handel was seriously injured in a carriage crash in 1752. [1]

The British road engineer J. J. Leeming, compared the statistics for fatality rates in Great Britain, for transport incidents both before and after the introduction of the motor vehicle, for journeys, including those by water, which would now be undertaken by motor vehicle:[2] For the period 1863–1870 there were: 470 fatalities per million of population (76 on railways, 143 on roads, 251 on water); for the period 1891–1900 the corresponding figures were: 348 (63, 107, 178); for the period 1931–1938: 403 (22, 311, 70) and for the year 1963: 325 (10, 278, 37). Traffic engineering is a branch of Civil engineering that uses engineering techniques to achieve the safe and efficient movement of people and goods John Joseph Leeming was a British road engineer. He forwarded controversial ideas for the causes of and remedies for road crashes, including the notion [2] Leeming concluded that the data showed that "travel accidents may even have been more frequent a century ago than they are now, at least for men". [2]

Irish scientist Mary Ward died on 31st August 1869 when she fell out of her cousins' steam car and was run over. Mary Ward (1827 - 31 August 1869 was an Irish scientist who was killed when she fell under the wheels of an experimental steam car built by her cousins She is believed to have been the world's first motor vehicle accident victim.

Road incidents result in the deaths of an estimated 1. 2 million people worldwide each year, and injure about forty times this number (WHO, 2004).

Contributing factors

See also: Road-traffic safety

Many jurisdictions require the collection and reporting of road traffic incident statistics. Such data enables figures for deaths, personal injuries, and possibly property damage to be produced, and correlated against a range of circumstances. Analysis of this data may allow incident clusters and incident causes to be identified.

Emergency responders at an accident in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
Emergency responders at an accident in Colorado Springs, Colorado. The City of Colorado Springs is a Home Rule Municipality that is the County seat and most populous city of El Paso County, Colorado,

An early American study was described by Cierra, Berk, a retired British road engineer, which compared the circumstances around road deaths as reported in various American states (before the widespread introduction of 55 mph speed limits and drink-driving laws):[2]

'They took into account thirty factors which it was thought might affect the death rate. Traffic engineering is a branch of Civil engineering that uses engineering techniques to achieve the safe and efficient movement of people and goods For a discussion of the maximum speed possible in the universe see Speed of light and Special relativity. Driving under the influence of alcohol ( driving while intoxicated, drunk driving, drinking and driving, drink-driving) or other drugs Among these were included the annual consumption of wine, of spirits and of malt beverages — taken individually — the amount spent on road maintenance, the minimum temperature, certain of the legal measures such as the amount spent on police, the number of police per 100,000 inhabitants, the follow-up programme on dangerous drivers, the quality of driver testing, and so on. The thirty factors were finally reduced to six on elimination of those which were found to have small or negligible effect. The final six were:

'These are placed in descending order of importance. These six accounted for 70% of the variations in the rate. '

A 1985 study by K. Rumar, using British and American crash reports as data, found that 57% of crashes were due solely to driver factors, 27% to combined roadway and driver factors, 6% to combined vehicle and driver factors, 3% solely to roadway factors, 3% to combined roadway, driver, and vehicle factors, 2% solely to vehicle factors and 1% to combined roadway and vehicle factors. [3]

As the factors involved in collisions have been better understood, the term "accident" is sometimes avoided by some organisations, as the word can suggest an unpredictable, unpreventable event. However, although these events are rare in terms of the number of vehicles and drivers on the road, addressing the contributing factors can reduce the likelihood of collisions. That is why these organisations prefer the term "crash" or some other term.

However, treating these incidents as anything other than "accidents" has been criticised for holding back safety improvements, because a culture of blame may discourage the involved parties from fully disclosing the facts, and thus frustrate attempts to address with the real root cause. Organizational culture is a concept in the field of Organizational studies and Management which describes the attitudes experiences beliefs and values [4]

Driver behaviour

A truck crash.
A truck crash.
A Honda Accord which has collided with a building.
A Honda Accord which has collided with a building. The Honda Accord is series of midrange Automobile manufactured by Honda since 1976 and sold in most automotive markets throughout the world

A 1985 report based on British and American crash data, found that driver error, intoxication and other human factors contribute wholly or partially to about 93% of crashes. [3]

Most British drivers who responded to an RAC survey, considered themselves to be "good" drivers. [5] One survey of drivers reported that they thought the key elements were:[6]

Although proficiency in these skills is taught and tested as part of the driving exam, a 'good' driver can still be at a high risk of accidents because:

"the feeling of being confident in more and more challenging situations is experienced as evidence of driving ability, and that 'proven' ability reinforces the feelings of confidence. Confidence feeds itself and grows unchecked until something happens – a near-miss or an accident". [6]

Professor Smeed observed that drivers balance risks as they drive, leading road authorities to attempt to reduce the consequences of mishaps through road design. Smeed's Law, named after R J Smeed who first proposed the relationship in 1949 is an empirical rule relating Traffic fatalities to traffic congestion as measured As traffic levels have increased, accompanied by more interventions by planners and road safety teams, accident levels have reduced.

Accompanying changes to road designs have been wide-scale adoptions of rules of the road alongside law enforcement policies that included drink-driving laws, setting of speed limits, and speed enforcement systems such as speed cameras. Traffic on Roads may consist of Pedestrians ridden or herded Animals Vehicles Streetcars and other Conveyances either singly A traffic enforcement camera is a system including a Camera and a Vehicle -monitoring device used to detect and identify vehicles disobeying a Speed limit Some countries' driving tests have been expanded to test a new driver's behaviour during emergencies, and their hazard perception. A driving test (also known as a driving exam) is a procedure designed to test a person's ability to drive a Motor vehicle.

There are demographic differences in accident rates. For example, although young people tend to have good reaction times, disproportionately more young male drivers feature in accidents,[7] with researchers observing that many exhibit behaviours and attitudes to risk that can place them in more hazardous situations than other road users. [6] This gets reflected by actuaries when they set insurance rates for different age groups, partly based on their age, sex, and choice of vehicle. An actuary is a business professional who deals with the financial impact of risk and uncertainty Older drivers with slower reactions would be expected to be involved in more accidents, but this has not been the case as they tend to drive less and, apparently, more cautiously. [8]

Toyota Corolla Crash in Cairo, Egypt
Toyota Corolla Crash in Cairo, Egypt

Attempts to impose traffic policies can be complicated by local circumstances and driver behaviour. The Toyota Corolla is a line of subcompact / Compact cars produced by the Japanese Automaker Toyota, which has become very popular throughout Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. In 1969 Leeming warned that there is a balance to be struck when "improving" the safety of a road:[2]

It can safely be said that places which look dangerous do not have accidents, or very few. They happen at places which do not look dangerous. The reason for this is simple. The motorist is as intelligent as the 'local people'. If a place looks dangerous, he can see that it is, so he takes care and there are no accidents. He does not want to have an accident, and he will take care at obviously dangerous places. Accidents happen when there is some trap in road conditions which is not obvious at a glance, or where the conditions are too complicated for the limited human machine to deal with in the short time available. See also The Human Factor (disambiguation. Human factors is a term that covers The science of understanding the properties The driver has only a fraction of a second to size up a situation, and there may be some trap which he cannot see in this short time. '

This phenomena has been observed in risk compensation research, where the predicted reductions in accident rates have not occurred after legislative or technical changes. In Ethology, risk compensation is an effect whereby individual people may tend to adjust their Behaviour in response to perceived changes in risk One study observed that the introduction of improved brakes resulted in more aggressive driving,[9] and another argued that compulsory seat belt laws have not been accompanied by a clearly-attributed fall in overall fatalities. [10]

In the 1990s, Hans Monderman was amongst those who had studied driver behaviour, and realised that signs and regulations had an adverse effect on a driver's ability to interact safely with other road users. Hans Monderman ( November 19[[ 945]] &ndash January 7[[ 008]] was a Dutch road traffic engineer and innovator Monderman found, using his shared space principles, which had their roots in the principles of the woonerven of the 1970s, that the removal of highway clutter, and allowing motor vehicle users and other road users to mingle with equal priority, freed drivers to be able to recognise environmental clues, and, relying on their cognitive skills alone, traffic speeds were radically reduced—resulting in lower levels of road casualties and lower levels of congestion. Shared space, sometimes called shared surfaces, is a traffic engineering policy to remove the traditional separation between motor vehicles and pedestrians and other A Woonerf (plural woonerven) in the Netherlands and Flanders is a Street or group of streets in a town or City where Pedestrians [11]

Speed choice

The U. S. Department of transportation's Federal Highway Administration have a webpage documenting a review of speed research. [12] The summary states:

On a webpage titled "The biggest killer on our roads", the Road and Traffic Authority (RTA) of the Australian state of New South Wales (NSW), state that speeding (by which they mean travelling too fast for the prevailing conditions, in addition to speed above the specified speed limit[13]) is a factor in about 40 per cent of road deaths. [14] On the same webpage the RTA also state that "speeding increases the risk of a crash and the severity of the crash outcome". [14] On another webpage, the RTA qualify their claims by referring to one specific piece of research from 1997, and stating "research has shown that the risk of a crash causing death or injury increases rapidly, even with small increases above an appropriately set speed limit. "[15]

The contributory factor report in the official British road casualty statistics show for 2006, that "exceeding speed limit" (known as "speeding" in the UK) was a contributory factor in 5% of all casualty crashes (14% of all fatal crashes), and that "travelling too fast for conditions" was a contributory factor in 11% of all casualty crashes (18% of all fatal crashes). Road Casualties Great Britain (RCGB formerly Road Accidents Great Britain (RAGB is the official statistical publication of the UK Department for Transport (DfT on traffic [16]

Driver impairment

A road user's capability is affected by the physical and mental ability to assess conditions and respond quickly. Studies[17] have established some common conditions that impair this judgement, including:

Several conditions can work together to create a much worse situation, for example:

Thus there are situations when a person may be impaired, but still legally allowed to drive, and becomes a potential hazard to themselves and other road users. Pedestrians or cyclists are affected in the same way and can similarly jeopardise themselves or others when on the road.

Research suggests that the driver's attention is affected by distracting sounds such as conversations and operating a mobile phone while driving. Mobile phone use while driving is common but controversial Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of accident Many jurisdictions now restrict or outlaw the use of some types of phone within the car. Recent research conducted by British scientists suggests that music can also have an effect; classic music is considered to be calming, yet too much could relax the driver to a condition of distraction. Music is an Art form in which the medium is Sound organized in Time. On the other hand, hard-rock may encourage the driver to step on the acceleration pedal, thus creating a potentially dangerous situation on the road. Hard rock (also referred to as heavy rock) is a variation of Rock music which has its earliest roots in mid-1960s garage and Psychedelic rock [20]

Road design

A 1985 US study showed that about 34% of serious crashes had contributing factors related to the roadway or its environment. Most of these crashes also involved a human factor. [3] The road or environmental factor either contributed to the road user error, or did not allow room to recover from such an error.

A potential long fall stopped by an early guardrail, ca. 1920. Guardrails, median barriers, or other physical objects can help reduce the consequences of an accident or minimize damage.
A potential long fall stopped by an early guardrail, ca. 1920. Guardrails, median barriers, or other physical objects can help reduce the consequences of an accident or minimize damage. Guard rail, sometimes referred to as guide rail, is a system designed to keep people or vehicles from (in most cases unintentionally straying into dangerous or off-limits areas A Jersey barrier or Jersey wall separates lanes of traffic (often opposing lanes of traffic with a goal of minimizing vehicle crossover in the case of accidents

As these contributory factors have been more widely studied, there have been attempts to reduce the numbers of crashes by modifying the physical road conditions. Such modifications include:

Alongside the highway, designs can include:

Motorways, also by as interstate highways and autobahns, generally have all these features. As a consequence, within each nation, motorways have the best safety record.

Rating roads for safety

Since 1999 the EuroRAP initiative has been assessing major roads in Europe with a road protection score. European Road Assessment Programme The European Road Assessment Programme Associations internationales sans but lucratif, more commonly known as EuroRAP AISBL is an international This results in a star rating for roads based on how well its design would protect car occupants from being severely injured or killed if a head-on, run-off, or intersection accident occurs, with 4 stars representing a road with the best survivability features. [21] The scheme states it has highlighted thousands of road sections across Europe where road-users are routinely maimed and killed for want of safety features, sometimes for little more than the cost of safety fencing or the paint required to improve road markings. [22]

There are plans to extend the measurements to rate the probability of an accident for the road. These ratings are being used to inform planning and authorities' targets. For example, in Britain two-thirds of all road deaths in Britain happen on rural roads, which score badly when compared to the high quality motorway network; single carriageways claim 80% of rural deaths and serious injuries, while 40% of rural car occupant casualties are in cars that hit roadside objects, such as trees. Improvements in driver training and safety features for rural roads are hoped to reduce this statistic[23].

Alternative approaches

For most of the 20th Century, many road authorities believed that traffic should be separated and controlled by class (pedestrian, bicyclist, and motor vehicle driver) in order to combine high speed use of motor vehicles with good traffic safety. [24] Acceptance of this view by the authorities has led to the widespread use of traffic lights, Belisha beacons, pedestrian crossings, and, in some jurisdictions, cycle lanes. The traffic light, also known as traffic signal, stop light, traffic lamp, stop-and-go lights, robot or semaphore, A Belisha beacon is a flashing orange globe atop a tall black and white pole Crosswalk button neJPG|right|thumb|The button one pushes to activate the crosswalk signal Segregated cycle facilities are Roads tracks paths or marked lanes designated for use by Cyclists from which motorised traffic is generally excluded

Alternatives to this approach have been suggested, such as those offered by J. S. Dean, a former chairman of the UK Pedestrians' Association: Better roads, better sight lines, fewer bends and blind corners, less traffic, better lighting, better visibility, better weather conditions – all these that are supposed to make for greater safety, in fact, make for greater danger . Living Streets is a British registered charity and voluntary organisation founded in 1929 . . because every "nonrestrictive" safety measure, however admirable in itself, is treated by the drivers as an opportunity for more speeding, so that the net amount of danger is increased and the latter state is worse than the first. [25]

In the latter part of the 20th Century, alternative design approaches such as those pioneered in woonerven became more popular. A Woonerf (plural woonerven) in the Netherlands and Flanders is a Street or group of streets in a town or City where Pedestrians These approaches, recognising that higher traffic speeds made collisions more likely and injuries more severe, sought to reduce traffic speeds in community and housing zones by the use of lower speed limits enforced by the use of special signage and road markings, the introduction of traffic calming measures, and by giving pedestrians priority over motorists. Traffic calming is a set of strategies used by Urban planners and traffic engineers which aim to slow down or reduce Traffic, thereby improving safety

Beginning in the 1990s, traffic professionals such as Hans Monderman, recognising that even with all the traditional measures of speed limits, traffic calming, pedestrian barriers, road signs and road markings, that safety and congestion problems remained, started another revolution in planning. Hans Monderman ( November 19[[ 945]] &ndash January 7[[ 008]] was a Dutch road traffic engineer and innovator For a discussion of the maximum speed possible in the universe see Speed of light and Special relativity. Traffic calming is a set of strategies used by Urban planners and traffic engineers which aim to slow down or reduce Traffic, thereby improving safety Most countries post signage known as traffic signs or road signs, at the side of Roads to Road surface marking is any kind of device or material that is used on a road surface in order to convey official information John Adams argues that traditional traffic engineering measures assumed that motorists were "selfish, stupid, obedient automatons who had to be protected from their own stupidity" and non-motorists were treated as "vulnerable, stupid, obedient automatons who had to be protected from cars – and their own stupidity". John Adams (October 30 1735 July 4 1826 was one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States. [26] Monderman believed that "if you treat drivers like idiots, they act as idiots" and that you should "always assume they have intelligence". [27] He found that trusting drivers to behave was more successful than forcing them to behave. [28] Monderman's new approach was characterised by the redesign of junctions and road layouts, a virtual elimination of kerbs, road signs and signals, the removal of cycling lanes and speed humps, and the introduction of equal priority for all types of road user, with right of way being open to negotiation. [29] This philosophy, under the name "shared space", has since attracted the attention of many authorities around the world. Shared space, sometimes called shared surfaces, is a traffic engineering policy to remove the traditional separation between motor vehicles and pedestrians and other [30][31] Reported results indicate that the shared space approach leads to significantly reduced traffic speeds, the virtual elimination of road casualties, and a reduction in congestion. [28]

At least one town, Hesselterbrink in the Netherlands has become disillusioned with the way the woonerf principle has become another traffic engineering measure that "entailed preciously little more than signs and uniform standards". The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands They have now encompassed the shared space principles in favour of the woonerf. Shared space, sometimes called shared surfaces, is a traffic engineering policy to remove the traditional separation between motor vehicles and pedestrians and other They are reported to "now know that car drivers should become residents. Eye contact and human interaction are more effective means to achieve and maintain attractive and safe areas than signs and rules". [32]

Vehicle design and maintenance

See also: Automobile safety
Wreckage of a crash from Saragossa, Spain. The car, a Seat Ibiza Mk 3, suffered extensive damage but the interior was largely unscathed.
Wreckage of a crash from Saragossa, Spain. Zaragoza, also called Saragossa in English, is the capital city of the Zaragoza province and of the autonomous community and former Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The car, a Seat Ibiza Mk 3, suffered extensive damage but the interior was largely unscathed. The SEAT Ibiza is a supermini manufactured by the Volkswagen Group and sold under the SEAT Marque.

A well-designed and well-maintained vehicle, with good brakes, tyres and well-adjusted suspension will be more controllable in an emergency and thus be better equipped to avoid collisions. Some mandatory vehicle inspection schemes include tests for some aspects of road worthiness, such as the UK's MOT test or German TÜV conformance inspection. Vehicle inspection is a procedure mandated by national or subnational governments in many countries in which a vehicle is inspected to ensure that it conforms to regulations governing See also Vehicle inspection The Ministry of Transport test (more usually MOT - pronounced by spelling out the letters is an annual test TÜV s (short for T echnischer Ü berwachungs- V erein, Technical Monitoring Association in English

The design of vehicles has also evolved to improve protection after collision, both for vehicle occupants and for those outside of the vehicle. Much of this work was led by automotive industry competition and technological innovation, leading to measures such as Saab's safety cage and reinforced roof pillars of 1946, Ford´s 1956 Lifeguard safety package, and Saab and Volvo's introduction of standard fit seatbelts in 1959. Saab Automobile AB, better known as Saab, is a Swedish car manufacturer and currently a wholly-owned Subsidiary of General Motors. Lifeguard was the name of a 1956 safety package marketed by the Ford Motor Company. Volvo Cars, or Volvo Personvagnar AB, is a Swedish premium Automobile maker founded in 1927 in the city of Gothenburg in Sweden A seat belt, sometimes called a safety belt, is a Safety harness designed to secure the occupant of a Vehicle against harmful movement that may result from Other initiatives were accelerated as a reaction to consumer pressure, after publications such as Ralph Nader's 1965 book Unsafe at Any Speed accused motor manufacturers of indifference towards safety. Ralph Nader (born February 27 1934 is an American Attorney, Author, Lecturer, political activist, and independent candidate for President Unsafe at Any Speed The Designed-In Dangers of the American Automobile by Ralph Nader, published in 1965, is a book detailing resistance by Car

1974 British Leyland Mini Clubman Safety Research Vehicle - SRV4
1974 British Leyland Mini Clubman Safety Research Vehicle - SRV4

In the early 1970s British Leyland started an intensive programme of vehicle safety research, producing a number of prototype experimental safety vehicles demonstrating various innovations for occupant and pedestrian protection such as: air bags, anti-lock brakes, impact-absorbing side-panels, front and rear head restraints, run-flat tyres, smooth and deformable front-ends, impact-absorbing bumpers, and retractable headlamps. The Mini is a small car that was produced by the British Motor Corporation (BMC and its successors from 1959 until 2000 British Leyland was a vehicle manufacturing company formed in the United Kingdom in 1968 as British Leyland Motor Corporation Ltd (BLMC Experimental Safety Vehicle ( ESV) is the designation for experimental Concept cars which are used to test Car safety ideas An airbag is part of a vehicle's safety restraint system a flexible envelope designed for rapid inflation in an automobile Collision, to prevent vehicle occupants An anti-lock braking system, or ABS (from the German, A nti' b' lockier' s' ystem) is a safety system on Motor vehicles [33] Design has also been influenced by government legislation, such as the Euro NCAP impact test. The European New Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP is a European Car safety performance assessment programme founded in 1997 by the Transport Research A crash test is a form of Destructive testing usually performed in order to ensure safe design standards in Crashworthiness and

Common features designed to improve safety include: thicker pillars, safety glass, interiors with no sharp edges, stronger bodies, other active or passive safety features, and smooth exteriors to reduce the consequences of an impact with pedestrians. The crumple zone of a vehicle such as an Automobile is a structural feature designed to compress during an Accident to absorb Energy from an impact

The UK Department for Transport publish road casualty statistics for each type of collision and vehicle through its Road Casualties Great Britain report. In the United Kingdom, the Department for Transport (or DfT) ( Welsh: Adran am Drafnidiaeth) is the government department Road Casualties Great Britain (RCGB formerly Road Accidents Great Britain (RAGB is the official statistical publication of the UK Department for Transport (DfT on traffic [34] These statistics show a ten to one ratio of in-vehicle fatalities between types of car. In most cars, occupants have a 2–8% chance of death in a two-car collision.

At the other extreme, motorcyclists have little protection other than their clothing; this difference is reflected in the casualty statistics, where they are more than twice as likely to suffer severely after a collision. To improve Motorcycle safety many countries mandate the wearing of Protective clothing by motorcyclists especially In 2005 there were 198,735 road crashes with 271,017 reported casualties on roads in Great Britain. This included 3,201 deaths (1. 1%) and 28,954 serious injuries (10. 7%) overall. Of these casualties 178,302 (66%) were car users and 24,824 (9%) were motorcyclists, of whom 569 were killed (2. 3%) and 5,939 seriously injured (24%). [35]

A Chevrolet Malibu involved in a rollover crash
A Chevrolet Malibu involved in a rollover crash

Research has shown that, across all collision types, it is less likely that seat belts were worn in collisions involving death or serious injury, rather than light injury; wearing a seat belt reduces the risk of death by about two thirds. The Chevrolet Malibu (named after Malibu California) is a Mid-size car produced in the United States by General Motors. Rollover is a type of vehicle accident, where a vehicle turns over on its side or roof [36] Seat belt use is controversial, with notable critics such as Professor John Adams suggesting that their use may lead to a net increase in road casualties due to a phenomenon known as risk compensation. Seat belt legislation is a Law or laws put in place to enforce or require the fitting of Seat belts to motor vehicles or the wearing of seat belts by motor vehicle Professor John Adams of University College London, is a professor of Geography and leading theorist on Risk compensation and an Environmentalist In Ethology, risk compensation is an effect whereby individual people may tend to adjust their Behaviour in response to perceived changes in risk [37]

Some types of crash tend to have more serious consequences; rollovers have become more common in recent years, perhaps due to the increase in popularity of taller SUVs, people carriers and minivans which have more top weight than standard passenger cars. Rollover is a type of vehicle accident, where a vehicle turns over on its side or roof A sport utility vehicle ( SUV) is a generic marketing description for a rugged automotive vehicle similar to a Station wagon but built on a light-truck chassis A minivan, multi-purpose vehicle (abbreviated MPV) people-carrier, people-mover or multi-utility vehicle (shortened A minivan, multi-purpose vehicle (abbreviated MPV) people-carrier, people-mover or multi-utility vehicle (shortened Rollovers can be fatal, especially if the occupants are ejected because they were not wearing seat belts (83% of ejections during rollovers were fatal when the driver did not wear a seat belt, compared to 25% when they did). A seat belt, sometimes called a safety belt, is a Safety harness designed to secure the occupant of a Vehicle against harmful movement that may result from [36] After a new design of Mercedes Benz notoriously failed a 'moose test' (sudden swerving to avoid an obstacle), some manufacturers enhance suspension using stability control linked to an anti-lock braking system in order to reduce the likelihood of rollover. Mercedes-Benz is a German manufacturer of luxury Automobiles Buses coaches and Trucks It is currently a division of the A test to determine how a certain Vehicle acts when the driver evades a suddenly appearing obstacle (such as a Moose on the road became well-known under the name Älgtest Electronic stability control ( ESC) is a computerized technology that improves the safety of a vehicle's handling by detecting and preventing skids An anti-lock braking system, or ABS (from the German, A nti' b' lockier' s' ystem) is a safety system on Motor vehicles After retrofitting these systems to its models in 1999–2000, Mercedes saw its models feature in fewer crashes[38]

Now about 40% of new US vehicles, mainly the SUVs, vans and pickup trucks that are more susceptible to rollover, are being produced with a lower center of gravity and enhanced suspension with stability control linked to its anti-lock braking system in order to reduce the risk of rollover, and meet US federal requirements that will mandate anti-rollover technology by September 2011. Electronic stability control ( ESC) is a computerized technology that improves the safety of a vehicle's handling by detecting and preventing skids An anti-lock braking system, or ABS (from the German, A nti' b' lockier' s' ystem) is a safety system on Motor vehicles [39]

Death and injury statistics

The ability to deliver prompt medical attention has also improved through improvements in ambulance and rescue equipment, availability of air ambulances, rapid response units, and paramedic training, while design changes have made collisions more survivable. An ambulance is a Vehicle for transporting sick or injured people to from or between places of treatment for an Illness or Injury. A paramedic is a medical professional usually a member of the emergency medical service, who primarily provides Pre-hospital advanced medical and Thus injuries from a collision that once would have been fatal may now be averted, while remote locations may report few accidents but with more fatalities.

For this reason modern accident statistics often focus on reportable injury accidents (which include deaths) rather than reporting on deaths alone. It is also believed that serious accidents are often significantly under-reported, under-recorded and misclassified[40] and that the completeness of reporting may vary over time and between sources. [41]

Trends in collision statistics

A head-on collision beteween a Perodua Kancil and an old Mitsubishi Lancer
A head-on collision beteween a Perodua Kancil and an old Mitsubishi Lancer

Road toll figures show that car collision fatalities have declined since 1980, with most countries showing a reduction of roughly 50%. A head-on collision is one where the front ends of two Ships, Trains, Planes or Vehicles hit each other as opposed to a Side-collision The Perodua Kancil (also known as the Perodua Nippa in the United Kingdom, and the Daihatsu Ceria in Indonesia) is a small car manufactured The Mitsubishi Lancer is a semi-luxury vehicle built by Mitsubishi Motors.

In the United States, fatalities have increased slightly from 40,716 in 1994 to 42,884 in 2003. However, in terms of fatalities per 100 million miles driven, the fatality rate has dropped 16% between 1995 and 2005. Injuries dropped 37% over the same period. (National Traffic Safety Administration, 2006).

It has been noted that road fatality trends tend to follow "Smeed's law" (named after R.J. Smeed, its author, and subsequently re-analysed and confirmed by John Adams. Smeed's Law, named after R J Smeed who first proposed the relationship in 1949 is an empirical rule relating Traffic fatalities to traffic congestion as measured Reuben Jacob Smeed (1909–1976 was a British statistician and transport researcher [42]) This is an approximate empirical rule that relates falling injury rates to congestion, as measured by car ownership levels, and is insensitive to other factors.

Common types of collision

Statistics can be gathered on the direction of impact, or impacts. The most common collisions on the road where both parties are moving involve:

In the USA rollovers have contributed to more than 10,000 deaths a year even though they only account for about 3 percent of all crashes. A head-on collision is one where the front ends of two Ships, Trains, Planes or Vehicles hit each other as opposed to a Side-collision Side collisions are vehicle crashes where the side of one or more vehicles is impacted "Rear end" redirects here but is also a name for the Buttocks. Rollover is a type of vehicle accident, where a vehicle turns over on its side or roof

Sometimes the vehicles in the collision can suffer more than one type of impact, such as during a shunt or high-speed spin. This most often occurs when there is a "second harmful event," such as when a vehicle is redirected by the first crash into another vehicle or fixed object.

Backup collisions

Backup collisions happen when a driver reverses the car into an object, person, or other car. Although most cars come equipped with rear view mirrors which are adequate for detecting vehicles behind a car, they are inadequate on many vehicles for detecting small children or objects close to the ground, which fall in the car's blind spot. Blind spots, in the context of Driving an Automobile, are the areas of the Road that cannot be seen while looking forward or through either the Large trucks have much larger blind spots that can hide entire vehicles and large adults.

According to research by Kids and Cars – an organization devoted to preventing (non-traffic) motor-vehicle-related deaths and injuries – 49% of the non-traffic, non-crash fatalities involving children under 15 from 2001–2005 were caused by vehicles backing up.

The CDC reported that from 2001–2003, an estimated 7,475 children (2,492 per year) under the age of 15 were treated for automobile back-over incidents.

The US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration found that back-up collisions most often:[43]

The driver of the car backing up and hitting an object, a person, or another car is usually considered to be at fault. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA, often pronounced "nit-suh" is an agency of the Executive Branch of the U A sport utility vehicle ( SUV) is a generic marketing description for a rugged automotive vehicle similar to a Station wagon but built on a light-truck chassis

Prevention organizations suggest that parents use common sense, and also take safety measures such as installing cross view mirrors, audible collision detectors, rear view video camera and/or some type of reverse backup sensors. Parking sensors are a technology that allows the driver of an Automobile, Truck, or Commercial vehicle to be alerted to nearby objects in their path Furthermore, safer backing up is done when the driver turns completely around and looks out of the rear window of the car, rather than relying on mirrors. This provides a wider field of vision and better control of the vehicle.

Legal consequences

Car collisions usually carry legal consequences in proportion to the severity of the crash. Nearly all common law jurisdictions impose some kind of requirement that parties involved in a collision (even with only stationary property) must stop at the scene, and exchange insurance or identification information or summon the police. Common law refers to law and the corresponding legal system developed through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive Vehicle insurance (also known as auto insurance, car insurance, or motor insurance) is Insurance purchased for cars, Trucks Police are agents or agencies usually of the executive, empowered to enforce the law and to effect public and social order through the legitimatized use of force Failing to obey this requirement is referred to as hit and run and is generally a criminal offence. Hit-and-run is the Crime of colliding with a Person, their Personal property (including their Motor vehicle) or a fixture However, most claims are settled without recourse to law. In this case, assuming that both parties carry adequate insurance, the claim is often handled between the two insurers. There may be financial penalties involved, such as an excess or deductible payment and a loss of a no-claims bonus or higher future premiums. In an Insurance policy the deductible (North American term or excess (UK term is the portion of any claim that is not covered by the insurance provider Auto insurance risk selection is the process by which vehicle insurers determine whether or not to insure an individual and what insurance premium to charge

Depending upon the circumstances, parties involved in an incident may face criminal liability, civil liability, or both. The term criminal law, sometimes called penal law, refers to any of various bodies of rules in different Jurisdictions whose common characteristic is the potential Civil law, as opposed to Criminal law, refers to that branch of Law dealing with disputes between Individuals and/or Organizations, in which Usually, the state starts a criminal prosecution only if someone is severely injured or killed, or if one of the drivers involved was acting illegally or clearly grossly negligent or intoxicated or otherwise impaired at the time the accident occurred. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. The prosecutor is the chief legal representative of the prosecution in countries with either the Common law Adversarial system, or the civil law Intoxication is the state of being affected by one or more psychoactive drugs. Criminal charges might include driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs, driving without due care (UK), assault with a deadly weapon (USA), manslaughter, or murder; penalties range from fines to jail time (USA) to prison time to death (where applicable). The term criminal law, sometimes called penal law, refers to any of various bodies of rules in different Jurisdictions whose common characteristic is the potential Driving under the influence of alcohol ( driving while intoxicated, drunk driving, drinking and driving, drink-driving) or other drugs In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body Assault is a Crime of Violence against another person. In some Jurisdictions including Australia and New Zealand, A weapon is a Tool used either in Hunting, or attack or defence in Combat for the purpose of subduing enemy personnel or to destroy enemy weapons Manslaughter is a legal term for the killing of a human being in a manner considered by law as less culpable than Murder. Murder is the unlawful killing of another human person with Malice aforethought, as defined in Common Law countries Jail, or gaol (especially in Canada, Australia and NZ[http //www A prison, penitentiary, or correctional facility is a place in which individuals are physically confined or interned and usually deprived of a range of Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. It is notable that the penalties for killing and injuring with motor vehicles are often very much less than for other actions with similar outcomes.

As for civil liability, in places where healthcare is mainly provided through private insurance, such as the USA, automobile accident personal injury lawsuits have become the most common type of tort. In law a lawsuit is a civil action brought before a Court in which the party commencing the action the Plaintiff, seeks a legal or equitable remedy Tort law is the name given to a body of law that creates and provides remedies for civil wrongs that do not arise out of Contractual duties Because of pre-existing case law, the courts usually need to decide only the factual questions of who is at fault, and their percentage of fault, as well as how much must be paid out in damages to the injured plaintiff by the defendant's insurer. Case law' (also known as decisional law or judicial precedent) is that body of reported Judicial opinions in countries that have Common law In Law, damages refers to the money paid or awarded to a Claimant (England Pursuer (Scotland or Plaintiff (US following a successful

For lesser offences civil action may result in fines or collecting points that invalidate the driver's licence, through a central government agency. For other uses of the word point see Point A point system is one in which a driver's licensing authority issues demerits or points Such complaints may be filed by a police officer, by other witnesses of an incident, or through remote enforcement such as CCTV or speed cameras. A traffic enforcement camera is a system including a Camera and a Vehicle -monitoring device used to detect and identify vehicles disobeying a Speed limit Some jurisdictions (notably US states) directly administer fines or suspend licenses imposed by civil or criminal authorities when a driver has violated the rules of the road and thus the terms of a driver's license. Traffic on Roads may consist of Pedestrians ridden or herded Animals Vehicles Streetcars and other Conveyances either singly A driver's license, driver license, driver licence, or driving licence is an official document which states that a person may operate a In some jurisdictions such administrative penalties may be imposed through quasi-criminal infractions; other jurisdictions do not recognize infractions and charge all violations, at a minimum, as misdemeanours or felonies. Infraction as a general term means a violation of a rule or Local ordinance or regulation promise or obligation A misdemeanor, or misdemeanour, in many common law legal systems is a "lesser" criminal act In Common law legal systems a felony is a serious Crime, often contrasted with a Misdemeanor.

Some argue that the effect of a loss or injury due to a crash can be equivalent to that of a victim of crime under criminal law. Victimology is the study of victimization including the relationships between victims and offenders the interactions between victims and the criminal justice system -- that is the police Several campaigning organisations that provide support mechanisms also seek out an equivalent status within their jurisdictions[44] or draw attention to particular road safety issues and attitudes with the intention of introducing law reform (e. g. MADD). Mothers Against Drunk Driving, or MADD, is a Non-profit organization that seeks to stop Drunk driving, support those affected by drunk driving and

Collision prevention

Mechanical systems

Although many crashes are caused by behavior that is difficult to alter, by mechanical failure, or by road conditions, some technical solutions have been proposed that would automatically detect how close the driver is to the car in front and warn the driver or automatically adjust the car's acceleration to prevent the car from getting closer than the distance in which it can safely stop.

Policies for avoiding collisions

Reasons suggested for young and inexperienced drivers being more likely to be in an accident include inexperience combined with over-confidence, peer pressure, a desire to show off, and even neurological development arguments. [46] It has been noticed that more of these types of serious collision occur at night, when the car has multiple occupants and when seat belt use is less. [6] This has led to some insurance companies and legislatures proposing:

To address accidents across all age ranges, some governments have also proposed measures such as:[47]

Some countries or states have already implemented some of these ideas. An L-plate is a square plate bearing a sans-serif letter L for "learner" which must be affixed to the front and back of a car in many countries if its driver is a learner under This increased risk for the young is known to the insurance companies, and premiums sometimes reflect that; however, very high premiums for young drivers do not seem to have had a significant impact on the crash statistics. Insurance, in Law and Economics, is a form of Risk management primarily used to hedge against the Risk of a contingent loss

Recent initiatives by some insurers, such as pay-as-you-drive, have been attempts to incentivise better driving behaviour by rewarding young drivers who make better choices about where and when to drive. In Economics, an incentive is any factor (financial or non-financial that provides a motive for a particular course of action or counts as a reason for preferring one choice They also recognise the benefits of driver training beyond the statutory minimum and often offer premium reductions after completion of a course of advanced driving.

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Dent, Edward Joseph [2004-06-17]. Safe driving is a form of training for motor vehicle drivers that goes beyond mastery of the rules of the road and the basic mechanics of Driving. A crash test is a form of Destructive testing usually performed in order to ensure safe design standards in Crashworthiness and For the band see Crash Test Dummies. For the series of toys see The Incredible Crash Dummies. In Transport, driver visibility is the maximum distance at which the driver of a Vehicle can see and identify prominent objects around the vehicle In certain local police departments in the United States, the Fatal Accident Reconstruction Team is a group of police officers dedicated to investigating motor vehicle accidents Forensic Engineering is the investigation of materials, products, Structures or components that fail or do not operate/function as In case of emergency ( ICE) is a program that enables first responders such as Paramedics Firefighters and Police officers to identify victims This List of countries by Traffic -related death rate shows the annual number of road fatalities per capita and per vehicle-km in the world's List of road accidents records serious road accidents those which took a high Death toll, occurred in unusual circumstances or hold some other historical significance Almost two-thirds of the 12 million people killed in road traffic crashes worldwide are Pedestrians. A roadside memorial is a marker that commemorates a site where a person died suddenly and unexpectedly away from home In motoring terms a skid mark is the mark a tire makes when a vehicle wheel stops rolling and slides or spins on the surface of the road Totaled (shorthand for total loss) is a term used in the Insurance industry Transportation safety has steadily improved in the United States for many decades A tram accident is generally an Accident in which a Tram is involved ( see a tram in ''picture 1''. Unsafe at Any Speed The Designed-In Dangers of the American Automobile by Ralph Nader, published in 1965, is a book detailing resistance by Car A vehicle explosion is the destruction of or damage to a Vehicle caused by an Explosion. Vehicular accident reconstruction s are often conducted by specialized units in law enforcement agencies, to answer questions about automobile accidents, such as who Vehicle extrication is the process of removing a person from a vehicle that has been involved in a motor vehicle accident when conventional means of exit are impossible or unadvisable Vehicle recovery is the recovery of any vehicle to another place generally speaking with a commercial vehicle know as a Recovery or tow Truck Handel. R A Kessinger Publishing, 63. ISBN 1-4191-2275-4.  
  2. ^ a b c d e Leeming, J. J. (1969). Road Accidents: Prevent or Punish?. Cassell. ISBN 0-304-93213-2.  
  3. ^ a b c Harry Lum & Jerry A. Reagan (Winter 1995). Interactive Highway Safety Design Model: Accident Predictive Module. Public Roads Magazine.
  4. ^ Charles, Geoffrey. "Cars And Drivers Accident prevention instead of blame", The Times, 11 March 1969. Events 1425 BC - Thutmose III, Pharaoh of Egypt, dies (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th Dynasty  
  5. ^ [http://drivers.com/article/157 I'm a good driver: you're not!]. Drivers. com (2000-02-11). 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. Events 660 BC - Traditional founding date of Japan by Emperor Jimmu.
  6. ^ a b c d The Good, the Bad and the Talented: Young Drivers' Perspectives on Good Driving and Learning to Drive (PDF). Transport Research Laboratory (January 2007).
  7. ^ Thew, Rosemary (2006). Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents Conference Proceedings (PDF). The Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (ROSPA- is a leading UK safety organisation Driving Standards Agency.
  8. ^ forecasting older driver's accident rates. Department for Transport. In the United Kingdom, the Department for Transport (or DfT) ( Welsh: Adran am Drafnidiaeth) is the government department
  9. ^ Sagberg, Fosser, & Saetermo (1997). An investigation of behavioural adaptation to airbags and antilock brakes among taxi drivers, 29, 293–302.  
  10. ^ Adams, John (1982). The efficacy of seat belt legislation (PDF). SAE Transactions.
  11. ^ Ben Hamilton-Baillie (Autumn 2005). "Streets ahead". . Countryside Voice Retrieved on 2008-03-10. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing
  12. ^ Synthesis of Safety Research Related to Speed and Speed Limits. U. S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved on 2008-03-05. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a
  13. ^ Problem definition and countermeasures. NSW Roads and Traffic Authority. Retrieved on 2008-05-20. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 325 - The First Council of Nicaea &ndash the first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church is held
  14. ^ a b The biggest killer on our roads. NSW Roads and Traffic Authority. Retrieved on 2008-03-05. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a
  15. ^ Speeding research. NSW Roads and Traffic Authority. Retrieved on 2008-03-05. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a
  16. ^ Road Casualties Great Britain: 2006. UK Department for Transport. Retrieved on 2008-03-05. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a
  17. ^ Research projects, Theme 3: Impairment. UK Department for Transport. In the United Kingdom, the Department for Transport (or DfT) ( Welsh: Adran am Drafnidiaeth) is the government department
  18. ^ Road Safety Part 1: Alcohol, drugs, ageing & fatigue. UK Department for Transport (Spring 2003). In the United Kingdom, the Department for Transport (or DfT) ( Welsh: Adran am Drafnidiaeth) is the government department
  19. ^ Road Safety Part 1: Alcohol, drugs, ageing & fatigue. UK Department for Transport (Spring 2003). In the United Kingdom, the Department for Transport (or DfT) ( Welsh: Adran am Drafnidiaeth) is the government department
  20. ^ Hard-Rock and Classic Music Could Lead to Road Accidents, New Survey Says
  21. ^ Star rating roads for safety: UK trials 2006-07. EuroRAP (2007-12-03). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1800 - War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden, French
  22. ^ John Dawson, John. Chairman's Message.
  23. ^ Star rating roads for safety, UK trials 2006-07. TRL, EuroRAP & ADAC (December 2007).
  24. ^ (1968) The Scaft Guidelines 1968: Principles for Urban Planning with Respect to Road Safety. Statens planverk (Swedish national board of urban planning) & Vägverket (Swedish National Road Administration).  
  25. ^ Dean, J. S. (1947). Murder Most Foul: a Study of the Road Deaths Problem.  
  26. ^ Professor John Adams (2007-09-02). Professor John Adams of University College London, is a professor of Geography and leading theorist on Risk compensation and an Environmentalist Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. Shared Space – would it work in Los Angeles?. John Adams. Retrieved on 2008-02-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation
  27. ^ "Obituaries: Hans Monderman", The Times, Times Newspapers Ltd, 2008-01-11. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1055 - Theodora is crowned Empress of the Byzantine Empire. Retrieved on 2008-02-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation  
  28. ^ a b Andrew Gilligan. "It's hell on the roads, and I know who's to blame", The Evening Standard, Associated Newspapers Limited, 2008-02-07. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 457 - Leo I becomes emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 1074 - Battle of Montesarchio in which the Prince Retrieved on 2008-02-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation  
  29. ^ Sarah Lyall. "A Path to Road Safety With No Signposts", The Saturday Profile, New York Times, 2005-01-22. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 565 - Eutychius is deposed as Patriarch of Constantinople by John Scholasticus. Retrieved on 2008-02-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation  
  30. ^ Matthias Schulz. "European Cities Do Away with Traffic Signs", Spiegel Online, 2006-11-16. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 534 - A second and final revision of the Codex Justinianus is published Retrieved on 2008-02-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation  
  31. ^ Ted White (September 2007). Signing Off: Visionary traffic planners. Urbanite Baltimore. Retrieved on 2008-02-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation
  32. ^ "Woonerf revisited – The Emmen pilot in Shared Space", Shared Space, 2006. Retrieved on 2008-02-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation  
  33. ^ Safety First: the SSV/SRV cars. AROnline. Keith Adams.
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  37. ^ David Bjerklie (2006-11-30). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1700 - Battle of Narva — A Swedish army of 8500 men under Charles XII defeats The Hidden Danger of Seat Belts. Time Inc. Retrieved on 2008-02-26. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 747 BC - Epoch (origin of Ptolemy 's Nabonassar Era 364 - Valentinian I is proclaimed
  38. ^ Fahrunfalle: Dank ESP verunglucken Mercedes-Personenwagen seltener (in German), Mercedes Benz, <http://www.whnet.com/4x4/pix/esp_stat.jpg>. Retrieved on 28 December 2007 
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  40. ^ Simpson, H F. Comparison of hospital and police casualty data: a national study, TRL Report 173, Transport Research Laboratory. Transport Research Laboratory (TRL is a British centre for transport research providing consultancy advice and solutions for a wide range of transport related issues  “there may be 2. 76 times as many seriously injured casualties than are recorded in the national casualty figures and 1. 70 slight casualties” 
  41. ^ Gill, Goldacre, & Yeates (2006-06-23). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1180 - First Battle of Uji, starting the Genpei War in Japan 1305 - The Flemish Changes in safety on England's roads: analysis of hospital statistics. British medical Journal.
  42. ^ Adams, John. Smeed's Law : some further thoughts (PDF). University College London. University College London ( UCL) is a multi-faculty university institution based in the United Kingdom and a constituent college of the University of London
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  44. ^ Government continues to give bereaved and injured road traffic victims fewer rights than to victims of even the most trivial property crimes. Roadpeace.
  45. ^ Primary and secondary prevention of drink driving by the use of alcolock device and program: Swedish experiences. Accident Analysis & Prevention (November 2005).
  46. ^ Williamson, Elizabeth. "Brain Immaturity Could Explain Teen Crash Rate", Washington Post, 2005-02-01. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen  
  47. ^ Castle& Kamya-Lukoda (July 2006). Review of Road Safety Good Practice in English Local Authorities (MS Word). TRL for Audit Commission. The Audit Commission is a Public corporation in the United Kingdom, established under the Local Government Finance Act 1982 to appoint auditors to all local

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