Canoe

This article is about the boat. For the activity, see Canoeing. Canoeing is the activity of paddling a Canoe for the purpose of recreation (also called a float trip Sport, or transportation. For other uses, see Canoe (disambiguation).

A wood-and-canvas canoe evokes the heritage of canoeing in North America.

A canoe is a small narrow boat, typically human-powered, though it may also be powered by sails or small electric or gas motors. A boat is a Watercraft of modest size designed to float or plane on water and provide transport over it Canoes usually are pointed at both bow and stern and are normally open on top, but can be covered.

In its human-powered form, the canoe is ordinarily propelled by the use of paddles, with the number of paddlers (most commonly two) dependent on the size of the canoe. A paddle is a tool used for pushing against Liquids either as a form of propulsion in a Boat or as an implement for mixing Paddlers face in the direction of travel, either seated on supports in the hull, or kneeling directly upon the hull. A hull is the body of a Ship or Boat. It is a central concept in floating vessels as it provides the Buoyancy that keeps the vessel from sinking Paddling can be contrasted with rowing, where the rowers face away from the direction of travel (though a wide canoe can be fitted with oarlocks and rowed). With regard to Watercraft, rowing is the act of propelling a boat using the motion of Oars in the water A rowlock (British or oarlock (US is a Brace that attaches an Oar to a boat. Paddles may be single-bladed or double-bladed. A paddle is a tool used for pushing against Liquids either as a form of propulsion in a Boat or as an implement for mixing

The oldest recovered canoe in the world is the canoe of Pesse. According to C14 dating analysis it has been constructed somewhere between 8200 and 7600 B. C. This canoe is exhibited in the Drents Museum in Assen, Netherlands. Assen ( is a Municipality and a City in the north eastern Netherlands, capital of the Province of Drenthe.

Sailing canoes (see Canoe Sailing) are propelled by means of a variety of sailing rigs. Canoe sailing refers to the practice of fitting a Polynesian Outrigger or a Western Canoe with Sails See also Log canoe, a type Common classes of modern sailing canoes include the 5 m² and the International 10 m² Sailing canoes. The latter is otherwise known as the International Canoe, and is one of the fastest and oldest competitively sailed boat classes in the western world. The log canoe of the Chesapeake Bay is in the modern sense not a canoe at all, though it evolved through the enlargement of dugout canoes. The log canoe is a type of Sailboat developed in the Chesapeake Bay region The Chesapeake Bay is the largest Estuary in the United States. A dugout is a Boat which is basically a hollowed tree trunk Other names for this type of boat are logboat and monoxylon.

Design and construction

Parts of a canoe

Bow
Stern
Hull
Seat (whitewater canoes may have a foam 'saddle' in place of a seat)
Thwart - a horizontal crossbeam near the top of the hull
Gunwale (pronounced gunnel) - the top edge of the hull
Deck (under which a flotation compartment or foam block may be located which prevent the canoe from sinking if capsized or swamped)

Optional features in modern canoes (not shown in diagram):

Yoke - a thwart across the center of the boat to allow one person to carry the canoe, sometimes molded to the shape of the shoulders. The bow (pronounced &mdashrhymes with how) is a nautical term that refers to the forward part of the hull of a Ship or Boat, The stern is the rear or aft part of a Ship or Boat, technically defined as the area built up over the Sternpost, extending upwards from the Counter A hull is the body of a Ship or Boat. It is a central concept in floating vessels as it provides the Buoyancy that keeps the vessel from sinking The gunwale (ˈɡʌnəl "gunnel" to rhyme with "tunnel" is a nautical term describing the top edge of the side of a Boat. The most general definition of foam is a substance that is formed by trapping many gas Bubbles in a Liquid or Solid. A yoke is a wooden beam which is used between a pair of Oxen to allow them to pull a load (oxen almost always work in pairs
Keel - a structural element that runs along the bottom of the canoe's hull, from the bow to the stern, serving as the foundation or spine of its structure and, depending on its depth, providing some directional control and stability. In boats and ships keel can refer to either of two parts a structural element or a hydrodynamic element
Flotation bags - inflatable air bags to prevent swamping the canoe in rapids
Spraydeck - a cover to prevent water entering the canoe

The portion of the hull between the waterline and the top of the gunwale is called the freeboard. A spraydeck (or spraycover or sprayskirt) is a flexible cover for a Boat, in particular for a Kayak or a Canoe.

Canoe materials

A Malecite birchbark canoe built by Henri Vaillancourt, who was made famous by John McPhee in his book, Survival of the Bark Canoe

The earliest canoes were made from natural materials:

Early canoes were wooden ^[1], often simply hollowed-out tree trunks (see dugout). Maliseet (or Wolastoqiyik) are a Wabanaki Native American / First Nations people who inhabit the Saint John River valley Birch bark or birchbark is generally understood to be the Bark of the Paper Birch tree ( Betula papyrifera) or sometimes of related species such John Angus McPhee (born March 8, 1931) is a Pulitzer Prize -winning writer widely considered one of the pioneers of narrative nonfiction Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs A dugout is a Boat which is basically a hollowed tree trunk Other names for this type of boat are logboat and monoxylon. This technology is still practiced in some parts of the world. Modern wooden canoes may be wood strip (also, "stripper"), wood-and-canvas, stitch-and-glue, glued plywood lapstrake, or birchbark built by dedicated artisans. Strip-built is a method of Boat building commonly used for Canoes and Kayaks but also suitable for larger Boats The process involves securing An artisan, also called a Craftsman, is a skilled manual worker who crafts items that may be functional or strictly decorative including furniture clothing Such canoes can be very functional, lightweight, and strong, and are frequently quite beautiful works of art.
Many indigenous peoples of the Americas built canoes of tree bark, sewn with tree roots and sealed with resin. For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. Bark, also known as periderm is the outermost layer of stems and Roots of Woody plants such as Trees It overlays the Wood and consists Resin, not to be confused with Rosin, is a Hydrocarbon Secretion of many Plants particularly coniferous trees. The indigenous people of the Amazon commonly used Hymenaea trees. Hymenaea L is a Genus in the Family Fabaceae ( Legume family Of fourteen living Plant Species In temperate North America, white cedar was used for the frame and bark of the Paper Birch for the exterior, with charcoal and fats mixed into the resin. Thuja occidentalis (Eastern Arborvitae Northern Whitecedar is an Evergreen coniferous Tree, in the cypress family Cupressaceae Betula papyrifera ( Paper Birch, also known as American White Birch and Canoe Birch) is a species of Birch native to northern Charcoal' is the blackish residue consisting of impure Carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from Animal and Vegetation A few modern canoe builders have revived and continued building birchbark canoes, including Henri Vaillancourt, Tom MacKenzie and Marcel Labelle.

Modern technology has expanded the range of materials available for canoe construction.

Wood-and-canvas canoes are made by fastening an external waterproofed canvas shell to a wooden hull formed with white cedar planks and ribs. Canvas is an extremely heavy-duty plain-woven fabric used for making Sails Tents Marquees Backpacks and other functions These canoes evolved directly from birchbark construction. The transition occurred in the 19th century, first, in Ontario, when canoe builders laid canvas instead of bark into a traditional building bed and, later, in Maine, when builders adapted English boat-building inverted-forms technology. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar In areas where birchbark either was scarce or where demand exceeded ready supply, other materials, such as canvas, had to be used as there had been success in patching birchbark canoes with canvas or cloth. Efforts were made in various locations to improve upon the bark design such as in Peterborough, Ontario, Canada where rib-and-plank construction was used by the Peterborough Canoe Company, and in Maine, in the U.S, where similar construction was used by various companies. Peterborough is a City on the Otonabee River in central-eastern Ontario, Canada, 125 kilometres Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The State of Maine ( is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Maine was the location of the development of commercial wood-and-canvas canoes. The State of Maine ( is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean E. H. Gerrish, of Bangor, is now recognized as the first person to produce wood-and-canvas canoes commercially, but other Maine builders soon followed, including, B. N. Morris, of Veazie, E. M. White, of Old Town, and, of course, the Gray family of the Old Town Canoe Co. In the adjoining Canadian province of New Brunswick, from the late 1800s until being disbanded in 1979, the Chestnut Canoe Company, along with the Old Town Canoe Company in Maine, became the pre-eminent producers of wood-and-canvas canoes. American President Teddy Roosevelt purchased Chestnut canoes for a South American expedition. Wood-and-canvas canoes have undergone a resurgence in recent years, spurred in part by the Wooden Canoe Heritage Association ^[2]. Builders abound, including Jerry Stelmok, Rollin Thurlow, Ken Solway, Joe Seliga, and many others. Joe Seliga ( 11 April 1911 &ndash 18 December 2005) was a master builder of wood-and-canvas Canoes in Ely Minnesota.
Aluminum canoes were first made by the Grumman company in 1944, when demand for airplanes for World War II began to drop off. WikipediaNaming The Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, later Grumman Aerospace Corporation, was a leading 20th century U Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Overview Fixed-wing aircraft range from small training and recreational aircraft to Wide-body aircraft and military cargo aircraft. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Aluminum allowed a lighter and much stronger construction than contemporary wood technology. However, a capsized aluminum canoe will sink unless the ends are filled with flotation blocks. Moreover, an aluminum canoe is extremely noisy, rendering it unsuitable for viewing wildlife. Wildlife includes all non-domesticated plants animals and other organisms
Plywood canoes are "stitched" together using cable-ties or copper wire, sealed with epoxy resin, or the inferior but cheaper polyester resin, and reinforced with glass fiber tape or cloth.
Composites of fiberglass, Kevlar and carbon fiber are used in synthetic canoe construction. Fiberglass (also called fibreglass and glass fibre see Spelling differences) is material made from extremely fine Fibers of Glass. Kevlar is the registered Trademark for a light strong para-aramid Synthetic fiber, related to other Aramids such as Nomex and Developed over 50 years ago, these materials are light, strong, and maneuverable. Easily portaged, these canoes allow experienced paddlers access to remote wilderness areas. While Kevlar and Carbon Fiber are generally very expensive, they are usually more durable than other materials. Fiberglass retains the lightweight, but cracks easily with impact. Fiberglass is, however, very easily repaired, unlike almost all other materials.
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene or ABS , trademarked as "Royalex," is another synthetic composite material that makes an extremely flexible and durable hull. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene or ABS, ( Chemical formula (C8H8· C4H6·C3H3Nn is Royalex is a Composite material, comprising an outer layer of Vinyl and hard Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene plastic (ABS and an inner layer of ABS foam Composite materials (or composites for short are engineered Materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical It is suitable, in particular, for whitewater canoes. ABS canoes have been known to pop back into their original shape with minimal creasing of the hull after having been wrapped around a rock in strong river currents. In the very unlikely event that they are punctured, they are however, very difficult to repair.
Polyethylene is a cheaper and heavier material used for synthetic canoe construction with the benefit of superior abrasion resistance, primarily found in whitewater canoes. Polyethylene or polythene ( IUPAC name poly(ethene) is a Thermoplastic commodity heavily used in consumer products (notably the Ram-X and Tripletough are the trademarks for Pelican/Coleman and Mad River respectively. This material too can be difficult to repair if punctured.

Depending on the intended use of a canoe, the various kinds have different advantages. For example, a wood-and-canvas canoe is more fragile than an aluminum canoe, and thus less suitable for use in rough water; but it is much quieter — thus better for observing wildlife. However, canoes made of natural materials require regular maintenance without which they lack durability. A Kevlar canoe is tough and also light, good for wilderness tripping. Modern hybrids can combine the elegance and style of traditional wooden canoes with such benefits as modern materials can provide.

Shape

Many canoes are symmetrical about the centerline, meaning their shape can be mirrored along the center. When trimmed level (rarely the case) they should handle the same whether paddling forward or backward. Many modern designs are asymmetrical, usually having the widest beam slightly farther aft which improves efficiency and promotes more level fore and aft trim. A further improvement may be found in canoes with a straighter hull profile aft and rocker forward which improves tracking.

A traditionally shaped canoe, like a voyageur canoe, will have a tall rounded bow and stern. A coureur des bois (runner of the woods was an individual who engaged in the Fur trade without permission from the French authorities Although tall ends tend to catch the wind, they serve the purpose of shedding waves in rough whitewater or ocean travel.

Some canoes are made with squared sterns — "Y", "V", or "U" shaped — in order to permit the mounting of outboard motors. Very large freighter canoes can be powered with powerful motors, but canoes that are 18 feet (5. 5 m) or less in length would normally be propelled by motors of 3 horsepower (2. 2 kW) or less. Side brackets can be mounted on canoes with pointed sterns to mount small outboard motors of about 1½ to 2 horsepower (1. 1–1. 5 kW), which propel such canoes with surprising speed.

Cross section

The shape of the hull's cross section significantly influences the canoe's stability under differing conditions. Flat-bottomed canoes generally have excellent initial stability, which diminishes rapidly with increased heel. Initial stability is the resistance of a Boat to a small amount of lateral tilting from its equilibrium position. Their high initial stability causes them to have a more abrupt motion in waves from the side.

For a given beam, a rounded-bottom canoe will have less initial stability than its flatter bottomed cousin. Round sections have lower surface area for a given volume and have less resistance through the water. They are most often associated with racing canoes.

In between the flat and rounded bottom are the more common shallow-arc and "V" bottom canoes which provide a compromise between performance and stability. The shallow-vee bottom, where the hull centerline forms a ridge like a shallow "V", will behave similar to a shallow-arc bottom but its volume to surface ratio is worse.

Similar is the tumblehome hull which has the top portion of the hull curving back in slightly.

Many modern canoes combine a variety of cross sections to suit the canoe's purpose.

Keels

Keels on canoes improve directional stability (the ability to 'track' in a straight line) but decrease the ability to turn quickly. Consequently, they are better suited for lake travel, especially when traveling on open water with crosswinds. Conversely, keels and "Vee"-bottoms are undesirable for whitewater because often quick turns are required. Whitewater is formed in a Rapid, when a River 's gradient drops enough to disturb its Laminar flow and create Turbulence, i

In aluminum canoes, small keels occur as manufacturing artifacts when the two halves of the hull are joined. In wood-and-canvas canoes, keels are rub-strips to protect the boat from rocks and as they are pulled up on shore. Plastic canoes feature keels to stiffen the hull and allow internal tubular framing to lie flush with the sole of the canoe.

Rocker

Curvature of the hull profile that rises up at the bow and stern is called "rocker". Increasing the rocker improves maneuverability at the expense of tracking. Specialized canoes for whitewater play have an extreme rocker and therefore allow quick turns and tricks. Rocker also has an immense effect on the stability of a Canadian canoe. By lifting the ends of the craft out of the water, rocker puts more of the wider center section of the boat into the water, contributing significantly to the overall stability of the craft. 35 mm rocker at each end makes all the difference to how safe a novice will feel in a canoe.

Gunwales

Modern cedar-strip canoes have gunwales which consist of an inner and outer parts called "inwales" and "outwales". These two parts of the gunwale give rigidity and strength to the hull. The inwale will often have "scuppers" or slots cut into the inwale to allow water to drain when the canoe hull is turned upside down for storing.

Types of canoes

In the past, people around the world have built very different kinds of canoes, ranging from simple dugouts to large outrigger varieties. A dugout is a Boat which is basically a hollowed tree trunk Other names for this type of boat are logboat and monoxylon. The outrigger canoe ( Tagalog and Indonesian: bangka; Maori: waka ama; Hawaiian: waʻa; Tahitian: More recently, technologically advanced designs have emerged for particular sports.

Traditional designs

Early canoes have always incorporated the natural materials available to the local people. The different canoes (or canoe like) in many parts of the world were:

Dugout	Formed of hollowed logs; may have outriggers in some cultures. A dugout is a Boat which is basically a hollowed tree trunk Other names for this type of boat are logboat and monoxylon. On the west coast of North America, large dugout canoes were used in the Pacific Ocean, even for whaling.
Birch-bark canoe	In the temperate regions of eastern North America, canoes were traditionally made of a wooden frame covered with bark of a birch tree, pitched to make it waterproof. Birch bark or birchbark is generally understood to be the Bark of the Paper Birch tree ( Betula papyrifera) or sometimes of related species such Pitch is the name for any of a number of highly viscous Liquids which appear Solid.
Voyageur canoe	Traditional voyageur canoes were similar to birch-bark canoes but larger and purpose built for the fur trade business, capable of carrying 12 to 20 passengers and 1,400 kilograms (3,100 lb) of cargo. The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal Fur.
Wood-and-canvas canoe	The wood-and-canvas canoe evolved in Maine in the late 19th century from the birchbark canoe when canvas became much easier to acquire than the bark of the white birch tree. The canoe shown here was built by the late well-known craftsman, Joe Seliga, of Ely, Minnesota. Joe Seliga ( 11 April 1911 &ndash 18 December 2005) was a master builder of wood-and-canvas Canoes in Ely Minnesota.

Modern designs

Modern canoe types are usually categorized by the intended use. Many modern canoe designs are hybrids (a combination of two or more designs, meant for multiple uses). The purpose of the canoe will also often determine the materials used. Most canoes are designed for either one person (solo) or two persons (tandem), but some are designed for more than two persons.

Touring canoe	Also known as tripping canoe. In North America, a "touring canoe" is a straight tracking boat good for wind blown lakes etc. A "tripping canoe" has a larger capacity for wilderness travel and is designed with more rocker for better maneuverability on whitewater rivers but requiring some skill on the part of the canoeist in open windy waters, when lightly loaded. Often made of lighter materials and built for comfort and cargo space; usually a more traditional design.
Prospector canoe	A generic name for copies of the famed Chestnut model, a popular type of tripping canoe marked by a symmetrical hull and a relatively large amount of rocker; giving a nice balance for wilderness tripping, of the ability to carry large amounts of gear whilst being maneuverable enough for whitewater. This makes it a superb large capacity wilderness boat, but requires skill on windy, broad waters when lightly loaded. Made in a variety of materials. For home construction, 4mm plywood is commonly used, mainly marine ply, using the "stitch and glue" technique. Commercially built canoes are commonly built of fibreglass, HDPE, Kevlar, Carbon Fiber, and Royalex which is although relatively heavy, very durable.
Long Distance Touring canoe	A cockpit has many advantages: the gunwale can be made lower and narrower so the paddler can reach the water more easily, and the rim of the boat can be higher keeping the boat dryer. With a rounded hull shape and full ends there is less for turbulent water to work on.
Whitewater canoe	Also known as river canoe - typically made of tough man-made materials, such as ABS or Kevlar, for strength; no keel and increased rocker for maneuverability; often extra internal lashing points are present to secure flotation bags, harness, and spraydeck. Some canoes are decked and look very much like a kayak, but are still paddled with the paddler in a kneeling position and with a single bladed paddle.
Playboating open canoe	A subgroup of whitewater canoes specialized for whitewater play and tricks or for competitive whitewater slalom. Playboating is a discipline of whitewater Kayaking or Canoeing where the paddler performs various technical moves in one place (a playspot as opposed to downriver Whitewater Slalom is a competitive sport where the aim is to navigate a decked Canoe or Kayak through a course of hanging gates on river rapids Some of these canoes are short in length and have such extreme rocker that they are also known as banana boats.
Square stern canoe	An asymmetrical canoe with a squared off stern for the mounting of an outboard motor; meant for lake travel or fishing. An outboard motor is a propulsion system for smaller Boats General uses Outboard motors for a Boat are developed as a self-contained
Racing canoe	Also known as sprint canoe - purpose-built racing canoe for use in racing on flat water. A sprint canoe is a special type of Canoe used in the sport of flatwater canoe racing. This article discusses flatwater racing (sprint and marathon racing, competitive forms of Canoeing and Kayaking on more or less flat water To reduce drag, they are built long and with a narrow beam, which makes them very unstable. In Fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called fluid resistance) is the force that resists the movement of a Solid object through a Fluid (a The beam of a ship is its width at the widest point or at the mid-point of its length A one-person sprint canoe is 5. 2 meters or 17 feet long. Sprint canoes are paddled kneeling on one knee, and only paddled on one side; in a C-1, the canoeist will have to j-stroke constantly to maintain a straight course. Marathon canoe races use a similar narrow boat.
Inflatable canoe	Similar in construction and materials to other inflatable boats but shaped like a canoe. An inflatable boat is a lightweight boat constructed with its sides and bow made of flexible tubes containing pressurised gas It is meant for serious whitewater and is usually difficult to use for flat water travel.
Outrigger canoe	A canoe with an attached float, called an outrigger (or ama), to provide stability. The outrigger canoe ( Tagalog and Indonesian: bangka; Maori: waka ama; Hawaiian: waʻa; Tahitian: An outrigger is a part of a boat's Rigging which is rigid and extends beyond the side or Gunwale of a boat Commonly used for racing.

Differences from other paddled boats

Kayak - A kayak differs from a canoe in that the kayak typically has a covered deck (an extension of the hull), a cockpit covered by a water-tight spraydeck, and is propelled by a sitting paddler with a double-bladed (one on each end) paddle (most canoeists use a single bladed paddle). A kayak is a small human-powered Boat. It typically has a covered deck and a cockpit covered by a Spraydeck. A double-bladed paddle allows for more efficient propulsion (higher stroke rate possible, etc. ), but is more difficult to use effectively in a wider craft (canoes tend to be wider than kayaks). The spraydeck (also known as a skirt) is used to seal the gap between the deck and the paddler, making it possible to recover from a capsize without flooding the interior of the hull with water. Canoeing is the activity of paddling a Canoe for the purpose of recreation (also called a float trip Sport, or transportation. The common definition for capsized refers to when a Boat or Ship is tipped over until disabled In some parts of the world kayaks are considered canoes, and open-decked canoes are called "Canadian canoes".
Rowboat - Not considered a canoe. With regard to Watercraft, rowing is the act of propelling a boat using the motion of Oars in the water It is propelled by oars resting in pivots on the gunwales or on 'riggers' that extend out from the boat. A rower may use one (sweep-oar) or two oars (sculling). A rower sits with his or her back toward the direction of travel. Some rowboats, such as a McKenzie River dory or a raft outfitted with a rowing frame are suitable for whitewater. The McKenzie dory or Rogue River dory or called by many a Drift Boat is an evolution of the open-water Dory, converted for use in rivers
Adirondack guideboat - a rowboat that has similar lines to a canoe. Adirondack guideboats were built since the early 1800s and evolved from a hunting skiff to today's highly refined design virtually unchanged since the late 1800s However the rower sits closer to the bilge and uses a set of pinned oars to propel the boat.
Dragon boat - while it handles similarly to and is paddled the same way as a large canoe, a dragon boat is not considered a canoe since its construction is markedly different. A dragon boat or "dragonboat" is a very long and narrow human-powered Boat now used in the team Paddling sport of dragon boat
Surfski - Similar to a kayak but the deck is completely sealed, with the padler sitting in moulded depressions in the deck. A surf ski is a long narrow lightweight Kayak with an open (sit-on-top cockpit usually with a foot pedal controlled Rudder. They are extremely fast and seaworthy - capable of being used for long distance racing in extreme offshore ocean conditions.

Use

Canoes have a reputation for instability, but this is not true if they are handled properly. For example, the occupants need to keep their center of gravity as low as possible. Canoes can navigate swift-moving water with careful scouting of rapids and good communication between the paddlers.

When two people occupy a canoe, they paddle on opposite sides. For example, the person in the bow (the bowman) might hold the paddle on the port side, with the left hand just above the blade and the right hand at the top end of the paddle. Port is the nautical term (used on Boats and Ships) that refers to the left side of a ship as perceived by a person on board the ship and The left hand acts mostly as a pivot and the right arm supplies most of the power. The sternman would paddle to starboard, with the right hand just above the blade and the left hand at the top. Starboard is the nautical term that refers to the right side of a vessel as perceived by a person on board a vessel and facing the bow (front For travel straight ahead, they draw the paddle from bow to stern, in a straight line parallel to the gunwale.

Tandem Canoe Steering

The paddling action of two paddlers will tend to turn the canoe toward the side opposite that on which the stern paddler is paddling. Thus, steering is very important, particularly because canoes have flat-bottomed hulls and are very responsive to turning actions. Steering techniques vary widely, even as to the basic question of which paddler should be responsible for steering.

Among experienced white water canoeists, the stern paddler is primarily responsible for steering the canoe, with the exception of two cases: The bow paddler will steer when avoiding rocks and other obstacles that the stern paddler cannot see. Also, in the case of back ferrying, the bow paddler is responsible for steering the canoe using small correctional strokes while back paddling with the stern paddler.

Among less-experienced canoeists, the canoe is typically steered from the bow. The advantage of steering in the bow is that the bow paddler can change sides more easily than the stern paddler. Steering in the bow is initially more intuitive than steering in the stern, because to steer to starboard, the stern must actually move to port. On the other hand, the paddler who does not steer usually produces the most forward power or thrust, and the greater source of thrust should be placed in the bow for greater steering stability. Thrust is a reaction force described quantitatively by Newton 's Second and Third Laws.

Paddle strokes

Paddle strokes are important to learn if the canoe is to move through the water in a safe and effective manner. Categorizing strokes makes learning them easier. After the strokes are mastered, they can be combined or modified so that maneuvers are accomplished in an efficient, effective, and skillful manner. Here are the primary strokes:

The cruising stroke or forward stroke is the easiest stroke and is considered to be the foundation of all the other strokes. The paddle blade is brought forward along the side of the canoe, dipped into the water, and drawn back. The paddle should be drawn straight back rather than following the gunwale's curvature. In a tandem canoe, it is used mainly by the bowman to simply propel the canoe forward without turning.
The back stroke is essentially the same movement as the forward stroke, but done in reverse. The back face of the blade is used in this case. This stroke is used to make the canoe go backward or to stop the canoe.
The J-stroke is so named because, when done on the port side, it resembles the letter J. It begins like a standard stroke, but towards the end the paddle is rotated and pushed away from the canoe with the power face of the paddle remaining the same throughout the stroke. This conveniently counteracts the natural tendency of the canoe to steer away from the side of the stern man's paddle. Advocates of steering in the stern of tandem canoes often use this stroke, and it is also used in reverse by the bowman while backpaddling or back ferrying in white water.
The Superior stroke is a less elegant but more effective stroke which is used in the stern of tandem canoes. It is more commonly referred to as the goon or rudder stroke. Unlike the J-stroke in which the side of the paddle pushing against the water during the stroke (the power face) is the side which is used to straighten the canoe, this stroke uses the opposite face of the paddle to make the steering motion. It is somewhat like a stroke with a small pry at the end of it. This stroke uses larger muscle groups, is preferable in rough water and is the one used in white water. It is commonly thought to be less efficient than the J-stroke when paddling long distances across relatively calm water.
The pitch stroke is the preferred stroke to go straight in a canoe with a good traveling speed, because this stroke tries to correct the yaw caused by the forward stroke almost on the same moment as it starts, where others correction strokes do it after the forward stroke, when there already is considerable yaw from the canoe.
The Indian stroke may be used to paddle a straight course like the J. It can be useful against strong winds or running rapids. Move the paddle forward, rotate the grip of the paddle in the palm of your upper hand. Then you are ready for the next power stroke without taking the blade out of the water. If done carefully, there is no sound from the paddle, making it possible to paddle in calm water without sound.
The pry stroke begins with the paddle inserted vertically in the water, with the power face outward, and the shaft braced against the gunwale. A gentle prying motion is applied, forcing the canoe in the opposite direction of the paddling side.
The push-away stroke has an identical purpose to the pry stroke, but is performed differently. Instead of bracing the paddle against the gunwale, the paddle is held vertically, as in the draw stroke, and pushed away from the hull. This is more awkward and requires more force than the pry, but has the advantage of preventing damage to the paddle and canoe due to rubbing on the gunwale. It also uses force more efficiently, since the paddle is pushing straight out, instead of up and out.
The running pry can be applied while the canoe is moving. As in the standard pry, the paddle is turned sideways and braced against the gunwale, but rather than forcing the paddle away from the hull, the paddler simply turns it at an angle and allows the motion of the water to provide the force.
The draw stroke exerts a force opposite to that of the pry. The paddle is inserted vertically in the water at arm's length from the gunwale, with the power face toward the canoe, and is then pulled inward to the paddler's hip. A draw can be applied while moving to create a running or hanging draw. For maximum efficiency, if multiple draw strokes are required, the paddle can be turned 90° and sliced through the water away from the boat between strokes. This prevent the paddler from having to lift the paddle out of the water and replace it for each stroke.
The scull, also known as a sculling draw is a more efficient and effective stroke where multiple draw strokes are required. Instead of performing repeated draw strokes, the paddle is "sculled" back and forth through the water. Beginning slightly in front of the paddler, the paddle is angled so that the power face points at a 45° angle toward the hull and astern. The paddle is drawn straight backward, maintaining the angle, and then the angle is rotated so that the power face is pointing 45° toward the hull and the bow. The paddle is pushed straight forward, and the whole process is repeated. The net effect is that the paddler's end of the canoe is drawn toward the paddling side.
The reverse scull (sometimes sculling pry or sculling push-away) is the opposite of the scull. The stroke is identical, but with the paddle angles reversed. The net effect is that the paddler's end of the canoe is pushed away from the paddling side.
The cross-draw stroke or cross-bow draw is a stroke that exerts the same vector of force as a pry, by moving the blade of the paddle to the other side of the canoe without moving the paddler's hands. The arm of bottom hand crosses in front of the bowman's body to insert the paddle in the water on the opposite side of the canoe some distance from the gunwale, facing towards the canoe, and is then pulled inward while the top hand pushes outward. The cross-draw is much stronger than the draw stroke, but normally can't be used by the stern paddler in a tandem canoe.
The sweep is unique in that it steers the canoe away from the paddle regardless of which end of the canoe it is performed in. The paddle is inserted in the water some distance from the gunwale, facing forward, and is drawn backward in a wide sweeping motion. The paddler's bottom hand is choked up to extend the reach of the paddle. In the case of the bowman, the blade will pull a quarter-circle from the bow to the paddler's waist. If in the stern, the paddler pulls from the waist to the stern of the canoe. Backsweeps are the same stroke done in reverse.
The C-stroke is used only in solo paddling, when the paddler is seated in the centre of the canoe. It is generally used to start the canoe moving in a straight line. With only one paddler, doing a simple bow stroke will cause the canoe to turn rapidly away from the paddling side. To counteract this, the paddler draws the paddle in a "C" shape, drawing in slightly in front of the paddler, pulling back as in a bow stroke, and then pushing away slightly behind the paddler, as in a J-stroke. This is opposite to a sweep. It serves the same purpose as a J-stroke (counteracting the natural turn of the canoe away from the paddling side), but provides more correction which is necessary when starting a solo canoe from a standstill or paddling in strong wind or current.

In tandem canoes, complementary strokes are selected by the bow and stern paddlers in order to safely and quickly steer the canoe. It is important that the paddlers remain in unison, particularly in white water, in order to keep the boat stable and to maximize efficiency.

There are some differences in techniques in how the above strokes are utilized.

One of these techniques involves locking or nearly locking the elbow, that is on the side of the canoe the paddle is, to minimize muscular usage of that arm to increase endurance. Another benefit of this technique is that along with using less muscle you gain longer strokes which results in an increase of the power to stroke ratio. This is generally used more with the 'stay on one side' method of paddling.
The other technique is generally what newer canoeists use and that is where they bend the elbow to pull the paddle out of the water before they have finished the stroke. This is generally used more with the 'switch sides often' method of paddling.
The stay on one side method is where each canoeist takes opposite sides and the stern man uses occasional J-strokes to correct direction of travel. The side chosen is usually the paddlers' stronger side, since this is more comfortable and less tiring. Some canoeists do, however, switch sides after twenty to thirty minutes or longer as a means of lessening muscle fatigue.
The switch sides often method (also called hit and switch, hut stroke, or Minnesota switch) allows the canoeists to switch sides frequently (usually every 5 to 10 strokes, on a vocal signal, commonly "hut") to maintain their heading. This method is the fastest one on flat water and is used by all marathon canoeists in the US and Canada. The method works well with bent-shaft paddles. Racer/designer Eugene Jensen is credited with the development of both "hit and switch" paddling and the bent shaft paddle.

Setting poles

On swift rivers, the stern man may use a setting pole. "Riverine" redirects here For the use of that term in Maritime geography, see there A setting pole is a pole, handled by a single individual made to move Watercraft by pushing the craft in the desired direction It allows the canoe to move through water too shallow for a paddle to create thrust, or against a current too quick for the paddlers to make headway. With skillful use of eddies, a setting pole can propel a canoe even against moderate (class III) rapids. In Fluid dynamics, an eddy is the swirling of a Fluid and the reverse current created when the fluid flows past an obstacle

Gunwale bobbing

A trick called "gunwale bobbing" or "gunwaling" allows a canoe to be propelled without a paddle. The canoeist stands on the gunwales, near the bow or the stern, and squats up and down to make the canoe rock backward and forward. This propulsion method is inefficient and unstable; additionally, standing on the gunwales can be dangerous. However, this can be turned into a game where two people stand one on each end, and attempt to cause the other to lose balance and fall into the water, while remaining standing themselves.

Image gallery

Spearing Salmon By Torchlight, an oil painting by Paul Kane	Canoe Manned by Voyageurs Passing a Waterfall (Ontario), oil painting by Frances Anne Hopkins	Ojibwe women in canoe on Leech Lake	A dugout canoe of pirogue type in the Solomon Islands
Antique Strip-built Canoes at the Adirondack Museum	Aluminum canoe, Upper Klamath Lake	Canoeing on the Shenandoah River, Winchester, Virginia	Canoes stored at Lake Harriet

External links

References

^ [1]
^ [2]

The Canoe, Its Selection, Care, and Use, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1914, by Robert E. Pinkerton
The Bark Cannoes and Skin Boats of North America, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D. C. , 1983, by Edwin Tappan Adney and Howard I. Chapelle
Pole, Paddle, & Portage, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1969, by Bill Riviere
The Complete Wilderness Paddler, ISBN 0-394-49347-8, by James West Davidson and Jon Rugge
North American Canoe Country, Macmillan Company, Toronto, 1964, by Calvin Rutstrum
Building the Maine Guide Canoe, ISBN 0-87742-120-X, by Jerry Stelmok
The Wood & Canvas Canoe, ISBN 0-88448-046-1, by Jerry Stelmok and Rollin Thurlow
The Survival of the Bark Canoe ISBN 0-374-27207-7, by John McPhee
Path of the Paddle ISBN 1-55209-328-X, by Bill Mason
Song of the Paddle ISBN 1-55209-089-2, by Bill Mason
Thrill of the Paddle ISBN 1-55209-451-0, by Paul Mason

Edwin Tappan Adney ( July 13, 1868 in Athens Ohio - October 10, 1950) was an artist a writer a photographer and the man credited Howard Irwing Chapelle (1901-1975 was curator of Maritime history at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington D John Angus McPhee (born March 8, 1931) is a Pulitzer Prize -winning writer widely considered one of the pioneers of narrative nonfiction Bill Mason was an award-winning Canadian Naturalist, author artist filmmaker and Conservationist, noted primarily for his popular Canoeing Paul Mason may refer to any of the following persons Paul Mason (journalist, British television news correspondent Paul Mason (author

Dictionary

-noun

A small long and narrow boat, propelled by one or more people (depending on the size of canoe), using single-bladed paddles. The paddlers face in the direction of travel, in either a seated position, or kneeling on the bottom of the boat. Canoes are open on top, and pointed at both ends.
(slang) An oversize, usually older, luxury car.

-verb

To ride or paddle a canoe.

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