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Caesar's Civil War
Part of Roman Republican civil wars

Busts of Julius Caesar and Pompey, the protagonists in this war. List of Civil wars involving Rome. There were several Roman civil wars, especially during the time of the late Republic. The Protagonist or main character is the central figure of a story.
Date January 10, 49 BC - March 17, 45 BC
Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon to the Battle of Munda. Rubicon ( Rubicō, Italian: Rubicone) is a 29 km long River in northern Italy. For the World War II battle see Battle of Munda Point. The Battle of Munda took place on March 17, 45 BC in
Location Hispania, Italia, Graecia, Aegyptus, Africa
Result Decisive victory for Julius Caesar
Belligerents
Julius Caesar and supporters, the Populares faction Roman senate, the Optimates faction
Commanders
Julius Caesar,
Curio,
Marc Antony,
Decimus Brutus		 Pompey†,
Titus Labienus†,
Metellus Scipio†,
Cato the younger†,
Gnaeus Pompeius†
Sextus Pompeius

The Roman civil war of 49 BC, sometimes called Caesar's Civil War, is one of the last conflicts within the Roman Republic. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula. Roman Greece is the period of Greek history (of Greece proper as opposed to the other centers of Hellenism in the Roman world following the Roman victory over Ptolemaic Egypt began when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt in 305 BC and ended with the death of queen Cleopatra The Roman province of Africa was established after the Romans defeated Carthage in the Third Punic War. Populares ("favoring the people" singular popularis) were Aristocratic leaders in the late Roman Republic who tended to use the The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. Optimates (singular optimas, The Best of Men, Italian: ottimati; also known as the priests or boni, the Gaius Scribonius Curio was the name of a father and son who lived in the late Roman Republic. Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark For others with this cognomen see Albinus (cognomen. Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (born circa 85 BC died 43 BC was a Roman politician Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation Titus Labienus (ca 100 BC– March 17, 45 BC was a professional Roman soldier in the late Roman Republic. The Caecilii Metelli were one of the most important and wealthiest families in the Roman Republic. Marcus Porcius Catō Uticensis (95 BC&ndash46 BC known as Cato the Younger ( Cato Minor) to distinguish him from his great-grandfather ( Cato the Elder Gnaeus Popmeius should not be confused with his father Gnaeus Pompeius '''Magnus''', known as "Pompey the Great The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the It was a series of political and military confrontations between Julius Caesar, his political supporters, and his legions, against the traditionalist conservative faction in the Roman Senate, sometimes known as the Optimates, or boni, backed by legions loyal to Pompey. For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. Optimates (singular optimas, The Best of Men, Italian: ottimati; also known as the priests or boni, the Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation

After a long political and military struggle, between 49 and 45 BC, which would take in battles in Italia, Greece, Egypt, Africa, and Hispania, Caesar finally defeated the last of the traditional faction of the Roman senate at the Battle of Munda and became dictator. Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The Roman province of Africa was established after the Romans defeated Carthage in the Third Punic War. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar For the World War II battle see Battle of Munda Point. The Battle of Munda took place on March 17, 45 BC in

Caesar's civil war and its resulting changes in Roman government all but swept away the political traditions of the Roman Republic, a blow which eventually led to the Roman Empire. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial

Contents

The political/military situation preceding the war

Many historians view the war as a logical result of a long process of subversion of the political institutions of the Roman government, starting with the career of Tiberius Gracchus, and continuing with the Marian reforms of the legions, the bloody dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, and finally the sway of the First Triumvirate over Rome. Subversion refers to an attempt to overthrow structures of Authority, including the State. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus ( Latin: TI·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS (168 BC-133 BC was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC and brother The Marian reforms of 107 BC were a group of military reforms initiated by Gaius Marius, a statesman and general of the Roman republic. Dictator was a Political office of the Roman Republic. The dictator was above the three branches of government in the Constitution of the Roman Republic Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix ( Latin: L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX (c See also the First Triumvirate (Argentina which came to power in 1811 Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC

The First Triumvirate, as it was first called by Cicero, consisted of Julius Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, and came to power in 59 BC when Caesar was elected consul. See also the First Triumvirate (Argentina which came to power in 1811 Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire The union of Pompey's military might, Caesar's influence, and Crassus' money was solidified with the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter Julia in 59 B. C. Caesar's first consulship tasked him with watching over the forests. This position was specially created because of the enemies Caesar had in the Senate. It was meant to give Caesar no fame or wealth, and to limit the climb of his career path, or, cursus honorum. The Triumvirate reform program was enacted and Caesar got himself promoted to the position of governor of Illyricum and Gaul. A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many provinces constituting the The Roman province of Illyricum replaced the formerly independent kingdom of Illyria. For Gaul before the Roman conquest see Gaul. Roman Gaul consisted of an area of provincial rule in the Roman Empire, in modern day

After the First Triumvirate ended, the senate supported Pompey, who became sole consul in 52 BC. Meanwhile, Caesar had become a military hero as well as a champion of the people. The senate feared him and wanted him to give up his army, knowing that he hoped to be consul when his term in Gaul expired. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. In December 50 BC, Caesar wrote to the senate saying that he would give up his army if Pompey would give up his. The senate heard the letter with fury and demanded that Caesar disband his army at once or be declared an enemy of the people—an illegal bill, for Caesar was entitled to keep his army until his term was up. Another reason for Caesar's immediate want for another consulship was to delay his inevitable senatorial prosecutions waiting for him after retirement of his position. The potential prosecutions were based on irregularities related to his term as consul and loose accusations of war crimes throughout his campaigns in Gaul.

Two tribunes faithful to Caesar, Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) and Quintus Cassius Longinus vetoed the bill and were quickly expelled from the senate. Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Quintus Cassius Longinus, the brother or cousin of Cassius the murderer of Julius Caesar, was a governor in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, They fled to Caesar, who assembled his army and asked for the support of the soldiers against the senate. The army called for action.

In 50 BC, the Senate, led by Pompey, ordered Caesar to return to Rome and disband his army because his term as Proconsul had finished. Moreover, the Senate forbade Caesar to stand for a second consulship in absentia. Caesar thought that he would be prosecuted and politically marginalized if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a Consul or without the power of his army. Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason.

The civil war

Crossing the Rubicon

Further information: Rubicon  and Alea iacta est

On January 10, 49 BC Caesar crossed the Rubicon with one legion, the Legio XIII Gemina. Rubicon ( Rubicō, Italian: Rubicone) is a 29 km long River in northern Italy. Alea iacta est (also seen as alea jacta est) is Latin for "The die Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, signaling the start of civil war. Year 49 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus Rubicon ( Rubicō, Italian: Rubicone) is a 29 km long River in northern Italy. For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," Legio XIII, known after 31 BC as Gemina (the "twin legion" is one of the more historically remarkable Roman legions. The Rubicon marked the boundary between the Roman province of Cisalpine Gaul to the north and Italy proper to the south, and Roman law forbade any general from crossing it with an army. The purpose of the law was to protect the republic from internal military threat. Caesar's action thus marked the beginning of the civil war.

Historians differ as to what Caesar said upon crossing the Rubicon; the two major competing lines are "Alea iacta est" ("The die is cast"), and "Let the dice fly high!" (a quotation from a line by the New Comedy poet Menander). Alea iacta est (also seen as alea jacta est) is Latin for "The die For other uses see either Die or Dice (disambiguation. Dice (the Plural of Die, from Old French Comedy was one of two principal dramatic forms in ancient Greece the other being Tragedy. Menander ( Greek:, Menandros; ca 342&ndash291 BC Greek Dramatist, the best-known representative of Athenian New Comedy, was the son This minor controversy is occasionally seen in modern literature when Colleen McCullough attributes the less popular Menander line to Caesar in her Masters of Rome series of novels.

The march on Rome & the early Hispanian campaign

Further information: Battle of Massilia, Siege of Massilia, Massilia, and Battle of Ilerda

Caesar's march to Rome was a triumphal progress. The Siege and naval Battle of Massilia was an episode of Caesar's civil war, fought in 49 BC. The Siege and naval Battle of Massilia was an episode of Caesar's civil war, fought in 49 BC. Marseille, ( English alt Marseilles mɑrˈseɪ — French: maʁsɛj locally — Provençal Occitan: Marselha maʀˈsijɔ The Battle of Ilerda took place in June 49 BC between the forces of Julius Caesar and the Spanish army of Pompey the Great, lead by his legates Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Not knowing that Caesar had only one legion with him and fearing the worst, the Senate offered Pompey their backing, which he neither denied nor accepted. Pompey, realizing that Rome was in danger, made the statement "Rome cannot be defended" and with the reigning consuls, and the more conservative senators (known as the Optimates), fled to Capua. Capua is a city in the Province of Caserta, Campania, Italy situated 25 km (16 mi north of Naples, on the northeastern edge of This retreat was later reflected on by Cicero to be an "outward sign of weakness," giving Caesar time to consolidate his forces in his quest for eventual dictatorship.

Pompey did have some armies at his disposal: two legions he had commanded Caesar to send from Gaul earlier (11,500 men), plus hastily levied Italian troops under Domitius Ahenobarbus, who established their camp in central Italy. As Caesar moved further south, Pompey removed to southern Italy. From there, he repeatedly urged Domitius to move north against Caesar, who was making his way south along the eastern coast, in hopes of intercepting him before he got to Rome. Domitius repeatedly refused. Caesar marched right up to his camp, engaged his armies and defeated them. Pompey then went to Brundisium to await the ships that would take him to the eastern provinces, where he had enormous influence. From there he hoped to raise armies and money and blockade Italy by sea. The Optimates, including Metellus Scipio and Cato the Younger, fled south to join him, leaving a rear guard at Capua.

While Pompey's fortification was taking place, Caesar turned his eye toward Hispania, and its leaderless army. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar He wanted to make sure he destroyed the remnants of any army that Pompey could later use against him. Therefore he attacked and defeated Afrainius and Petrieus during his Illerda campaign in 49 B. C. On that campaign, Caesar took six legions along with 3,000 cavalry from his Gallic campaigns and 900 horsemen kept as his personal bodyguard. The casualty count for the Romans was 70 deaths while the Pompeians lost 200 and had 600 wounded.

Caesar pursued Pompey to Brundisium, hoping to restore their alliance of ten years prior. In fact, throughout the early stages of the war, Caesar made frequent offers to lay down his arms if Pompey would do the same. Pompey persistently refused, on the grounds that Caesar was his subordinate and was duty-bound to cease his advance and dismiss his armies before any negotiations could take place. The basic problem was ego: Caesar wanted to be treated as Pompey's equal and Pompey saw himself as having no equal.

Pompey eluded Caesar's advance on Brundisium and fled (March, 49 BC) with his fleet to Greece. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca

Caesar then made an astonishing 27-day route-march to Hispania where he defeated Pompey's legates and armies and pacified that province. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar Returning to Rome, Caesar held the dictatorship for 11 days in early December, long enough to get himself elected consul, and then set out for Greece in pursuit of Pompey. A dictator is an Authoritarian ruler (eg Absolutist or autocratic) who assumes sole and absolute power without hereditary ascension such as an Absolute

Campaigns in Greece and Africa

Further information: Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC), Battle of Pharsalus, Battle of Bagradas River (49 BC), and Battle of Utica (49 BC)

At Brundisium, Caesar collected a small army of about 15,000 men and slipped across the strait to Epirus. The Battle of Dyrrachium (or Dyrrhachium on 10 July 48 BC, was a battle of Caesar's civil war in modern Albania. The Battle of Pharsalus was a decisive battle of Caesar's Civil War. The Battle of the Bagradas River ( 49 BC) occurred on August 24 and was fought between Julius Caesar's general Gaius Scribonius Curio and the Pompeian Republicans The Battle of Utica ( 49 BC) was fought between Julius Caesar's general Gaius Scribonius Curio and Numidian cavalry and foot soldiers sent by King Juba Brindisi can also refer to a song in which a company is exhorted to drink such as the "Tea-Cup Brindisi" in Gilbert and Sullivan 's " The At the time, Pompey was considering three options: allying himself with the King of Parthia, an erstwhile ally far to the east; exploiting his overwhelming naval superiority by invading Italy; or facing Caesar in one decisive battle. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran Allying with Parthia was a non-starter: no one would look favorably upon using Parthian troops against Roman legions. Invading Italy was politically unsavory as well as risky: the Italians, who had rebelled against Rome only 30 years earlier, might rise against him now. On his councilor's advice, he opted for the single decisive battle.

Caesar's pursuit across the Adriatic into Illyrium settled it. The Roman province of Illyricum replaced the formerly independent kingdom of Illyria. On July 10, 48 BC he met Pompey at Dyrrhachium but lost 1,000 veterans and was forced to fall back. Events 48 BC - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia. Year 48 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Gaius Julius Caesar, The Battle of Dyrrachium (or Dyrrhachium on 10 July 48 BC, was a battle of Caesar's civil war in modern Albania. Pompey could not believe his inexperienced army had bested Caesar's seasoned legions, and believing the retreat was a trap refused to give chase, thus losing the chance to end the civil war quickly. Caesar began a long retreat southward, with Pompey in pursuit. Near Pharsalus, Caesar camped in a strategic location. Farsala or Pharsala (Φάρσαλα known in Antiquity as Pharsalus, is a city in southern Thessaly, in Greece. Pompey, who had a far larger army, was persuaded to attack Caesar but was routed in an exceedingly short engagement—Pompey had lost his nerve.

The Egyptian dynastic struggle

Main article: Cleopatra VII

Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was murdered by an officer of King Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; January 69 BC &ndash 30 BC was a Hellenistic ruler of Egypt This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator ( Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Θεός Φιλοπάτωρ, Ptolemaĩos Theós Philopátōr, lived 62 BC/61 BC– In Rome in the meantime, Caesar was appointed dictator, with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse; Caesar resigned this dictatorate after eleven days and was elected to a second term as consul with Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus as his colleague. Dictator was a Political office of the Roman Republic. The dictator was above the three branches of government in the Constitution of the Roman Republic The Master of the Horse was (and in some cases is a historical position of varying importance in several European nations Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus (b c 134 BC son of Gaius Servilius Vatia and wife Caecilia Metella daughter of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, He pursued the Pompeian army to Alexandria, where they camped and became involved with the Alexandrine civil war between Ptolemy and his sister, wife, and co-regnant queen, the Pharaoh Cleopatra VII. Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια Pharaoh is the title given in modern parlance to the ancient Egyptian kings of all periods Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; January 69 BC &ndash 30 BC was a Hellenistic ruler of Egypt Perhaps as a result of Ptolemy's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, which was offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain Pothinus as a gift. Pothinus (early 1st century BC to 48 or 47 BC a Eunuch, was Regent for Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Ancient In any event, Caesar defeated the Ptolemaic forces and installed Cleopatra as ruler, with whom he fathered his only known biological son, Ptolemy XV Caesar, better known as "Caesarion". Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar, nicknamed Caesarion (little Caesar Greek: Πτολεμαῖος ΙΕʹ Φιλοπάτωρ Φιλομήτωρ Καῖσαρ Caesar and Cleopatra never married, due to Roman law that prohibited a marriage with a non-Roman citizen.

The war against Pharnaces

Main article: Pharnaces II of Pontus

After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, he went to Syria, and then to Pontus to deal with Pharnaces II, a client king of Pompey's who had taken advantage of the Romans being distracted by their civil war to oppose the Roman-friendly Deiotarus and make himself the ruler of Colchis and lesser Armenia. Pharnaces II (in Greek Φαρνάκης, died 47 BC was the son of the great Mithridates VI of Pontus, a famed enemy of the Roman Republic. History of Bahrein, AND COMPARE THE TRUE IMPORTANCE OF THE TWO STATES Geography The Black Sea region loosely called Pontus by various scholars has a steep rocky coast with rivers that cascade through the gorges of the coastal ranges Pharnaces II (in Greek Φαρνάκης, died 47 BC was the son of the great Mithridates VI of Pontus, a famed enemy of the Roman Republic. Client state is one of several terms used to describe the subordination of one state to a more powerful state in international affairs Deiotarus I of Galatia (in Galatian and Gallic Deiotarix I, in Greek Deiotaros I Philoromaios) (ca 105 BC &ndash 42 BC 41 BC or In ancient Geography, Colchis or Kolchis ( Georgian and Laz: კოლხეთი k'olxeti; Greek:, Kolchís Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani At Nicopolis he had defeated what little Roman opposition Caesar's Asian lieutenant Domitius Calvinus could muster. Nicopolis (Νικόπολις city of victory) or Actia Nicopolis was an ancient city of Epirus, founded 31 BC by Octavian in memory Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus was a Roman General, senator and Consul (both in 53 BC and 40 BC who was a loyal Partisan of Caesar He had also taken the city of Amisus, which was a Roman ally, made all the boys eunuchs and sold the inhabitants to slave traders. A eunuch (ˈjuːnək is a Castrated man in particular one castrated early enough to have major hormonal consequences the term usually refers to those castrated in order to After this show of strength against the Romans, Pharnaces drew back to suppress revolt in his new conquests.

Nevertheless, the extremely rapid approach of Caesar in person forced Pharnaces to turn his attention back to the Romans. At first, recognizing the threat, he made offers of submission, with the sole object of gaining time until Caesar's attention fell elsewhere; Caesar's speed brought war quickly and battle took place near Zela (modern Zile in Turkey), where Pharnaces was routed with just a small detachment of cavalry. The Battle of Zela was a battle fought in 47 BC between Julius Caesar and Pharnaces II of Pontus. Caesar's victory was so swift and complete that, in a letter to a friend in Rome, he famously said of the short war, “Veni, vidi, vici” (“I came, I saw, I conquered”) - indeed, for his Pontic triumph, that may well have been the label displayed above the spoils. Vēnī vīdī vīcī (ˈweːniː ˈwiːdiː ˈwiːkiː in Classical Latin or ˈvidi ˈvitʃi in Vulgar Latin) is a famous Latin sentence spoken

Pharnaces himself fled quickly back to the Bosporus, where he managed to assemble a small force of Scythian and Sarmatian troops, with which he was able to gain control of a few cities; however, a former governor of his, Asandar, attacked his forces and killed him. In Classical Antiquity, Scythia ( Greek Skuthia) was the area in Eurasia inhabited by the Scythians, from the 8th The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες The historian Appian states that Pharnaces died in battle; Dio Cassius says Pharnaces was captured and then killed. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was

The later campaign in Africa: the war on Cato

Further information: Battle of Thapsus, Battle of Ruspina, and Anti-Cato

Caesar returned to Rome to deal with several mutinous legions. The Battle of Thapsus took place on April 6 46 BC near Thapsus (modern Ras Dimas, Tunisia) The Battle of Ruspina was fought on January 4, 46 BC between competing political factions of the late Roman Republic, the Optimates and The Anticato (sometimes Anti-Cato; Latin: Anticatones) was a Polemic written by Julius Caesar in hostile reply to While Caesar had been in Egypt installing Cleopatra as Queen, four of his veteran legions encamped outside of Rome under the command of Mark Antony. The legions were waiting for their discharges and the bonus pay Caesar had promised them before the battle of Pharsalus. As Caesar lingered in Egypt, the situation quickly deteriorated. Antony lost control of the troops and they began looting estates south of the capital. Several delegations of diplomats were dispatched to try to quell the mutiny. Nothing worked and the mutineers continued to call for their discharges and back pay. After several months, Caesar finally arrived to address the legions in person. Caesar knew he needed these legions to deal with Pompey's supporters in north Africa, who had mustered 14 legions of their own. Caesar also knew that he did not have the funds to give the soldiers their back pay, much less the money needed to induce them to reenlist for the north African campaign.

When Caesar approached the speaker's dais, a hush fell over the mutinous soldiers. Most were embarrassed by their role in the mutiny in Caesar's presence. Caesar coldy asked the troops what they wanted. Ashamed to demand money, the men began to call out for their discharge. Caesar bluntly addressed them as "citizens" instead of "soldiers," a tacit indication that they had already discharged themselves by virtue of their disloyalty. He went on to tell them that that they would all be discharged immediately. He said he would pay them the money he owed them after he won the north African campaign with other legions. The soldiers were shocked. They had been through 15 years of war with Caesar and they had become fiercely loyal to him in the process. It had never occurred to them that Caesar did not need them. The soldiers' resistance collapsed. They crowded the dais and begged to be taken to north Africa. Caesar feigned indignation and then allowed himself to be won over. When he announced that he would suffer to bring them along, a huge cheer arose from the assembled troops. Through a brilliant combination of personal charisma and reverse psychology, Caesar reenlisted four enthusiastic veteran legions to invade north Africa without spending a single sesterce. Reverse psychology is a persuasion technique that involves the false advocacy of a belief or behavior contrary to the belief or behavior that is actually being advocated The sestertius, or sesterce, was an ancient Roman Coin. During the Roman Republic it was a small Silver, and rare coin issued

In the same year he set out for Africa, where the followers of Pompey had fled, to end their opposition led by Cato. Marcus Porcius Catō Uticensis (95 BC&ndash46 BC known as Cato the Younger ( Cato Minor) to distinguish him from his great-grandfather ( Cato the Elder

Caesar quickly gained a significant victory at Thapsus in 46 BC over the forces of Metellus Scipio (who was drowned) and Cato the Younger and Juba (who both committed suicide). The Battle of Thapsus took place on April 6 46 BC near Thapsus (modern Ras Dimas, Tunisia)

The second Hispanian campaign: end of the war

Main article: Battle of Munda

Nevertheless, Pompey's sons Gnaeus Pompeius and Sextus Pompeius, together with Titus Labienus (Caesar's former propraetorian legate (legatus propraetore) and second in command in the Gallic War) escaped to Hispania. For the World War II battle see Battle of Munda Point. The Battle of Munda took place on March 17, 45 BC in Gnaeus Popmeius should not be confused with his father Gnaeus Pompeius '''Magnus''', known as "Pompey the Great Titus Labienus (ca 100 BC– March 17, 45 BC was a professional Roman soldier in the late Roman Republic. A legatus (often anglicized as legate) was a general in the Roman army, equivalent to a modern general officer A promagistrate is a person who acts in and with the authority and capacity of a magistrate, but without holding a magisterial office Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Munda in March 45 BC. For the World War II battle see Battle of Munda Point. The Battle of Munda took place on March 17, 45 BC in During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC (with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus) and 45 BC (without colleague). Marcus Aemilius Lepidus ( Latin: M·AEMILIVS·M·F·Q·N·LEPIDVSborn ca 90 BC died 13 BC, was a Patrician Roman politician

Aftermath of the war

Chronology

See also

References


Bibliography

In ancient literature

Caesar's propaganda

He was very concerned to present the war as just and not a crime against the state as his enemies said. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation

Other works about the civil war historically attributed to Caesar, but whose authorship is doubted, are:

In later literature

Main article: Pharsalia

Modern fictionalized accounts

Scholarly literature

On causes

E. S. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic, California U. P. 1974, pp. 449-497. ISBN 0-520-20153-1

On the war itself

Gelzer, Caesar - Politician and Statesman, Chapter 5. Harvard University Press, 1968.

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