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Main article: CIA activities in the Near East, North Africa, South and Southwest Asia
See also: Civil war in Afghanistan, War in Afghanistan (disambiguation), and Inter-Services Intelligence#Afghanistan Undated
See also: CIA transnational anti-crime and anti-drug activities#Southwest Asia

The Black Book of Communism is frequently cited in this section. See also Central Intelligence Agency This article deals with activities of the U The Civil war in Afghanistan, also known as Afghan Civil War, began in 1978 and has continued History After independence in 1947 two new intelligence agencies were created in Pakistan called the Intelligence Bureau (IB and Military Intelligence See also Central Intelligence Agency This article deals with activities of the U The Black Book of Communism Crimes Terror Repression is a book which describes a history of Repressions both Political and Civilian, by See its article for criticism, including the attribution of victims to Communist regimes, who were not victims of Communism at all so that the Book can arrive at a set target of total victims. [1]

Contents

Afghanistan 1973

Roger Morris, a former US Foreign Service officer and National Security Council staff member under presidents Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon, writing in the Asia Times, argues that as early as 1973-74, the CIA began offering covert backing to Islamic radical rebels in Afghanistan premised on the claim that the right-wing, authoritarian government headed by Mohammed Daoud Khan, might prove a likely instrument of Soviet military aggression in South Asia. Asia Times was a Newspaper launched in Thailand by Thai tycoon Sondhi Limthongkul in 1995 Mohammed Daoud Khan ( July 18, 1909 – April 28, 1978) was a politician in Afghanistan who overthrew the monarchy of Zahir Shah Morris argues that this premise was without basis in fact; Daoud had always held the Russians, his main patron when it came to aid, at arm's length, and had purged local communists who supported him when he overthrew the Afghan monarchy in 1973. The Soviets had also shown no inclination to use the notoriously unruly Afghans and their army for any expansionist aim. [2] Morris claims that during this period U. S. foreign policy leaders saw the Soviets as always being "on the march. " This apprehension resulted in a rash of U. S. secret wars, assassinations, terrorist acts and manifold corruptions. U. S. secret backing of radical Islamic rebels ceased following an abortive rebel uprising in 1975. [2]

Afghanistan 1978

See also: Soviet war in Afghanistan

One of the American intelligence community's biggest operations and initially considered a major success was the funding of the Mujahedeen (Islamist fighters) in Afghanistan and their training, arming, and supplying. The Soviet war in Afghanistan, also known as the Soviet-Afghan War or just the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, was a nine-year conflict involving A Mujahid (Arabic ar مجاهد, literally "struggler" is a Muslim involved in a Jihad, id est fighting in a war or Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, The program was initiated under President Jimmy Carter and greatly expanded following the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in December 1979. James Earl "Jimmy" Carter Jr (born October 1 1924 was the thirty-ninth President of the United States, serving from 1977 to 1981 and the recipient of the 2002 A soviet (сове́т, "council" originally was a workers' local council in late Imperial Russia. The Soviet war in Afghanistan, also known as the Soviet-Afghan War or just the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, was a nine-year conflict involving Under Reagan funding reached levels of $600 million/year.

Roger Morris, writing in the Asia Times, states that in April 1978, the crackdown by the regime of Daoud on Afghanistan's small Communist Party provoked a successful coup by Communist Party loyalists in the army. Asia Times was a Newspaper launched in Thailand by Thai tycoon Sondhi Limthongkul in 1995 The coup occurred in defiance of a skittish Moscow, which had stopped earlier coup plans.

According to Morris, by autumn 1978, an Islamic insurgency, armed and planned by the U. S. , Pakistan, Iran and China, and soon to be actively supported, at Washington's prodding, by the Saudis and Egyptians, was fighting in eastern Afghanistan. U. S. planners continued funding the radical Islamic insurgency to "suck" the Russians into Afghanistan. [2]

The Black Book of Communism instead puts the blame on the Soviet Union who feared that Afghanistan was escaping its domination. The Black Book of Communism Crimes Terror Repression is a book which describes a history of Repressions both Political and Civilian, by There was little Muslim extremism before the Communist coup. After the coup, according to the Black Book, several antireligous campaigns by the Communist regime, as well as the harsh repressions, soon caused a fierce insurgency.

Afghanistan 1979

Intelligence analysis

The CIA National Foreign Assessment Center completed work on a report entitled "Afganistan: Ethnic Divergence and Dissidence" in May 1979, although it was not formally published until March 1980. It is not known if the information was readily available to policymakers at the time of the December 1979 invasion. [3]

Tribal insurgency, according to this report, began in 1978, with the installation of a pro-Soviet government. An insurgency is a violent internal uprising against a sovereign government that lacks the organization of a revolution Even though the government tilted toward the Soviet Union, the analysis said that many tribal groups, especially Uzbek, saw the government as ethnically Pashtun, with hostility on ethnic and political grounds. Pashtuns ( Pashto: پښتون Paṣtūn, Paxtūn, also rendered as Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, Pukhtuns) also called

Covert Action

With instability and civil strife in a country on their border, the Soviets invaded in December 1979, according to the Asia Times report, fulfilling the hopes of Washington as expressed by National Security Adviser Brzezinski. [2][4]

The CIA provided assistance to the fundamentalist insurgents through the Pakistani secret services, Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), in a program called Operation Cyclone. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and History After independence in 1947 two new intelligence agencies were created in Pakistan called the Intelligence Bureau (IB and Military Intelligence Operation Cyclone was the code name for the United States Central Intelligence Agency program to arm the Afghan Mujahideen during the Somewhere between $3–$20 billion in U. S. funds were funneled into the country to train and equip troops with weapons, including Stinger surface-to-air missiles. The FIM-92 Stinger is a personal portable Infrared homing Surface-to-air missile developed in the United States and used by all the U A surface to air missile ( SAM) or ground-to-air missile ( GTAM) is a Missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy Aircraft [5]

Afghanistan 1980

Intelligence analysis

A memorandum spoke of continued tribal rivalries as adding to the resistance to the Soviets. [6]

Afghanistan 1985

While the actual document has not been declassified, National Security Decision Directive 166 of 27 March 1985, "US Policy, Programs and Strategy in Afghanistan" defined a US policy of using established the US goal of driving Soviet forces from Afghanistan "by all means available", including the provision of Stinger missiles. A stinger (a Colloquialism for the term "sting" is a common term for a sharp organ or body part found in various Animals (typically Arthropods [7]

Initially, this involved close cooperation with Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence to assist mujahideen groups and in planning operations inside Afghanistan. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and History After independence in 1947 two new intelligence agencies were created in Pakistan called the Intelligence Bureau (IB and Military Intelligence This cooperation was already in place in 1984, prior to NSDD-166. Indeed, it was evident to residents in Islamabad and Peshawar in the 1980's that large numbers of Americans were present.

Covert action

However, one of the main features of NSDD-166 was to allow CIA to enter Afghanistan directly and establish it's own separate and secret relationships with Afghan fighters. [8] The funding by ISI and CIA of Afghan anti-Soviet fighters created linkages among Muslim fighters worldwide. [9]

At first, the US supported the effort cautiously, concered that the Soviet Union would act against Pakistan. "Some time into the war, however, the US began to take a much more overt position, and US-supplied technology played a key role in defeating the Soviets in Afghanistan.

Afghanistan 1987

On July 20, 1987, the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the country was announced pursuant to the negotiations that led to the Geneva Accords of 1988. Events 1304 - Wars of Scottish Independence: Fall of Stirling Castle - King Edward I of England takes the last rebel stronghold Year 1987 ( MCMLXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link displays 1987 Gregorian calendar) [10]

According to the "Progressive South Asia Exchange Net", claiming

to cite an article in Le Nouvel Observateur, U. S. policy, unbeknownst even to the Mujahideen, was part of a larger strategy "to induce a Soviet military intervention. " National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski stated:

"According to the official version of history, CIA aid to the Mujahadeen began during 1980, that is to say, after the Soviet army invaded Afghanistan, 24 Dec 1979. The Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, commonly referred to as the National Security Adviser (abbreviated NSA, or sometimes ANSA Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzezinski (Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzeziński ˈzbigɲev bʐɛˈʑiɲski: (born March 28 1928 Warsaw, Poland) is a Polish-American But the reality, secretly guarded until now, is completely otherwise. " "That secret operation was an excellent idea. It had the effect of drawing the Soviets into the Afghan trap. . . . The day that the Soviets officially crossed the border, I wrote to President Carter. We now have the opportunity of giving to the Soviet Union its Vietnam War. "

"There are at least two editions of this magazine; with the perhaps sole exception of the Library of Congress, the version sent to the United States is shorter than the French version, and the Brzezinski interview was not included in the shorter version. The above has been translated from the French by Bill Blum author of the indispensible, "Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II" and "Rogue State: A Guide to the World's Only Superpower"[11][12]

Afghanistan 1989

See also: Civil war in Afghanistan (1989-1992)

Intelligence analysis

A Special National Intelligence Estimate, "Afghanistan: the War in Perspective",[13] estimated that Najibullah government was "weak, unpopular, and factionalized", but would probably remain in power, with the war at a near impasse. The 1989 to 1992 phase of the Civil war in Afghanistan began after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan, leaving the Democratic Republic It drew key judgments including:

  • The mujahedin hold the military initiative, as long as they stay in the countryside, where government troops do not hinder them and they choose when and where to fight. As long as Soviet supplies continue, they will remain a guerilla force unable to seize major garrisons.
  • As an insurgency, regime fragility, mujahedin disunity, and local tribal factors are as important to the outcome as strictly military aspects.
  • While there is extensive popular support, the resistance will remain highly factionalized.
  • The Afghan Interim Government and most major commanders will refuse direct negotiations with Najibullah, but indirect negotiations are possible.

Pakistan and the USSR remain the most important external powers. Pakistan will continue to support the resistance regardless of who is in power. The Soviets will seek a political settlement while providing massive support. Gorbachev would like to resolve the issue before the US summit next year.

Any of a number of changes in foreign support could break the impasse:

  • Cessation of US support to the resistance
  • Cessation of Soviet support to the govenment
  • Mutual cuts by the US and USSR would be more harmful to the government

Aid cuts, however, will not stop the fighting.

Covert action

After the withdrawal of Soviet troops, CIA's objective was to topple the government of Mohammad Najibullah, which had been formed under the Soviet occupation, according to author Steve Coll. Najibullah ( Pashto: نجيب الله; born August 1947 killed September 27, 1996) was the fourth and last President of the [14] Among others, the two main factions that CIA was supporting were:

According to Coll, during this period of time, there was disagreement between CIA and the U. S. State Department regarding which Afghan factions to support. U.S. State Department Special Envoy to Afghanistan Edmund McWilliams, after numerous tours of the interior of Pakistan, found that Afghan people were unhappy with the Wahhabist-leaning and anti-American Hekmatyar contingent, and recommended pulling back support for fighting in favor of a political settlement involving more of the ex-pat Afghan professional class. Edmund McWilliams is an American diplomat and previous United States Ambassador to Tajikistan. Wahhabism ( Arabic: Al-Wahhābīyya الوهابية or Wahabism is a conservative reformist call of Sunni Islam attributed to In this McWilliams was supported by British Intelligence. CIA station chief Milton Bearden felt that McWilliams was misreading U. Milton Bearden (b 1940 is a retired Central Intelligence Agency officer author and film consultant S. policy. Bearden did not want to get involved in Afghanistan internal politics, trusted the ISI to establish a stable regime in Afghanistan which was favorable to Pakistan, felt that Afghanistan was historically divided from Pakistan only by a line drawn by the British, and felt that the British didn't know what they were talking about, since they had lost two wars in Afghanistan already. The argument between Bearden and McWilliams in Islamabad was curtailed when Bearden cabled the State Department a "request for curtailment" of duty tour on McWilliams behalf, and McWilliams found himself called away. |name = Islamabad|native_name = |nickname = |settlement_type = Capital City |total_type

Afghanistan 1990

BBC News reported "Al-Qaeda, meaning the base, was created in 1989 as Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan and Osama Bin Laden and his colleagues began looking for new jihads. Al-Qaeda, alternatively spelled al-Qaida, al-Qa`ida or al-Qa`idah, ( Arabic:; ar-Latn ''al-qāʿidah'' Translation: The Osama bin Laden, with some spelling variations is the name used in English to refer to (أسامة بن محمد بن عوض بن لادن born 10 March The organisation grew out of the network of Arab volunteers who had gone to Afghanistan in the 1980s to fight under the banner of Islam against Soviet Communism. During the anti-Soviet jihad Bin Laden and his fighters received American and Saudi funding. Some analysts believe Bin Laden himself had security training from the CIA. "[15] a charge denied by American and Pakistan intelligence officials and journalist Peter Bergen. Zbigniew Brzezinski, the National Security Advisor under President Carter, has discussed U. Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzezinski (Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzeziński ˈzbigɲev bʐɛˈʑiɲski: (born March 28 1928 Warsaw, Poland) is a Polish-American James Earl "Jimmy" Carter Jr (born October 1 1924 was the thirty-ninth President of the United States, serving from 1977 to 1981 and the recipient of the 2002 Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzezinski (Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzeziński ˈzbigɲev bʐɛˈʑiɲski: (born March 28 1928 Warsaw, Poland) is a Polish-American S. military involvement in Afghanistan in several magazines. [16][17]

Covert action

The discussion below draws on author Steve Coll's account. [18]

The policy dispute between CIA's Near East Division and the U. S. State Department, regarding political settlement versus continued fighting in Afghanistan, which was initiated between McWilliams and Bearden in 1989, continues with new protagonists, CIA's Thomas Twetten and State's new special envoy to the Afghan resistance, Peter Tomsen. Thomas Tweeten (born 1935) was a Central Intelligence Agency case officer This is a list of United States Ambassadors to Afghanistan. Prior to 1948 Afghanistan was not considered important enough to have a full ambassador so a Minister [19]

Civil war develops as the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) and CIA-supported Gulbadin Hekmatyar seeks to violently eliminate all rivals, including the CIA-supported Ahmed Shah Massoud. History After independence in 1947 two new intelligence agencies were created in Pakistan called the Intelligence Bureau (IB and Military Intelligence Gulbuddin Hekmatyar ( ګلبدین حکمتیار) (born 1947 is an Islamist Mujahideen leader and former warlord. Ahmad Shah Massoud ( (2 September 1953 &ndash 9 September 2001 was a Tajik Kabul University engineering student turned military leader who played a leading In spite of this internecine warfare, ISI and CIA formulate a plan to topple the Najibullah government in a winter offensive on Kabul. Najibullah ( Pashto: نجيب الله; born August 1947 killed September 27, 1996) was the fourth and last President of the } Kābul ( Persian and Pashto: کابل, IPA:) is the Capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with As part of this offensive, CIA pays Massoud $500,000, over and above his monthly stipend of $200,000, to close the Salang Highway. Kotal-e Salang or Salang Pass (el 3878 m is the major Mountain pass connecting northern Afghanistan and Kabul province, with further connections Massoud fails to do so, and in consequence, his allowance is reduced to $50,000 per month.

In Spring of 1990, ISI hopes to install Gulbadin Hekmatyar contingent on defeating the Najibullah government. Gulbuddin Hekmatyar ( ګلبدین حکمتیار) (born 1947 is an Islamist Mujahideen leader and former warlord. Hekmatyar also acquires milllions of dollars in additional funding from Osama bin Laden, thus placing ISI, CIA and bin Laden in joint venture. Osama bin Laden, with some spelling variations is the name used in English to refer to (أسامة بن محمد بن عوض بن لادن born 10 March On March 7, 1990, Gulbadin Hekmatyar and Shahnawaz Tanai attempts a coup, with Tanai, a member of Najibullah's government, orchestrating an attack using Najibullah's own forces against Najibullah's palace, with Hekmatyar's forces to follow up from outside Kabul. Events 161 - Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius dies and is succeeded by co-Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) Gulbuddin Hekmatyar ( ګلبدین حکمتیار) (born 1947 is an Islamist Mujahideen leader and former warlord. Lieut Gen Shahnawaz Tanai is a former communist general He was chief of Afghanistan's army under the Soviet -backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Najibullah ( Pashto: نجيب الله; born August 1947 killed September 27, 1996) was the fourth and last President of the The money to buy the loyalty of Najibullah's troops comes in part from Osama bin Laden. Osama bin Laden, with some spelling variations is the name used in English to refer to (أسامة بن محمد بن عوض بن لادن born 10 March This attempt fails.

At the same time, ISI asks "bin Laden for money to bribe legislators to throw Benazir Bhutto out of office". Benazir Bhutto ( Sindhi: بينظير ڀٽو Urdu: بینظیر بھٹو beːnəziːɾ bɦʊʈːoː (21 June 1953 &ndash 27 December 2007 was a "That winter, then, bin Laden worked with Pakistani intelligence against both Najibullah and Bhutto, the perceived twin enemies of Islam they saw holding power in Kabul and Islamabad", according to author Steve Coll. Regarding the issue of whether bin Laden was acting alone or as an agent of Saudi intelligence, Coll writes (see the concept of plausible deniability):

"Did bin Laden work on the Tanai coup attempt on his own or as a semi-official liaison for Saudi intelligence? The evidence seems thin and inconclusive. The Re'asat Al Istikhabarat Al A'amah (رئاسة الاستخبارات العامة or the General Intelligence Presidency GIP (رئاسة الاستخبارات العامة Plausible deniability refers to the denial of blame in loose and informal chains of command where upper rungs quarantine the blame to the lower rungs Bin Laden was still in good graces with the Saudi government at the time of the Tanai coup attempt; his first explicit break with Prince Turki and the royal family lay months in the future. Turki bin Faisal Al Saud (born February 15, 1945) most commonly referenced as Turki al Faisal is the former Director General of Saudi Arabia's While the CIA's Afghan informants named bin Laden as a funder of the Hekmatyar-Tanai coup, other accounts named Saudi intelligence as the source of funds. Were these separate funding tracks or the same? None of the reports then or later were firm or definitive. "It was the beginning of a pattern for American intelligence analysts: Whenever bin Laden interacted with his own Saudi government, he seemed to do so inside a shroud. "

Note that, in a grand historical coincidence, in the investigation following the assassination of Benazir Bhutto on December 27, 2007, Pakistan's Interior Minisry has laid the blame on "Baitullah Mehsud, a Taliban commander who holds sway across a large part of South Waziristan",[20] i. The assassination of Benazir Bhutto occurred on December 27 2007 in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Baitullah Mahsud ( Urdu: بیت اللہ محسود born ca 1974) is a leading tribal militia leader in Waziristan, Pakistan. The Taliban ( طالبان, also anglicised as Taleban; translation "students" is a Sunni Islamist, predominately South Waziristan ( Pashto: جنوبی وزیرستان is the southern part of Waziristan, a mountainous region of northwest Pakistan, bordering Afghanistan e. on an Al Queda-linked group, while Bhutto herself, in a letter she wrote prior to her death and subsequent to two prior attempts, laid the blame at the ISI's doorstep. Al-Qaeda, alternatively spelled al-Qaida, al-Qa`ida or al-Qa`idah, ( Arabic:; ar-Latn ''al-qāʿidah'' Translation: The In light of the above, perhaps both assertions are correct.

Afghanistan 1991

According to Human Rights Watch,[21] there was a dispute, inside the US government, with the State Department on one side, and the CIA and its Pakistani counterpart, ISI, on the other. Human Rights Watch is a United States -based international Non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on Human rights. HRW said the The New York Times, in January 1991, said Undersecretary of State for Political Affairs Robert Kimmitt had "battled with [CIA] officials who would like to unleash the guerrillas in Afghanistan in one last effort," while United States Secretary of State James Baker worked to "coax the rebels and the Najibullah regime into democratic elections. The Under Secretary for Political Affairs is the third ranking position in the United States Department of State, after the Secretary and the Deputy Secretary Robert M Kimmitt (born December 19, 1947) is the current Deputy Secretary of the Department of the Treasury. The United States Secretary of State (commonly abbreviated as SecState) is the head of the United States Department of State, concerned with Foreign affairs See also James Addison Baker James Addison Baker III (born April 28 1930) is a American attorney politician political " In the interview, Kimmitt complained that agency officials were "just bucking policy. " In February, as negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union remained stalled, HRW again cited The New York Times reported that "the [CIA], in a long policy dispute with the State Department that it now appears to be winning, has been arguing that negotiations cannot end the war and that Washington should step up its efforts to help the guerrillas win a military victory. "

Since the early 1980s, according to HRW, the ISI and CIA has used their control over the arms pipeline to run the war and favor abusive mujahedin parties, particularly Gulbuddin Hekmatyar's faction, which used U. Gulbuddin Hekmatyar ( ګلبدین حکمتیار) (born 1947 is an Islamist Mujahideen leader and former warlord. S. - and Saudi-financed weapons to launch indiscriminate attacks on Afghan cities, killing countless civilians.

Afghanistan 1992

See also: Civil war in Afghanistan (1992-1996) and Civil war in Afghanistan (1996-2001)

Afghanistan 2001

See also: War in Afghanistan (2001–present) and Timeline of the War in Afghanistan (2001-present)

Afghanistan 2005

Intelligence analysis

Speaking to the Senate Intelligence Committee in early 2005, Porter Goss[22] said Afghanistan is on the "road to recovery after decades of instability and civil war. The War in Afghanistan, which began on October 7 2001 as the U Porter Johnston Goss (born December 10 1938) is an American politician, who was the last Director of Central Intelligence and the first Hamid Karzai's election to the presidency was a major milestone. Elections for a new National Assembly and local district councils--tentatively scheduled for this spring--will complete the process of electing representatives. President Karzai still faces a low-level insurgency aimed at destabilizing the country, raising the cost of reconstruction and ultimately forcing Coalition forces to leave.

"The development of the Afghan National Army and a national police force is going well, although neither can yet stand on its own.

References

  1. ^ Singer, Daniel (December 13, 1999), “Exploiting a Tragedy, or Le Rouge en Noir”, The Nation, <http://www.thenation.com/doc/19991213/singer/3> 
  2. ^ a b c d Morris, Roger (June 27, 2007), “THE GATES INHERITANCE, Part 3, The World that Bob made”, Asia Times, <http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/IF27Ak02.html>. Events 1358 - Republic of Dubrovnik is founded 1709 - Peter the Great defeats Charles XII of Sweden Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 19 December 2007 
  3. ^ National Foreign Assessment Center, Central Intelligence Agency (1 March 1980), “Afghanistan: Ethnic Diversity and Dissidence”, September 11 Sourcebooks, Volume II, Afghanistan: Lessons of the Last War. U. S. Analysis of the Soviet War in Afghanistan: Declassified, vol. George Washington University National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book 57, <http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB57/us1.pdf> 
  4. ^ Ostermann, Christian Friedrich (2003). "New Evidence on the War in Afghanistan". Cold War International History Project Bulletin (14/15).  
  5. ^ 1986-1992: CIA and British Recruit and Train Militants Worldwide to Help Fight Afghan War. Cooperative Research History Commons. Retrieved on 2007-01-09. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 475 - Byzantine Emperor Zeno is forced to flee his capital at Constantinople.
  6. ^ Office of Political Analysis, Directorate of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency (23 September 1980), “The Soviets and the Tribes of Southwest Asia”, September 11 Sourcebooks, Volume II, Afghanistan: Lessons of the Last War. U. S. Analysis of the Soviet War in Afghanistan: Declassified, vol. George Washington University National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book 57, <http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB57/us2.pdf> 
  7. ^ Sullivan, Tim; Singer, Matt & Rawson, Jessica, What were policymakers’ and intelligence services’ respective roles in the decision to deploy Stinger Missiles to the anticommunist Afghan mujahedin during the rebels’ struggle with the Soviet Union?, Georgetown University, <http://www12.georgetown.edu/students/organizations/nscs/capitalscholar/Fall2006/Soviet%20Union%20and%20Stinger%20Missiles.htm> 
  8. ^ Coll,Steve (2005). Ghost Wars. Penguin, pp. 125-128.  
  9. ^ Pervez Hoodbhoy (17-21 July 2003), “Afghanistan and the Genesis of Global Jihad”, 53rd Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs: Advancing Human Security: The Role of Technology and Politics, <http://www.pugwash.org/reports/pac/53/hoodbhoy.htm> 
  10. ^ Afghanistan / Pakistan - UNGOMAP - Background United Nations Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan.
  11. ^ "Rogue State: A Guide to the World's Only Superpower" by William Blum
  12. ^ How Jimmy Carter and I Started the Mujahideen (Interview of Zbigniew Brzezinski). Le Nouvel Observateur (1998-01-21). Le Nouvel Observateur (often shorten to Le Nouvel Obs) is a weekly French Newsmagazine. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) Events 1189 - Philip II of France and Richard I of England begin to assemble troops to wage the Third Crusade. Retrieved on 2007-02-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 211 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus dies leaving the Roman Empire in the hands of his two quarrelsome sons
  13. ^ Director of Central Intelligence (November 1989), Special National Intelligence Estimate 37-89, "Afghanistan: the War in Perspective", <https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/at-cold-wars-end-us-intelligence-on-the-soviet-union-and-eastern-europe-1989-1991/16526pdffiles/SNIE11-37-89.pdf> 
  14. ^ Coll,Steve (2005). Ghost Wars. Penguin, pp. 190-199.  
  15. ^ “Al-Qaeda's origins and links”, BBC News, 20 July 2004, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1670089.stm> 
  16. ^ Interview with Dr. Zbigniew Brzezinski, George Washington University National Security Archive, 13 June 1967, <http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/coldwar/interviews/episode-17/brzezinski1.html> 
  17. ^ “The CIA's Intervention in Afghanistan: interview with Zbigniew Brzezinski”, Le Nouvel Observateur, 15-21 January 1998, <http://www.globalresearch.ca/articles/BRZ110A.html> 
  18. ^ Coll,Steve (2005). Ghost Wars. Penguin, pp. 205-212.  
  19. ^ "Statement on Afghanistan: In Pursuit of Security and Democracy" by Peter Tomsen, statement to U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee, October 16, 2003
  20. ^ "Bhutto's party rejects youth's assassination confession" by Declan Walsh, The Guardian, January 21, 2008
  21. ^ Human Rights Watch (1991), Afghanistan: Human Rights Watch, <http://www.hrw.org/reports/1992/WR92/ASW-01.htm#P105_37202> 
  22. ^ Goss, Porter (16 February 2005), Global Intelligence Challenges 2005, <http://www.acronym.org.uk/docs/0503/doc09.htm> 
Porter Johnston Goss (born December 10 1938) is an American politician, who was the last Director of Central Intelligence and the first
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