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A caliphate, (from theArabic خلافة or khilaafah), is the Islamic form of government representing the political unity and leadership of the Muslim world. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Aqidah (sometimes spelled Aqeeda, Aqidah or Aqida) (عقيدة is an Islamic term meaning Creed. Allah ( Arabic: الله, ʔalˤːɑːh) is the standard Arabic word for ' In Islam, God is believed to be the only real supreme being all-powerful and all knowing Creator Sustainer Ordainer and Judge of the universe Islam puts a heavy emphasis IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Muslims regard as Prophets of Islam ( Arabic: نبي) those non-divine humans chosen by Allah as Prophets The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic أركان الإسلام is the term given to the five duties incumbent on every Muslim. The Shahada ( Arabic: ar الشهادة, from the verb ar شهد "to testify" is the Islamic Creed. Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and Sawm ( Arabic: صوم is an Arabic word for Fasting regulated by Islamic jurisprudence. This is a sub-article of Islamic economical jurisprudence. Zakaat ( زكاة zækæːh zakaat or zakāh, has the implied The Hajj (حج is a pilgrimage to Mecca (Makkah It is the largest annual pilgrimage in the world Muslim history began in Arabia with the Muhammad 's first recitations of the Qur'an in the 7th century Caliph Caliph is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam There is much more to Muslim history than its military and political aspects this particular chronology is almost entirely of military and political nature See also Muhammad's wives Ahl al-Bayt ( Arabic:ar أهل البيت is an Arabic phrase literally meaning People of the House, or family In Islam, the Ṣaḥābah (الصحابة "Companions" were the companions of the Islamic prophet Muḥammad. The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs ( ar الخلفاء الراشدون) is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first Imāmah (إمامة is the Shī‘ah doctrine of religious spiritual and political leadership of the Ummah. Qur'an Text Surahs ** Ayah Commentary/Exegesis Tafsir Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Muslim Culture is a term primarily used in Secular Academia to describe all cultural practices common to historically Islamic peoples The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings This is a sub-article to Religious education, Academic discipline, and Islam. This article is about Animals in Islamic thought The Qur'an assigns an inferior status to animals in comparison with humans and has a tendency towards Islamic art encompasses the arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar ( Arabic: التقويم الهجري at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری ‎ The topic of Islam and children includes the rights of children in Islam children's duties towards their parents and parent's rights over their children both males and females Listing of Muslims by country Important note Population counts by religious affiliation like most demographic characteristics of a Population Muslim holidays are mostly based around the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, especially the events surrounding the first hearing of the Qur'an. A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy ( Reason) and the religious teachings See also Modern Islamic philosophy, Islamism, Islamic terrorism Political aspects of Islam are derived from the Quran, the Sunna Over the centuries of Islamic history, Muslim rulers Islamic scholars, and ordinary Muslims have held many different attitudes towards other religions The historical interaction between Christianity and Islam, in the field of Comparative religion, connects fundamental ideas in Christianity with similar ones in Islam Hinduism and Islam, from the of arrival of the Arabs as far back as the eighth century AD has had a checkered history Islam and Jainism came in close contact with each other following the Islamic conquest from Central Asia and Persia in the seventh The historical interaction of Judaism and Islam started in the 7th century CE with the origin and spread of Islam in the Arabian peninsula. In Islam, Muhammad is the last and final Prophet of God Islam views Jews Christians and Muslims as " People of the Book Arguments critical to religion in general or specific to monotheism such as the Existence of God, are not dealt with here Islamophobia is a Neologism that refers to Prejudice or Discrimination against Islam or Muslims The term itself dates back to the The following list consists of Concepts that are derived from both Islamic and Arab tradition which are expressed as words in the Arabic language. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings The head of state's position (Caliph) is based on the notion of a successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad's political authority. The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Muslims regard as Prophets of Islam ( Arabic: نبي) those non-divine humans chosen by Allah as Prophets IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics

According to Sunnis he is ideally a member of the Quraysh tribe elected by Muslims or their representatives;^[1] and according to Shia Islam, an Imam descended in a line from the Ahl al-Bayt. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Quraish is also the name of a Surah in the Qur'an. Quraysh or Quraish (Arabic ar قريش An election is a Decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold formal office A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion An imam (إمام plural ائمة A'immah, امام is an Islamic leader often the leader of a Mosque and/or community See also Muhammad's wives Ahl al-Bayt ( Arabic:ar أهل البيت is an Arabic phrase literally meaning People of the House, or family From the time of Muhammad until 1924, successive and contemporary caliphates were held by various dynasties, including the Umayyads (who were driven from Damascus to Córdoba), the Abbasids (who ruled from Baghdad and drove away the Umayyads from Damascus), the Fatimids (who ruled from Cairo), and finally the Ottomans. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. The Ottoman Dynasty (or the Imperial House of Osman) ( Turkish: Osmanlı Hanedanı) ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1299 to 1922 beginning with

The caliphate is the only form of governance that has full approval in traditional Islamic theology, and "is the core political concept of Sunni Islam, by the consensus of the Muslim majority in the early centuries. Islamic theology is a branch of Islamic studies regarding the beliefs associated with the Islamic faith "^[2]

Contents 1 History 1.1 Rashidun, 632-661 1.2 Umayyads, 7th-8th century 1.2.1 The Caliphate in Hispania 1.3 Abbasids, 8th-13th century 1.4 Shadow Caliphate, 13th-16th century 1.5 Ottomans, 16th-20th century 1.6 Khilafat Movement, 1920 1.7 End of Caliphate, 1924 1.8 Ahmadiyya Caliphate, 1908-present 2 Religious Basis 2.1 Quran 2.2 Hadith 2.3 The Sahaba of Muhammad 2.4 The sayings of Islamic scholars 3 Reestablishment 3.1 Islamist call 3.2 Opposition 4 Political system 4.1 Electing or appointing a Caliph 4.2 Shi'a belief 4.3 Sunni belief 4.4 Majlis al-Shura: Parliament 4.5 Accountability of rulers 4.6 Rule of Law 5 Famous caliphs 6 Further reading 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links

History

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The caliph, or head of state, was often known as Amir al-Mu'minin (أمير المؤمنين) "Commander of the Believers", Imam al-Ummah, Imam al-Mu'minīn (إمام المؤمنين), or more colloquially, leader of all the Muslims. Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the An academic discipline or field of study is a branch of Knowledge which is taught or Researched at the college or university level This is a sub-article to Religious education, Academic discipline, and Islam. This is a sub-article of Fiqh and Law and economics. Islamic economics is Economics in accordance with Islamic law See also Modern Islamic philosophy, Islamism, Islamic terrorism Political aspects of Islam are derived from the Quran, the Sunna See also Modern Islamic philosophy, Islamism, Islamic terrorism Political aspects of Islam are derived from the Quran, the Sunna Islamic leadership|Ja'fari jurisprudence Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists ( Arabic: ولاية الفقيه, Persian: ولایت فقیه Bay'ah ( Arabic: بَيْعَة) literally means to sell, in Islamic terminology it is an Oath of allegiance to a leader A dhimmi ( ذمي, collectively أهل الذمة, ahl al-dhimma, the people of the dhimma or pact of protection Ottoman Turkish In Islamic law Marriage ("ʿurs" عرس is a legal bond and Social contract between a man and a woman as prompted by the Shari'a. This is a sub-article of Fiqh and Criminal law. Islamic criminal law (فقه العقوبات is Criminal law in accordance This is a sub-article of Islamic jurisprudence and Etiquette. This is a sub-article to Islamic jurisprudence and Islamic theology. This is a sub-article to Fiqh and Hygiene Hygiene is a prominent topic in Islam. Islamic military jurisprudence consists of the basic laws governing the conduct of the military aspects of Jihad (also known as "lesser Jihad " Head of state is the generic term for the individual or collective office that serves as the chief public representative of a Monarchic or Republican Nation-state Amir al-Mu'minin ( Arabic أمير المؤمنين Latinized as Miramolinus hence Italian Miramolino usually translated Commander of the Faithful Ummah (أمة is an Arabic word meaning Community or Nation. It is commonly used to mean either the collective nation of states, or (in the Each member state (Sultanate, Wilayah, or Emirate) of the Caliphate had its own governor (Sultan, Wali or Emir). Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings A wilāyah (ولاية or vilâyet (in Persian and Ottoman Turkish) is an administrative division usually An emirate is a political territory that is ruled by a dynastic Arab Monarch styled Emir. Wali (Arabic ولي, plural Awliya ' أولياء) is an Arabic word meaning trusted one or friend generally denoting Emir ( Arabic: ar أمير;, female أميرة; emira;) ( Farsi and Urdu: امیر) Dar al-Islam (دار الإسلام lit. The house of divisions in Islam such as "Dar al-Islam" and "Dar al-Harb" does not appear in the Koran or the Hadith. land of Islam) was referred to as any land under the rule of the caliphate, including a land populated by non-Muslims and land not under rule of the caliphate was referred to as Dar al-Kufr (lit. The house of divisions in Islam such as "Dar al-Islam" and "Dar al-Harb" does not appear in the Koran or the Hadith. land of non-Islam), even if its inhabitants were Muslims, because they were not citizens under Sharia (Islamic law). Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. The first capital of the Caliphate after Muhammad died was in Medina. Medina mɛˈdiːnə (المدينة المنورة ælmæˈdiːnæl muˈnɑwːɑrɑ or المدينة ælmæˈdiːnæ also transliterated into English as At times in Muslim history there have been rival claimant caliphs in different parts of the Islamic world, and divisions between the Shi'a and Sunni parts. Muslim history began in Arabia with the Muhammad 's first recitations of the Qur'an in the 7th century

The first four caliphs, celebrated as the Rashidun (The Rightly Guided Caliphs), were Muhammad's Sahaba (companions); Abu Bakr, then Umar (Umar ibn al-Khattab), then Uthman Ibn Affan, and the fourth was Ali (Ali ibn Abi Talib). The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs ( ar الخلفاء الراشدون) is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first In Islam, the Ṣaḥābah (الصحابة "Companions" were the companions of the Islamic prophet Muḥammad. Early life Abu Bakr was born at Mecca some time in the year 573 CE, in the Banu Taym branch of the Quraysh tribe Umar (a=عمر بن الخطاب|t=`Umar ibn al-Khattāb c 581-83 CE &ndash 7 November, 644) also known as Umar the Great or Omar the Great Early life Uthman was born in Ta’if, which is situated on a hill and the presumption is that Uthman was born during the summer months since wealthy Meccans ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (a=علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب|t=ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib 13th Rajab, 24 BH – 21st Ramaḍān, 40 AH Sunni Muslims consider Abu-Bakr to be the first legitimate Caliph, Shi'a consider Ali to have been the first truly legitimate Caliph, although they concede that Ali accepted his predecessors, because he eventually sanctioned Abu-Bakr. ^[3]

After the first four caliphs, the Caliphate was claimed by the dynasties such as Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Ottomans, and for relatively short periods by other, competing dynasties in al-Andalus, North Africa, and Egypt. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk officially abolished the last Caliphate, the Ottoman Empire, and founded the Republic of Turkey, in 1924. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (19 May 1881 &ndash 10 November 1938 was an army officer revolutionary Statesman Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The Kings of Morocco still label themselves with the title Amir al-Mu'minin for Moroccans, but lay no claim to the Caliphate. This is a partial list of rulers in Morocco, including the historical precursors to the modern state Most Moroccans are Sunni Muslims of Berber, Arab or mixed Arab-Berber stock

Rashidun, 632-661

Main articles: Rashidun and Muslim conquests

Abu Bakr, the first successor of Muhammad, nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed, and there was consensus in the Muslim community to his choice. The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs ( ar الخلفاء الراشدون) is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732 (فتح Fatah, literally opening, also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab Consensus has two common meanings One is a general agreement among the members of a given group or Community, each of which exercises some discretion in His successor, Uthman Ibn Affan, was elected by a council of electors (Majlis), but was soon perceived by some to be ruling as a "king" rather than an elected leader. Elected is the latest EP by Dutch Progressive metal project Ayreon. Majlis (also spelled Majalis or Mejlis, Arabic مجلس is an Arabic term meaning "a place of sitting" used to describe various types of formal Uthman was killed by members of a disaffected group. Ali then took control, and although very popular, he was not universally accepted as caliph by the governors of Egypt, and later by some of his own guard. He had two major rebellions and was assassinated after a tumultuous rule of only five years. This period is known as the Fitna, or the first Islamic civil war. The First Islamic Civil War (656–661 also called the First Fitna (a=فتنة مقتل عثمان|t=Fitnah Maqtal Uthmān was the first major Civil

Muawiyah, a relative of Uthman, and governor (Wali) of Syria became one of Ali's challengers. Mu'awiyah I (a=معاوية بن أبي سفيان|t=Mu‘āwīyah ibn Abī Sufyān 602-680 was a Sahaba (companion of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية After Ali's death, Muawiyah managed to overcome other claimants to the Caliphate. Under Muawiyah, the caliphate became a hereditary office for the first time. He founded the Umayyad dynasty. A dynasty is a succession of rulers who belong to the same family for generations

In areas which were previously under Persian or Byzantine rule, the Caliphs lowered taxes, provided greater local autonomy, greater religious freedom for Jews, indigenous Christians, and brought peace to peoples demoralized and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the years of Byzantine-Persian warfare. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth ^[4]

Umayyads, 7th-8th century

Main article: Umayyad

Under the Umayyads the Caliphate grew rapidly geographically. Islamic rule expanded westward across North Africa and into Hispania and eastward through Persia and ultimately to Sindh and Punjab in modern day Pakistan. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar Sindh ( Sindhī: سنڌ Urdu: سندھ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and This made it one of the largest unitary states in history and one of the few states to ever extend direct rule over three continents (Africa, Europe, and Asia). A continent is one of several large Landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by Convention rather than any strict criteria with seven regions Although not ruling all of the Sahara, homage was paid to the Caliph by Saharan Africa usually via various nomad Berber tribes. The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley.

Largely due to the fact that they were not elected via Shura, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within the Muslim community. Shura is an ( Arabic شورَى | شورا word for "consultation" Some supported prominent early Muslims like Al-Zubayr; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim, or his own lineage, the descendants of Ali, should rule. Abu ‘Abd Allah Zubayr ibn al-Awwam (أبو عبدالله زبير ابن العوام was a Sahabi, or companion of Muhammad. Banū Hāshim (Arabic بنو هاشم) was a clan in the Quraish tribe There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between Yaman and Qays). Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hisham and the supporters of the lineage of Ali united to bring down the Umayyads in 750. However, the Shiˤat ˤAlī, "the Party of Ali", were again disappointed when the Abbasid dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle, `Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib and not from Ali. `Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib ( ar العباس بن عبد المطلب) (c Following this disappointment, the Shiˤat ˤAlī finally split from the majority Sunni Muslims and formed what are today the several Shiˤa denominations.

The Umayyad Caliphate emerged as the rulers of the Islamic world. Although they maintained the Sasanians' administrative practices, the Umayyads considered Islam as primarily an Arab religion and were wary of Persian culture. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding They enforced use of the Arabic language in Persia, leading to the demise of the Middle Persian or Pahlavi alphabet in favor of the new Arabic/Persian alphabet in use to this day. Middle Persian is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times (224-654 CE became a Prestige dialect The Arabic alphabet is the script used for writing several languages of Asia and Africa such as Arabic, Persian, and Urdu. The Perso-Arabic script is a Writing system that is based on the Arabic alphabet. They attempted to assimilate Persians as they had "Arabized" and assimilated the Egyptians and the Assyrians, but with much less success. This article is about the contemporary North African ethnic group The Assyrians are an Ethnic group whose origins lie in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria. ^[5]

The Caliphate in Hispania

Main article: Caliph of Córdoba

During the Ummayad period Hispania was an integral province of the Ummayad Caliphate ruled from Damascus, Syria. The Caliphate of Córdoba (Arabic خلافة قرطبة ruled the Iberian peninsula ( Al-Andalus) and North Africa from the city of Later the caliphate was won by the Abbasids and Al-Andalus (or Hispania) split from the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad to form their own caliphate. The Caliphate of Córdoba (خليفة قرطبة) ruled the Iberian Peninsula from the city of Córdoba, from 929 to 1031. The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra This period was characterized by remarkable success in technology, trade and culture; many of the masterpieces of Spain were constructed in this period, including the famous Great Mosque of Córdoba. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The Mezquita (Spanish for " Mosque " of Cordoba is a Roman Catholic Cathedral and former mosque situated in the Andalusian city of Córdoba The title Caliph (خليفة) was claimed by Abd-ar-Rahman III on January 16, 929; he was previously known as the Emir of Córdoba (أمير قرطبة). Abd-ar-Rahman III ( ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh; Arabic: عبد الرحمن الثالث January 11 889 – October Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate. This article is about the year For the automobile see Mazda 929. All Caliphs of Córdoba were members of the Umayyad dynasty; the same dynasty had held the title Emir of Córdoba and ruled over roughly the same territory since 756. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula, before it split into taifas. A taifa (from طائفة ṭā'ifa, plural طوائف ṭawā'if) in the history of Iberia was an independent Muslim -ruled principality Spain possessed a significant native Muslim population until 1610 with the success of the Catholic-instigated Spanish Inquisition, which expelled any remnants of Spanish Muslim (Morisco) or Jewish populations. The Spanish Inquisition started and was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile to maintain A morisco (Spanish " Moor -like" or mourisco (Portuguese was any Muslim of Spain or Portugal

Abbasids, 8th-13th century

Main article: Abbasid

The Abbasids had an unbroken line of Caliphs for over three centuries, consolidating Islamic rule and cultivating great intellectual and cultural developments in the Middle East. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. By 940 the power of the Caliphate under the Abbasids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the Berbers of North Western Africa, the Turkish, and later the Mamluks in Egypt in the latter half of the 13th century, gained influence, and sultans and emirs became increasingly independent. The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family However, the Caliphate endured as both a symbolic position and a unifying entity for the Islamic world.

During the period of the Abassid dynasty, Abassid claims to the caliphate did not go unchallenged. The Shiˤa Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah of the Fatimid dynasty, which claimed descendency of Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of Caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah aka Said ibn Husayn (عبيد الله بن الحسين المهدي is considered the founder of the Fatimid dynasty the only Initially covering Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and Palestine, before the Abbassid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting Fatimid rule to Egypt. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171. The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over the Muslim provinces of Spain, reclaimed the title of Caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031.

Shadow Caliphate, 13th-16th century

1258 saw the conquest of Baghdad and the execution of Abbasid caliph al-Musta'sim by Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan. Al-Musta'sim Billah (Arabic المستعصم بالله (full name al-Musta'sim-Billah Abu-Ahmad Abdullah bin al-Mustansir-Billah) (1213 &ndash February 20 This article is about the founder of the Ilkhanate For the head of the Chagatai khanate please see Qara Hülëgü Hulagu Khan, also known as A surviving member of the Abbasid House was installed as Caliph at Cairo under the patronage of the Mamluk Sultanate three years later; however, the authority of this line of Caliphs was confined to ceremonial and religious matters, and later Muslim historians referred to it as a "shadow" Caliphate.

Ottomans, 16th-20th century

Main article: Ottoman Caliphate

Ottoman rulers were known primarily by the title of Sultan and used the title of Caliph only sporadically. Mehmed II and his grandson Selim I used it to justify their conquest of Islamic countries. Selim I ( Ottoman: سليم الأول, Turkish: ISelim; also known as "the Grim" or "the Brave" Yavuz in As the Ottoman Empire grew in size and strength, Ottoman rulers beginning with Selim I began to claim Caliphal authority.

Ottoman rulers used the title "Caliph" symbolically on many occasions but it was strengthened when the Ottoman Empire defeated the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517 and took control of most Arab lands. The last Abbasid Caliph at Cairo, al-Mutawakkil III, was taken into custody and was transported to Istanbul, where he reportedly surrendered the Caliphate to Selim I. Muhammad al-Mutawakkil III (died 1543 (محمد المتوكل على الله reigned 1509 to 1516 and again in 1517 was the last Caliph of the later Egyptian Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey According to Barthold, the first time the title of "Caliph" was used as a political instead of symbolic religious title by the Ottomans was the peace treaty with Russia in 1774. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The outcome of this war was disastrous for the Ottomans. Large territories, including those with large Muslim populations, such as Crimea, were lost to the Russian Empire. Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya However, the Ottomans under Abdul Hamid I claimed a diplomatic victory by assigning themselves the protectors of Muslims in Russia as part of the peace treaty. Abdülhamid I ( Ottoman Turkish: عبد الحميد اول `Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i evvel) ( March 20, 1725 April 7, 1789 This was the first time the Ottoman caliph was acknowledged as having political significance outside of Ottoman borders by a European power. As a consequence of this diplomatic victory, as the Ottoman borders were shrinking, the powers of the Ottoman caliph increased.

Around 1880 Sultan Abdul Hamid II reasserted the title as a way of countering the spread of Russian colonialism in Muslim lands. Abdülhamid II His Imperial Majesty Sultan of the Ottoman Empire ( Ottoman Turkish: عبد الحميد ثانی `Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i sânî, İkinci Abdülhamit See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism His claim was most fervently accepted by the Muslims of British India. For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British By the eve of the First World War, the Ottoman state, despite its weakness vis-à-vis Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All But the sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south

Khilafat Movement, 1920

Main article: Khilafat Movement

See also: Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire

In the 1920s the Khilafat Movement, a movement to defend the Ottoman Caliphate, spread throughout the British colonial territories in Asia. The Khilafat movement (1919-1924 was a political campaign launched mainly by Muslims in South Asia to influence the British government and to protect the The Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was a political event that occurred after World War I. The Khilafat movement (1919-1924 was a political campaign launched mainly by Muslims in South Asia to influence the British government and to protect the It was particularly strong in British India, where it formed a rallying point for Indian Muslims and was the one of the many anti-British Indian political movements to enjoy widespread support. Its leaders included Maulana Mohammad Ali, his brother Shawkat Ali, and Abul Kalam Azad, Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, and Hasrat Mohani. Note: Do not confuse with Maulana Muhammad Ali Lahori Muhammad Ali (the Muslim boxer or any other people named Muhammad Ali see Muhammad Ali (disambiguation Maulana Abul Kalam Muhiyuddin Ahmed (11 November 1888 &ndash 22 February 1958 was a Muslim scholar and a senior political leader of the Indian independence Dr Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari was an Indian nationalist and political leader and former president of the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League during the Maulana Hasrat Mohani ( Urdu: مولانا حسرت موہانی) (1875 – 1951 was a romantic poet of Urdu language journalist politician parliamentarian For a time it worked in alliance with Hindu communities and was supported by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi who was a member of the Central Khilafat Committee. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January ^[6][7] However, the movement lost its momentum after the arrest or flight of its leaders, and a series of offshoots splintered off from the main organization.

End of Caliphate, 1924

Further information: Atatürk's Reforms

On March 3, 1924, the first President of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as part of his reforms, constitutionally abolished the institution of the Caliphate. Atatürk's Reforms ( Turkish: Atatürk Devrimleri or Atatürk İnkılapları) were a series of significant political legal cultural social and economic Events 1284 - Statute of Rhuddlan incorporated the Principality of Wales into England 1575 - Indian Year 1924 ( MCMXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This is a complete list of Presidents of Turkey consisting of the eleven Heads of state in the country's inception following the Turkish War of Independence Atatürk's Reforms ( Turkish: Atatürk Devrimleri or Atatürk İnkılapları) were a series of significant political legal cultural social and economic Its powers within Turkey were transferred to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (parliament) of the newly formed Turkish Republic and the title has since been inactive. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi - TBMM, usually referred to simply as Meclis - "the Parliament" is the Unicameral

Scattered attempts to revive the Caliphate elsewhere in the Muslim world were made in the years immediately following its abandonment by Turkey, but none were successful. Hussein bin Ali, the Sharif of Mecca, the title of the former governors of the Hejaz, who aided the British during World War I and revolted against Istanbul, declared himself Caliph two days after Turkey relinquished the title. Sayyid Hussein bin Ali, GCB (1854 &mdash June 4, 1931) ( حسین بن علی; Ḥusayn bin ‘Alī) was the Sharif The Sharif of Mecca ( Arabic:شريف مكة or Sharif of Hejaz ( Arabic:شريف الحجاز was the title of the former al-Hejaz (also Hijaz, Hedjaz; الحجاز al-Ḥiǧāz, literally "the barrier" is a region in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 But his claim was largely ignored, and he was soon ousted and driven out of Arabia by Ibn Saud, a rival who had no interest in the Caliphate. The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) King Saud King Faisal Mohammed King Khaled Nasr Saad The last Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI made a similar attempt to re-establish himself as Caliph in the Hejaz after leaving Turkey, but he was also unsuccessful. Mehmed VI ( Turkish: Mehmed Vahideddin or Mehmet Vahdettin) ( January 14 1861 May 16 1926) was the 36th and A summit was convened at Cairo in 1926 to discuss the revival of the Caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate and no action was taken to implement the summit's resolutions.

Though the title Ameer al-Mumineen was adopted by the King of Morocco and Mullah Mohammed Omar, former head of the now-defunct Taliban regime of Afghanistan, neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside the borders of their respective countries. Mullah ( ملا) is a Muslim learned in Islamic theology and sacred law Mullah Mohammed Omar ( Pashto: ملا محمد عمر (born c The Taliban ( طالبان, also anglicised as Taleban; translation "students" is a Sunni Islamist, predominately Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, The closest thing to a Caliphate in existence today is the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC), an international organization with limited influence founded in 1969 consisting of the governments of most Muslim-majority countries. The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC is an International organization with a permanent delegation to the United Nations.

Ahmadiyya Caliphate, 1908-present

Main article: Khalifatul Masih

The Ahmadiyya movement was founded in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, India, who claimed to be the promised Messiah and Mahdi, the one awaited by followers of all major religions. Khalifatul Masih or Khalifat-ul Masih (Successor of the Messiah sometimes simply referred to as Khalifah or Caliph is the title given to the elected spiritual Ahmadiyya ( احمدیہ Ahmadiyya) is a movement that arose out of mainstream Islam towards the end of the 19th century Mirza Ghulām Ahmad of Qadian ( ميرزا غلام احمد) ( February 13, 1835 – May 26, 1908 CE Shawal 14 1250 – WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Qadian (ਕਾਦਿਆਂ) is a small town and a Municipal council in Gurdaspur District, This article is about the concept of a Messiah in religion notably in the Christian Islamic and Jewish traditions In Islamic eschatology the Mahdi ( ar مهدي, also Mehdi; "Guided One" is the prophesied redeemer of Islam who will stay on earth After his demise in 1908, his first successor, Maulvi Hakeem Noor-ud-Din became head of the community and assumed the title of caliph. The line of successors continues to this day, the current head being Mirza Masroor Ahmad, residing in London. Mirza Masroor Ahmad (born September 15, 1950) is the supreme head of the worldwide Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. From the outset the Ahmadiyya community has been viewed as heretical by other Muslim groups due to the founder's claim to prophethood. Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief Muslims hold the view that Muhammad was the final rasul (prophet) and no apostle can come after him, as is stated in the Qur'an that he is the seal of the prophets. In Islam, a rasul ( Arabic: رسول, "messenger" plural rusul) is a Prophet sent by God with a In Religion, a prophet (or prophetess) is a person who has encountered the Supernatural or the divine and serves as an intermediary The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Ahmadis however call themself Muslims and claim to practice Islam in its pristine form.

Although the Ahmadiyya caliphate is not recognised by mainstream Islam, the community continues to operate under this structure, with the caliph having overall authority for all religious and organisational matters. According to Ahmadiyya thought, it is not essential for a Caliph to be the head of a state, rather the spiritual and religious significance of the Caliphate is emphasised. Ahmadis believe that the Ahmadiyya Caliphate is the re-establishment of the Rashidun Caliphate (The Rightly Guided Calphs). The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs ( ar الخلفاء الراشدون) is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first

Religious Basis

Quran

The following excerpt from the Qur'an, known as the 'The Istikhlaf Verse', forms the basis of the Quranic concept of Caliphate:

"Allah has promised to those among you who believe and do good works that He will surely make them Successors (Khalifas) in the earth, as He made Successors (Khalifas) from among those who were before them; and that He will surely establish for them their religion which He has chosen for them; and that He will surely give them in exchange security and peace after their fear: They will worship Me, and they will not associate anything with Me. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Allah ( Arabic: الله, ʔalˤːɑːh) is the standard Arabic word for ' Then who so is ungrateful after that, they will be the rebellious. "[24:55] (Surah Al-Nur, Verse 55)

Sunni's argue that to govern a state by Islamic law (Shariah) is, by definition, to rule via the Caliphate, and use the following verses to sustain their claim. Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law.

So govern between the people by that which God has revealed (Islam), and follow not their vain desires, beware of them in case they seduce you from just some part of that which God has revealed to you

—^{[Qur'an 004:049]}

O you who believe! Obey God, and obey the messenger and then those among you who are in authority; and if you have a dispute concerning any matter, refer it to God and the messenger's rulings, if you are (in truth) believers in God and the Last Day. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran That is better and more seemly in the end.

—^{[Qur'an 004:059]}

Hadith

The following Hadith from Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal prophesies two eras of Caliphate (both on the lines/precepts of prophethood). The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal is the collection of Hadith collected by the famous Sunni Scholar Ibn Hanbal to whom the Hanbali

"Hadhrat Huzaifa narrated that the Messenger of Allah said: Prophethood will remain among you as long as Allah wills. Then Caliphate (Khilafat) on the lines of Prophethood shall commence, and remain as long as Allah wills. Then corrupt/erosive monarchy would take place, and it will remain as long as Allah wills. After that, despotic kingship would emerge, and it will remain as long as Allah wills. Then, the Caliphate (Khilafat) shall come once again based on the precept of Prophethood. " ^[8]

In the above Hadith the first era of Caliphate is commonly accepted by the Muslims as that of the Rashidun.

Nafi'a reported saying:

Umar said to me that he heard Muhammad saying: Whoever takes away his hand from allegiance to God will meet Him on the Day of Resurrection without having any proof for him, and whoever dies whilst there was no baya'a on his neck (to a Caliph), he dies a death in the days of ignorance (Jahilliya).

Hisham ibn Urwah reported on the authority of Abu Saleh on the authority of Abu Hurairah that Muhammad said:

Leaders will take charge of you after me, where the pious (one) will lead you with his piety and the impious (one) with his impiety, so only listen to them and obey them in everything which conforms with the truth (Islam). Hisham ibn Urwah was a prominent narrator of hadith, son of Urwah ibn al-Zubayr, grandson of Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and Asma bint Abu Bakr. Abu Hurairah ( أبو هريرة) (also known as `Abd al-Rahman ibn Sakhr Al-Azdi ( عبدالرحمن بن صخر الأذدي) Abu Hurayrah If they act rightly it is for your credit, and if they acted wrongly it is counted for you and against them.

Muslim narrated on the authority of al-A'araj, on the authority of Abu Hurairah, that Muhammad said:

Behold, the Imam (Caliph) is but a shield from behind whom the people fight and by whom they defend themselves.

Muslim reported on the authority of Abdel Aziz al-Muqrin, who said,

I accompanied Abu Hurairah for five years and heard him talking of Muhammd's saying: The Prophets ruled over the children of Israel, whenever a Prophet died another Prophet succeeded him, but there will be no Prophet after me. Abdel Aziz Issa Abdul-Mohsin al-Muqrin ( عبد العزيز عيسى عبد المحسن المقرن) (or Abd al-Aziz al-Moqrin or other Transliterations alias There will be Khalifahs and they will number many. They asked: What then do you order us? He said: Fulfil the baya'a to them one after the other and give them their due. Surely God will ask them about what He entrusted them with.

The Sahaba of Muhammad

Al-Habbab Ibn ul-Munthir said, when the Sahaba met in the wake of the death of Muhammad, (at the thaqifa hall) of Bani Sa’ida:

Let there be one Amir from us and one Amir from you (meaning one from the Ansar and one from the Mohajireen). Saqifah, also known as "Saqifa Bani Saeda" or Saqifat Bani Sa'ida was a roofed building used by the tribe or banu of Sa'ida of the faction of the Khazraj, of the

Upon this Abu Bakr replied:

It is forbidden for Muslims to have two Amirs (rulers). . .

Then he got up and addressed the Muslims. ^{[9][10][11][12][13][14]}

It has additionally been reported^[15] that Abu Bakr went on to say on the day of Al-Saqifa:

It is forbidden for Muslims to have two Amirs for this would cause differences in their affairs and concepts, their unity would be divided and disputes would break out amongst them. The Sunnah would then be abandoned, the bida’a (innovations) would spread and Fitna would grow, and that is in no one’s interests. In Islam, bid‘ah ( is any type of Innovation. Though innovations in worldly matters are acceptable to an extent innovation within the religion is seen as a sin

The Sahaba agreed to this and selected Abu Bakr as their first Khaleef. Habbab ibn Mundhir who suggested the idea of two Ameers corrected himself and was the first to give Abu Bakr the Bay'ah. Bay'ah ( Arabic: بَيْعَة) literally means to sell, in Islamic terminology it is an Oath of allegiance to a leader This indicates an Ijma as-Sahaba of all of the Sahaba. Ali ibni abi Talib, who was attending the body of Muhammad at the time, also consented to this.

Imam Ali whom the Shia revere said^[16]:

People must have an Amir. . . where the believer works under his Imara (rule) and under which the unbeliever would also benefit, until his rule ended by the end of his life (ajal), the booty (fay’i) would be gathered, the enemy would be fought, the routes would be made safe, the strong one will return what he took from the weak till the tyrant would be contained, and not bother anyone.

The sayings of Islamic scholars

Al-Mawardi says^[17]:

It is forbidden for the Ummah (Muslim world) to have two leaders at the same time. Abu al-Hasan Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn Habib al-Mawardi, known in Latin as Alboacen (972-1058 CE was an Arab Muslim jurist of the Shafii

Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi (Al-Nawawi) says^[18]:

It is forbidden to give an oath to two leaders or more, even in different parts of the world and even if they are far apart. Abu Zakaria Mohiuddin Yahya Ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi (1234 - 1278 ( Arabic:أبو زكريا يحيى بن شرف النووي popularly known as al-Nawawi,

Ahmad al-Qalqashandi says^[19]:

It is forbidden to appoint two leaders at the same time. Shihab al-Din abu 'l-Abbas Ahmad ben Ali ben Ahmad Abd Allah al-Qalqashandi (1355 or 1356 &ndash 1418 was a medieval Egyptian writer and mathematician born

Ibnu Hazm says^[20]:

It is permitted to have only one leader (of the Muslims) in the whole of the world.

Al-sha’rani says^[21]:

It is forbidden for Muslims to have in the whole world and at the same time two leaders whether in agreement or discord.

Al-Qadhi Abdul-Jabbar (he is a Mu’tazela scholar), says^[22]:

It is forbidden to give the oath to more than one.

Al-Joziri says^[23]:

The Imams (scholars of the four schools of thought)- may Allah have mercy on them- agree that the Caliphate is an obligation, and that the Muslims must appoint a leader who would implement the injunctions of the religion, and give the oppressed justice against the oppressors. It is forbidden for Muslims to have two leaders in the world whether in agreement or discord.

The Shia schools of thought and others expressed the same opinion about this^{[24][25][26][27]}

Al-Qurtubi said in his Tafsir^[28] of the verse, "Indeed, man is made upon this earth a Caliph" ^[29] that:

This Ayah is a source in the selection of an Imaam, and a Khaleef, he is listened to and he is obeyed, for the word is united through him, and the Ahkam (laws) of the Caliph are implemented through him, and there is no difference regarding the obligation of that between the Ummah, nor between the Imams except what is narrated about al-Asam, the Mu'tazzili . TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Imam Abu 'Abdullah Al-Qurtubi or Abu 'Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Tafsir ( Arabic: تفسير, tafsīr, "interpretation" is the Arabic word for Exegesis . .

Al-Qurtubi also said:

The Khilafah is the pillar upon which other pillars rest

An-Nawawi said^[30]:

(The scholars) consented that it is an obligation upon the Muslims to select a Khalif

Al-Ghazali when writing of the potential consequences of losing the Caliphate said^[31]:

The judges will be suspeneded, the Wilayaat (provinces) will be nullified, . Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died . . the decrees of those in authority will not be executed and all the people will be on the verge of Haraam

Ibn Taymiyyah said^[32]:

It is obligatory to know that the office in charge of commanding over the people (ie: the post of the Khaleefah) is one of the greatest obligations of the Deen. Taqi ad-Din Ahmad ibn Taymiyyah ( January 22, 1263 &ndash 1328 was a Sunni Islamic scholar born in Harran, located In fact, their is no establishment of the Deen except by it. . . . this is the opinion of the salaf, such as al-Fadl ibn 'Iyaad, Ahmad ibn Hanbal and others

Reestablishment

Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry amongst Muslim rulers, the caliphate has lain dormant and largely unclaimed since the 1920s. This article is on the group of early Muslims For the article on the contemporary Islamic movement see Salafi Salaf or Ahmed ibn Hanbal ( Arabic: ‏‎‎‎‎‎‎‎‎أحمد بن حنبل‏‎‎‎‏‎‎‎ ‎‎‎‎‎‎‎ Ahmad bin Hanbal) (780 - In recent years though, interest among Muslims in international unity and the Caliphate has grown. For many ordinary Muslims the caliph as leader of the community of believers, "is cherished both as memory and ideal"^[33] as a time when Muslims "enjoyed scientific and military superiority globally,"^[34] though "not an urgent concern" compared to issues such as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. ^[33]

Tight restrictions on political activity in many Muslim countries, coupled with the obstacles to uniting over 50 nation-states under a single institution, have prevented efforts to revive the caliphate. Popular apolitical Islamic movements such as the Tablighi Jamaat identify a lack of spirituality and decline in personal religious observance as the root cause of the Muslim world's problems, and claim that the caliphate cannot be successfully revived until these deficiencies are addressed. Tablighi Jamaat ("Conveying Group" ( Arabic: جماعة التبليغ, also Tabligh) is a Muslim Missionary and revival No attempts at rebuilding a power structure based on Islam were successful anywhere in the Muslim world until the Iranian Revolution in 1979, which was based on Shia principles and whose leaders did not outwardly call for the restoration of a global Caliphate. The Iranian Revolution' (mostly known as the Islamic Revolution, Persian: انقلاب اسلامی Enghelābe Eslāmi was the Revolution that transformed

Islamist call

A number of Islamist political parties and Islamist guerrilla groups have called for the restoration of the caliphate by uniting Muslim nations, either through peaceful political action (e. Islamism ( Islam + ism; Arabic: al-'islāmiyya) a set of ideologies holding that Islam is not only Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc g. , Hizb ut-Tahrir) or through force (e. Hizb ut-Tahrir (حزب التحرير Party of Liberation is an international Pan-Islamist, Sunni, vanguard political party whose goal is to combine all Muslim g. , al-Qaeda). Al-Qaeda, alternatively spelled al-Qaida, al-Qa`ida or al-Qa`idah, ( Arabic:; ar-Latn ''al-qāʿidah'' Translation: The ^[35] Various Islamist movements have gained momentum in recent years with the ultimate aim of establishing a Caliphate; however, they differ in their methodology and approach. Some are locally-oriented, mainstream political parties that have no apparent transnational objectives.

Pioneer Islamist Abul Ala Maududi believed the caliph was not just an individual ruler who had to be restored, but was man's representation of God's authority on earth;

Khilafa means representative. Sayyid Abul A'la Maududi (Urdu سید ابو الاعلىٰ مودودی - alternative spellings of last name Maudoodi, and Mawdudi) ( -) also known Man, according to Islam is the representative of "people", His (God's) viceregent; that is to say, by virtue of the powers delegated to him, and within the limits prescribed by the Qu'ran and the teaching of the prophet (peace upon him), the caliph is required to exercise Divine authority. ^[36]

One of al-Qaeda's clearly stated goals is the re-establishment of a caliphate. ^[37] Bin Laden has called for Muslims to "establish the righteous caliphate of our umma. "^[38] Al Qaeda recently named its Internet newscast from Iraq "The Voice of the Caliphate. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. "^[39]

According to author Lawrence Wright, Ayman al-Zawahiri, an active member of the Muslim Brotherhood, "sought to restore the caliphate, the rule of Islamic clerics, which had formally ended in 1924 following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire but which had not exercised real power since the thirteenth century. Lawrence Wright, born August 2 1947 is a Pulitzer Prize -winning American author screenwriter staff writer for The New Yorker magazine and fellow at The Muslim Brothers ( Arabic: الإخوان المسلمون al-ikhwān al-muslimūn, full title The Society of the Muslim Brothers, often simply الإخوان Once caliphate was established, Zawahiri believed, Egypt would become a rallying point for the rest of the Islamic world, leading the jihad against the West. "Then history would make a new turn, God willing," Zawahiri later wrote, "in the opposite direction against the empire of the United States and the world’s Jewish government. ""^[40]

In Pakistan the Tanzeem-e-Islami, an Islamist organization founded by Dr. The Tanzeem-e-Islami is an Islamic religious organisation based in Lahore, Pakistan. Israr Ahmed, calls for a Caliphate. Israr Ahmed, SI, ( Urdu: اسرار احمد, born April 26, 1932) is a Pakistan-based Muslim religious figure who has been

The Muslim Brotherhood advocates pan-Islamic unity and implementing Sharia, it is the largest and most influential Islamic group in the world, and its offshoots form the largest opposition parties in most Arab governments. Pan-Islamism ( اتّحاد الاسلام) is a Political movement advocating the unity of Muslims under one Islamic state or a Caliphate ^[41] Founder Hassan al-Banna wrote about the restoration of the Caliphate,^[42] but officially sanctioned Islamic institutions in the Muslim world generally do not consider the Caliphate a top priority and have instead focused on other issues. Hassan al-Banna ( October 14, 1906 – February 12, 1949, Arabic:حسن البنا was an Egyptian social and Islamists argue it is because they are tied to the current Muslim regimes.

One transnational group whose ideology is based specifically on restoring the caliphate as a pan-Islamic state, is Hizb ut-Tahrir (literally: "party of liberation"). It is particularly strong in Central Asia, Europe and growing in strength in the Arab world and is based on the claim that Muslim can prove that God exists^[43] and that the Qur'an is the word of God. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. ^[44][45] Hizb-Ut-Tahrir believes in a non-violent political and intellectual struggle, that is both a ground up and top down approach in the Muslim world, whilst in the Western world its aim is an intellectual struggle to show Islam as an alternative system to capitalism and a solution to regulate the natural environment and global warming. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the In the Muslim world view of this party, foundations of beliefs, rationality and causes are looked into rather than plain political analysis, which can be ideologically biased.

Opposition

Scholar Olivier Roy writes that "early on, Islamists replace the concept of the caliphate . Olivier Roy (born 1949) is a research director at the French National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS and a lecturer for both the School for Advanced Studies in the . . with that of the amir. " There were a number of reasons including "that according to the classical authors, a caliph must be a member of the tribe of the Prophet (the Quraysh)" (This is not the view of all Islamist groups, as both the Muslim Brotherhood and Hizb ut-Tahrir view the Ottoman state as a caliphate. ^[46][47]) Also they state that to be from the Quraishi tribe is sunnah but not obligatory to the validity of the caliphate.

A non-Muslim, United States President George W. Bush has mentioned the Caliphate in speeches on the War on Terrorism claiming it as an integral part of the radical Islamic ideology at war with Western freedom. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States. The War on Terrorism (also known as the War on Terror) is the common term for the military political and legal, and ideological conflict and specifically for U Political freedom is the absence of interference with the sovereignty of an individual by the use of coercion or aggression

U. S. President Bush has said that al-Qaeda terrorists and those that share their ideology

hope to establish a violent political utopia across the Middle East, which they call caliphate, where all would be ruled according to their hateful ideology . . . This caliphate would be a totalitarian Islamic empire encompassing all current and former Muslim lands, stretching from Europe to North Africa, the Middle East and Southeast Asia. ^[48]

Political system

Electing or appointing a Caliph

Fred Donner, in his book The Early Islamic Conquests (1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice during the early Caliphates was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves, although there was no specified procedure for this shura, or consultative assembly. Fred McGraw Donner is an Islamic scholar and the Professor of Near Eastern History at the University of Chicago. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir, as there was no basis in the majority Sunni view that the head of state or governor should be chosen based on lineage alone.

This argument is advanced by Sunni Muslims, who believe that Muhammad's companion Abu Bakr was elected by the community and that this was the proper procedure. They further argue that a caliph is ideally chosen by election or community consensus, even though the caliphate soon became a hereditary office, or the prize of the strongest general.

Al-Mawardi has written that the caliph should be Qurayshi. Quraish is also the name of a Surah in the Qur'an. Quraysh or Quraish (Arabic ar قريش Abu Bakr Al-Baqillani has said that the leader of the Muslims simply should be from the majority. Abu Bakr Al-Baqillani (lit the greengrocer was an Ashari Islamic scholar and Maliki lawyer influential in popularising Asharism Born in Basra Abu Hanifa an-Nu‘man also wrote that the leader must come from the majority. Al-Imam al-A'zam ( الامام الاعظم) "The Greatest Imam" Nu’man bin Thabit bin Zuta bin Mahan ( النعمان بن ثابت‎) better known by ^[49]

Shi'a belief

Main articles: Succession to Muhammad, Shia Islam, and Imamah (Shi'a doctrine)

Shi'a Muslims believe in the Imamate, in which the rulers are selected from Muhammad's Ahl al-Bayt. For the book by Wilferd Madelung, see The Succession to Muhammad. Imāmah (إمامة is the Shī‘ah doctrine of religious spiritual and political leadership of the Ummah. Imāmah (إمامة is the Shī‘ah doctrine of religious spiritual and political leadership of the Ummah. They believe that before his death, Muhammad had given many indications, in Ghadir Khumm particularly, that he considered Ali, his cousin and son-in-law, as his divinely chosen successor. This is a sub-article to the Succession to Muhammad The Hadith of the pond of Khumm ( غدير خم) refers to the saying (i They say that Abu Bakr had seized power by threatening and using force against Ali, and so Shi'a Muslims consider the three caliphs before Ali as usurpers. Ali and his descendants, the twelve Imams, are believed to have been the only proper leaders.

Main article: Hokumat-e Islami : Velayat-e faqih (book by Khomeini)

In the absence of a Caliphate headed by their Imams, some Shi'a believe that the system of Islamic government based on Vilayat-e Faqih, where an Islamic jurist or faqih rules Muslims, suffices. Hokumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih ( ولاية الفقيه) (also known as Hokumat-e Islami or Islamic Government Islamic leadership|Ja'fari jurisprudence Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists ( Arabic: ولاية الفقيه, Persian: ولایت فقیه A Faqih (plural Fuqaha') (فقيه pl فقهاء is an expert in Fiqh, or Islamic Jurisprudence. However this idea, developed by the Marja (Ayatollah) Ruhollah Khomeini and established in Iran, is not universally accepted among Shi'as. Marja ( Arabic / Persian: مرجع also appearing as Marja Taqlid or Marja Dini ( Arabic / Persian: مرجع تقليد Ayatollah ( Persian: آيت‌الله, âyato-llâh, from Arabic: آية الله, āyatu 'llāh, meaning 'the sign of Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989

Sunni belief

Immediately following the death of Muhammad, a secret meeting took place at Saqifah, of which Ali, who was appointed by Muhammad as his successor at Ghadir Khumm, had no knowledge. Saqifah, also known as "Saqifa Bani Saeda" or Saqifat Bani Sa'ida was a roofed building used by the tribe or banu of Sa'ida of the faction of the Khazraj, of the At that meeting, Abu Bakr was elected caliph by chiefs of Arab clans. Sunni Muslims developed the belief that the caliph is a temporal political ruler, appointed to rule within the bounds of Islamic law (Sharia), and not necessarily qualified in Islamic law. The job of adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law was left to Islamic lawyers, judiciary, or specialists individually termed as Mujtahids and collectively named the Ulema. Ijtihad (Arabic اجتهاد is a technical term of Islamic law that describes the process of making a legal decision by independent interpretation of the legal sources Ijtihad (Arabic اجتهاد is a technical term of Islamic law that describes the process of making a legal decision by independent interpretation of the legal sources Ulema ( ar علماء,, singular ar عالِم,, "scholar" refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun meaning the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the sunnah (example) of Muhammad in all things. Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet”

Majlis al-Shura: Parliament

Main article: Shura

Traditional Sunni Islamic lawyers agree that shura, loosely translated as 'consultation of the people', is a function of the caliphate. Shura is an ( Arabic شورَى | شورا word for "consultation" The Majlis al-Shura advise the caliph. The importance of this is premised by the following verses of the Qur'an:

“. . . those who answer the call of their Lord and establish the prayer, and who conduct their affairs by Shura. [are loved by God]”^[42:38]

“. . . consult them (the people) in their affairs. Then when you have taken a decision (from them), put your trust in Allah”^[3:159]

The majlis is also the means to elect a new caliph. Al-Mawardi has written that members of the majlis should satisfy three conditions: they must be just, they must have enough knowledge to distinguish a good caliph from a bad one, and must have sufficient wisdom and judgment to select the best caliph. Al-Mawardi also said in emergencies when there is no caliphate and no majlis, the people themselves should create a majlis, select a list of candidates for caliph, then the majlis should select from the list of candidates. ^[49]

The founder of Hizb ut-Tahrir, a transnational political movement devoted to the revival of the Caliphate, Taqiuddin al-Nabhani, writes that Shura is important and part of the "the ruling structure" of the Islamic caliphate, "but not one of its pillars. Taqiuddin al-Nabhani (Full transliterated name Sheikh Muhammad Taqiuddin bin Ibrahim bin Mustafah bin Ismail bin Yusuf al-Nabhani; تقي الدين النبهاني " If the caliph "neglects it," by not paying much or any attention, as happened after the first four caliphs "he would be negligent, but the ruling system would remain Islamic" not liable to any Muslim uprising.

Under the Hizb ut-Tahrir constitution non-Muslims may also be part of the majlis. Though they may not serve as caliph or any other ruling official, nor vote for these officials, they may voice "complaints in respect to unjust acts performed by the rulers or the misapplication of Islam upon them. "

The Islamist author Sayyid Qutb, in a rigorous analysis of the shura chapter of the Qur'an, Qutb argued Islam requires only that the ruler to consult with at least some of the ruled (usually the elite), within the general context of God-made laws that the ruler must execute. Sayyid Qutb (ˈsaɪjɪd ˈqʊtˁb (also Saïd Syed Seyyid Sayid or Sayed last name also Koteb (rather common Qutub Kotb or Kutb (سيد قطب October 9, 1906

Accountability of rulers

Sunni Islamic lawyers have commented on when it is permissible to disobey, impeach or remove rulers in the Caliphate. Impeachment is the first of two stages in a specific process for a legislative body to forcibly remove a Government official This is usually when the rulers are not meeting public responsibilities obliged upon them under Islam.

Al-Mawardi said that if the rulers meet their Islamic responsibilities to the public, the people must obey their laws, but if they become either unjust or severely ineffective then the Caliph or ruler must be impeached via the Majlis al-Shura. Similarly Al-Baghdadi believed that if the rulers do not uphold justice, the ummah via the majlis should give warning to them, and if unheeded then the Caliph can be impeached. JUSTICE is a Human rights and law reform organisation based in the United Kingdom. Al-Juwayni argued that Islam is the goal of the ummah, so any ruler that deviates from this goal must be impeached. Al-Juwayni was a Sunni Shafi'i Hadith and Kalam Scholar. Name Imam al-Haramayn Dhia' ul-Din Abd al-Malik ibn Al-Ghazali believed that oppression by a caliph is enough for impeachment. Oppression is the act of using power to empower and/or privilege a group at the expense of disempowering marginalizing silencing and subordinating another group Rather than just relying on impeachment, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani obliged rebellion upon the people if the caliph began to act with no regard for Islamic law. For other uses see Ibn Hajar. Al-Haafidh Shihabuddin Abu'l-Fadl Ahmad ibn Ali ibn Muhammad, better known as Ibn Hajar due to a fame of Rebellion is a refusal of obedienceIt may therefore be seen as encompassing a range of Behaviours from Civil disobedience and mass Nonviolent resistance Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani said that to ignore such a situation is haraam, and those who cannot revolt inside the caliphate should launch a struggle from outside. Haraam (حرام is an Arabic term meaning "forbidden" Al-Asqalani used two ayahs from the Qur'an to justify this:

“. Ayah (ar آية, plural Ayat ar آيات) is the Arabic word for sign or Miracle, cognate with Hebrew ot, . . And they (the sinners on qiyama) will say, 'Our Lord! We obeyed our leaders and our chiefs, and they misled us from the right path. In Islam, Yawm al-Qiyāmah "the Day of Resurrection" (يوم القيامة or Yawm ad-Din "the Day of Faith" (يوم الدين is God's final Our Lord! Give them (the leaders) double the punishment you give us and curse them with a very great curse'. . . ”^[33:67-68]

Islamic lawyers commented that when the rulers refuse to step down via successful impeachment through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, if the majority agree they have the option to launch a revolution against them. A revolution (from the Latin revolutio, "a turnaround" is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively Many noted that this option is only exercised after factoring in the potential cost of life. ^[49]

Rule of Law

The following hadith establishes the principle of rule of law in relation to nepotism and accountability^[50]

Narrated ‘Aisha: The people of Quraish worried about the lady from Bani Makhzum who had committed theft. The rule of law, in its most basic form is the principle that no one is above the law Nepotism is the showing of favoritism toward relatives and friends based upon that relationship rather than on an objective evaluation of ability Meritocracy or suitability Aisha bint Abu Bakr (died 678 (Arabic ar عائشة Transliteration ʿāʾisha, ʕaːʔɪʃæh "she who lives" also transcribed as A'ishah, Ayesha Banū Makhzūm (بنو مخزوم was one of the wealthy clans of Quraysh, the Arab tribe of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. They asked, "Who will intercede for her with Allah's Apostle?" Some said, "No one dare to do so except Usama bin Zaid the beloved one to Allah's Apostle. " When Usama spoke about that to Allah's Apostle Allah's Apostle said: "Do you try to intercede for somebody in a case connected with Allah’s Prescribed Punishments?" Then he got up and delivered a sermon saying, "What destroyed the nations preceding you, was that if a noble amongst them stole, they would forgive him, and if a poor person amongst them stole, they would inflict Allah's Legal punishment on him. By Allah, if Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad (my daughter) stole, I would cut off her hand. Fatimah (فاطمة c 605 –632 was a daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad from his first wife Khadija. "

Various Islamic lawyers do however place multiple conditions, and stipulations e. g the poor cannot be penalised for stealing out of poverty, before executing such a law, making it very difficult to reach such a stage. It is well known during a time of drought in the Rashidun caliphate period, capital punishments were suspended until the effects of the drought passed. Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment.

Famous caliphs

Main article: List of caliphs

• Abu Bakr - First Rashidun (Four Righteously Guided Caliphs) of the Sunnis. All years are according to the Common Era Rashidun ("Righteously Guided" Accepted by Sunni Muslims as the first four pious and Early life Abu Bakr was born at Mecca some time in the year 573 CE, in the Banu Taym branch of the Quraysh tribe Subdued rebel tribes in the Ridda wars. The Ridda wars (Arabic حروب الردة also known as the Wars of Apostasy) were a set of military campaigns against the rebellion of several Arabic tribes against the
• Umar (Umar ibn al-Khattab) - Second Rashidun. Umar (a=عمر بن الخطاب|t=`Umar ibn al-Khattāb c 581-83 CE &ndash 7 November, 644) also known as Umar the Great or Omar the Great During his reign, the Islamic empire expanded to include Egypt, Jerusalem, and Persia. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the
• Uthman Ibn Affan - Third Rashidun. Early life Uthman was born in Ta’if, which is situated on a hill and the presumption is that Uthman was born during the summer months since wealthy Meccans The Qur'an was compiled under his direction. Killed by rebels.
• Ali (Ali ibn Abu Talib) - Fourth and last Rashidun, and considered the first imam by Shi'a Muslims. ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (a=علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب|t=ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib 13th Rajab, 24 BH – 21st Ramaḍān, 40 AH His reign was fraught with internal conflict.
• Hasan ibn Ali - Fifth Caliph (considered as "rightly guided" by many Sunnis as well as Shias). Hasan ibn ‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib ( ar الحسن بن علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب)‎ (Fifteenth of Ramadhān, 3 AH – Seventh or Twenty-eighth of Safar He ruled for six months only and handed the powers to Muawiyah I in order to unite the Muslims again.
• Muawiyah I - First caliph of the Umayyad dynasty. Mu'awiyah I (a=معاوية بن أبي سفيان|t=Mu‘āwīyah ibn Abī Sufyān 602-680 was a Sahaba (companion of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad Muawiyah instituted dynastic rule by appointing his son Yazid I as his successor, a trend that would continue through subsequent caliphates. Yazid ibn Muawiyah ibn Abu Sufyan (يزيد بن معاوية بن أبي سفيان ( July 23[[ 45]] - 683 was the second Caliph of the Umayyad
• Umar ibn AbdulAziz - Umayyad caliph considered by some (mainly Sunnis) to be a sixth true and legitimate caliph under Islamic Laws of electing Caliph. Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (c 682 - February 720 (عمر بن عبد العزيز was an Umayyad Caliph who ruled from 717 to 720
• Harun al-Rashid - Abbasid caliph during whose reign Baghdad became the world's preeminent centre of trade, learning, and culture. Hārūn al-Rashīd (and Persian: هارون الرشيد) also spelled Harun ar-Rashid; English: Aaron the Upright, Aaron the Harun is the subject of many stories in the famous work One Thousand and One Nights.
• Suleiman the Magnificent - Early Ottoman Sultan during whose reign the Ottoman Empire reached its zenith. Suleiman I (سليمان Sulaymān, Süleyman almost always Kanuni Sultan Süleyman) ( 6 November 1494 5/ 6 September 1566
• Abdul Hamid II - The last Ottoman Sultan to rule with absolute power. Abdülhamid II His Imperial Majesty Sultan of the Ottoman Empire ( Ottoman Turkish: عبد الحميد ثانی `Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i sânî, İkinci Abdülhamit
• Abdülmecid II - The last Caliph of the Ottoman Dynasty, the 101st Caliph in line from Caliph Abu Bakr and nominally the 37th Head of the Ottoman Imperial House. Abdülmecid II (also with various alternate spellings including Abdul Mejid, Aakhir Khalifatul Muslimeen Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid, Abdul Medjit, and in

Further reading

• The theory of government in Islam, by The Internet Islamic University
• The History of Al-Khilafah Ar-Rashidah (The Rightly Guided Caliphates) School Textbook, By Dr. 'Abdullah al-Ahsan, `Abdullah Ahsan
• The Crisis of the Early Caliphate By Richard Stephen Humphreys, Stephen (EDT) Humphreys from The History of al-Tabari
• Reunification of the Abbasid Caliphate By Clifford Edmund (TRN) Bosworth, from The History of al-Tabari
• Return of the Caliphate to Baghdad By Franz Rosenthal from The History of al-Tabari
• The Caliphate, Its Rise, Decline, and Fall. From Original Sources By William Muir
• Pan-Islamism: Indian Muslims, the Ottomans and Britain (1877-1924) By Azmi Özcan
• Ottomanism, Pan-Islamism, and the Caliphate Discourse at the Turn of the 20th Century American University in Cairo
• Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate from Contemporary Arabic and Persian Sources By Guy Le Strange
• The Fall of the Caliphate of Cordoba: Berbers and Andalusis in conflict By Peter C. Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-923 أبو جعفر محمد بن جرير الطبري was one of the earliest most prominent and famous Persian Historians Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-923 أبو جعفر محمد بن جرير الطبري was one of the earliest most prominent and famous Persian Historians Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-923 أبو جعفر محمد بن جرير الطبري was one of the earliest most prominent and famous Persian Historians Scales
• Khilafat and Caliphate, By Mubasher Ahmad

See also

• Shah
• Sheikh ul-Islam
• Category:Caliphs
• Twelver Shi`ism
• Islamic state
• Al-Muhajiroun

Notes

References

• Crone, Patricia & Hinds, Martin -- God's Caliph, Cambridge University Press, 1986
• Donner, Fred -- The Early Islamic Conquests, Princeton University Press, 1981
• Wright, Lawrence (2007). Patricia Crone, PhD, (born 1945 Denmark) is a Scholar, Author and historian of early Islamic history working at the Martin Hinds ( 10 April 1941; Penarth, Wales – 1 December 1988) was a scholar of the Middle East and historiographer Lawrence Wright, born August 2 1947 is a Pulitzer Prize -winning American author screenwriter staff writer for The New Yorker magazine and fellow at The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. London: Vintage. ISBN 9781400030842.  

External links

• The return of the caliphate The Guardian Newspaper
• "The Golden Caliphate" by Anne Berg, Director of the Chicago Board of Trade, Adviser to the UN, World Bank, and writes for the Financial Times editorial page. The Guardian (until 1959 The Manchester Guardian) is a British Newspaper owned by the Guardian Media Group. The Chicago Board of Trade ( CBOT) established in 1848 is the world's oldest futures and options exchange. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The World Bank is an internationally supported Bank that provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries for development programs (e The Financial Times ( FT) is a British international business Newspaper. An editorial, leader (UK or leading article (UK is an article in a Newspaper or Magazine that expresses the opinion of the Editor
• "From Bishkek to Baghdad, the Caliphate's time has come" By Simon Jones; freelance journalist based in Tashkent
• Worldstatesmen.org
• Ottomanism, Pan-Islamism,and the Caliphate The American University in Cairo, Middle East Studies Program
• The Khilafah Party Homepage
• Muslim Brotherhood website
• Hizb-ut-tahrir UK website
• Khilafah.com website
• Caliphate.eu website
• Jamaat-e-Islami website
• Tanzeemi Islami website
• Islamists urge caliphate revival BBC News
• The Khilafah Movement Homepage
• Khilafat.com website

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