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The terms Byzantine Empire (a historiographical term used since the 19th century) and Eastern Roman Empire are expressions used to describe the Roman Empire of the Middle Ages, centered on its capital of Constantinople, referred to by its inhabitants simply as the Roman Empire (in Greek Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων) or Romania (Ῥωμανία), its emperors continuing the unbroken succession of Roman emperors, preserving Greco-Roman legal and cultural traditions; to the Islamic world it was known primarily as روم (Rûm, "land of the Romans"). The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly This is a list of the Emperors of the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly known as the Byzantine Empire by modern historians The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC In modern Olympic and amateur Wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling is a particular style and variation The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings Rûm, also Roum or Rhum (in Arabic الرُّومُ ar-Rūm, Persian / Turkish Rum) is a very indefinite Due to the dominance of Medieval Greek language, culture and population,[3] it was known to many of its western European contemporaries as Empire of the Greeks. Medieval Greek (Μεσαιωνική Ελληνική is a linguistic term that describes the fourth period in the history of the Greek language.
As an outgrowth of the eastern portion of Empire founded in Rome, the Byzantine Empire's evolution into a separate culture from the West can be seen as a process beginning with Emperor Constantine's transferring the capital from Nicomedia in Anatolia to Byzantium on the Bosphorus (then renamed Nova Roma, and later Constantinople). Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine Nicomedia ( Greek: Νικομήδεια modern İzmit) was founded by Nicomedes I of Bithynia at the head of the Gulf of Astacus which opens Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black This article is about the city See also Byzantine Empire. Byzantium ( Greek: Βυζάντιον Latin: la BYZANTIVM The Bosporus or Bosphorus, also known as the Istanbul Strait, (İstanbul Boğazı (Βόσπορος is a Strait that forms the boundary between the By the 7th century under the reign of Emperor Heraclius, whose reforms changed the nature of the Empire's military and recognized Greek as the official language, the Empire had taken on a distinct new character. Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East The Byzantine army was the primary military body of the Byzantine armed forces serving alongside the Byzantine navy.
During its existence the Empire suffered numerous setbacks and losses of territory yet it remained one of the most powerful economic, cultural and military forces in Europe. The empire's influence also spread into North Africa and the near East for much of the Middle Ages. After a final recovery under the Komnenian dynasty in the 12th century the Empire slipped into a long decline culminating in the capture of Constantinople and the remaining Roman/Greek territories by the Ottoman Turks in the 15th century. The Komnenian restoration is the term used by Byzantinists to describe the military financial and territorial recovery of the Byzantine Empire under the Komnenian The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire on Tuesday May 29, 1453 (Julian Calendar The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish
During her thousand-year reign, the Empire, a bastion of Christianity and one of the prime trade centers in the world, helped to shield Western Europe from early Muslim expansion, provided a stable gold currency for the Mediterranean region, influenced the laws, political systems, and customs of much of Europe and the Middle East, and preserved much of the literary works and scientific knowledge of ancient Greece, Rome, and many other cultures. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The history of the Mediterranean region is the History of the interaction of the cultures and peoples of the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC
Etymology
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For more details on this topic, see Names of the Greeks. Since the time of Homer, some Greeks have called themselves Hellenes ( in Homer "Hellas" (Eλλάς and "Hellenes" were names of
| Byzantine Empire Timeline | |
|---|---|
| 667 BC | The ancient city of Byzantium (the future Constantinople and future Istanbul) is founded. Events The Daysan River floods Edessa in Asia The city of Oderzo is destroyed by the Lombards. This article is about the city See also Byzantine Empire. Byzantium ( Greek: Βυζάντιον Latin: la BYZANTIVM Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey |
| 27 BC | The rise of the Roman Empire. Year 27 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial |
| ca. 235 - 284 | The "crisis of the 3rd century". Events By Place Roman Empire Pressure on Rome by Goths, Quadi, Sassanids Franks and Alemanni Events By Place Roman Empire November 20 — Diocletian becomes Emperor. Crisis of the Third Century (or "Military Anarchy" or "Imperial Crisis" was the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 |
| 292 | The reforms of Diocletian ("The Tetrarchy") |
| 330 | Constantine makes Byzantium into his capital (Nova Roma), which is renamed "Constantinople" (The City of Constantine), sometime after Constantine's death in 337. Events By Place Roman Empire Constantius Chlorus divorces Helena mother of Constantine the Great (approximate date Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals Events By Place Roman Empire May 11 — Constantine I refounds Byzantium, renames it New Rome Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine Events By Place Roman Empire September 9 — Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans succeed their It would remain the capital of the Byzantine Empire, with a half-century exception, for over a thousand years. |
| 395 | The Empire is permanently split into eastern and western halves, following on the death of Theodosius I. Events By Place Roman Empire After the death of emperor Theodosius I, the Empire is re-divided into an eastern and a western half The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern Flavius Theodosius (January 11 347 – January 17 395 also called Theodosius I and Theodosius the Great ( Greek: Θεοδόσιος Α΄ |
| 527 | Justinian I is crowned "emperor". For the political lobbying groups see 527 groups Events By Place Byzantine Empire April 1 — Byzantine Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus ( Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; known in English as Justinian I or An emperor (from the Latin " Imperator " is a (male Monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an Empire or another type of |
| April 7, 529 | The Codex Justinianus is promulgated. Events 529 - First draft of Corpus Juris Civilis (a fundamental work in Jurisprudence) is issued by Eastern Roman Emperor Events By Place Byzantine Empire April 7 — The first draft of Corpus Juris Civilis (a fundamental work in The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 |
| 532–537 |
The Emperor, Justinian, builds the church of Hagia Sophia |
| 533–554 | Justinian's generals reconquer North Africa and Italy from the Vandals and the Ostrogoths. Events By Place Byzantine Empire January 11 — Nika riots in Constantinople: The cathedral is destroyed Events By Place Byzantine Empire December 27 — The construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is completed Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya Αγία Σοφία " Holy Wisdom " Sancta Sophia or Sancta Sapientia) is a former patriarchal Basilica, later Events By Place Byzantine Empire June 21 - Belisarius sails from Constantinople. Events By Place Byzantine Empire General Narses reconquers all of Italy North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Th Italian Peninsula or Apennine Peninsula (Penisola italiana or Penisola appenninica) is one of the three Peninsulas of Southern Europe The Ostrogoths (Ostrogothi or Austrogothi were a branch of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe that played a major role in the political events of the late |
| 568 | The Lombard invasion results in the loss of most of Italy. Events By Place Europe April 1 — King Alboin leads the Lombards into Italy refugees fleeing from them go on The Lombards ( Latin Langobardi, whence the alternative names Langobards and Longobards) were a Germanic people originally from |
| 634–641 | The Arab armies conquer the Levant and Egypt. Events By Place Oswald of Northumbria defeats Cadwallon ap Cadfan of Gwynedd in the Battle of Heavenfield and Events By Place Europe Chindaswinth deposes Tulga, and becomes king of the Visigoths. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the Ægyptus redirects here See Egypt Province for the province of the Ottoman Empire In the following decades, they take most of North Africa (and later conquer Sicily as well). Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. |
| 697 | The Byzantine city of Carthage in North Africa (capital of the Exarchate of Africa) falls to the Arab invasion. Events By Place Asia Emperor Mommu succeeds Empress Jitō on the throne of Japan Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding |
| 730–787 and 813–843 | The Iconoclasm controversies result in the loss of most of the Empire's remaining Italian territories, aside from some of the territories of the Mezzogiorno. Events By Place Europe Charles Martel defeats the last independent dukedom of the Alamanni, and launches raids on the Saxons Events By Place Europe Canual succeeds Talorgen as king of the Picts. Events By Place Byzantine Empire June 22 — Byzantine Emperor Michael I Rangabe is defeated in a war against the Events By Place Europe The Treaty of Verdun divides the Carolingian Empire between the 3 sons of Louis the Iconoclasm, Greek for "image-breaking" is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious Icons and other symbols or monuments Geography Southern Italy forms the lower "boot" of the Italian peninsula containing the ankle (Abruzzo and Molise and southern Lazio the toe (Calabria and the heel |
| 843–1025 | The Macedonian dynasty is established and the Empire experiences a military and territorial revival. Events By Place Europe The Treaty of Verdun divides the Carolingian Empire between the 3 sons of Louis the The following is a list of emperors of the Byzantine Empire belonging to the Macedonian dynasty (also known as the Armenian Dynasty) of Armenian Byzantine scholars record and preserve many of the remaining ancient Greek and Roman texts. Scholarly method &mdash or as it is more commonly called scholarship &mdash is the body of principles and practices used by scholars to make their claims about the world as The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c TEXT is the band founded by Kristofer Steen David Sandström Fredrik Bäckström and Jon F Brännström |
| 960–1042 | The Byzantine Empire deals a string of defeats upon the forces of the Abassid and Fatimid Caliphate, reconquering parts of Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine. Events By Place Europe Edgar the Peaceable is crowned King of England. |
| 1002–1018 | The Emperor, Basil II, campaigns annually against the Bulgarians, with the object of annihilating the Bulgar state. Basil II, surnamed the Bulgar-slayer (Βασίλειος Β΄ Βουλγαροκτόνος Basileios II Boulgaroktonos, 958 &ndash December 15 1025 The Bulgarians (българи balgari) are a South Slavic people generally associated with the Republic of Bulgaria and the Bulgarian language |
| 1014 | The Bulgarian army is completely defeated at the Battle of Kleidon (Basil II becomes known as The Bulgar Slayer). The Battle of Kleidion (bg Битка при с Ключ Битка при Беласица Беласишка битка grc Μάχη του Κλειδίου also Clidium |
| 1018 | Bulgaria surrenders and is annexed to the empire. The whole of the Balkans is incorporated into the Byzantine Empire, with the Danube as the new Imperial frontier to the north. The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj |
| 1025 | With the death of Basil II, the zenith of the Empire's power is passed and the long decline of the Byzantine Empire begins. Basil II, surnamed the Bulgar-slayer (Βασίλειος Β΄ Βουλγαροκτόνος Basileios II Boulgaroktonos, 958 &ndash December 15 1025 |
| 1054 | The Schism (split between Church in Rome and the Church in Constantinople). The East-West Schism, or the Great Schism, divided medieval Christendom into Eastern (Greek and Western (Latin branches which later became known as the |
| 1071 | The Emperor, Romanos IV, is defeated by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert, losing his position in most of Asia Minor. The Seljuq (also Seljuq Turks, Seldjuks, Seldjuqs, Seljuks; in Turkish Selçuklular; in Ṣaljūqīyān; in The Battle of Manzikert, or Malazgirt, was fought between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuq forces led by Alp Arslan on August 26 1071 near Manzikert Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black In the same year, the last Byzantine outpost in Italy (Bari) is conquered by the Normans. Bari ( Barium in Latin, Bàrion or Vàrion in Greek, Bare in Neapolitan The Normans were the people who gave their names to Normandy, a region in northern France. |
| 1081 | The Komnenos dynasty is established by Alexios I and Byzantium becomes involved in the Crusades. Alexios I Komnenos, or Comnenus (Greek Αλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός (1048 &ndash August 15, 1118) Byzantine emperor (1081&ndash1118 The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents Economic prosperity generates new wealth; literature and the arts reach new heights. An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area Wealth derives from the old English word "weal" which means "well-being Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual In Anatolia, the Turks become established. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black The Turkish people (Türk Halkı also known as " Turks " ( Türkler) are defined mainly as being speakers of Turkish as a First language |
| 1091 | The Imperial armies defeat the Pechenegs at the Battle of Levounion. The Pechenegs or Patzinaks ( Turkish: Peçenekler, Hungarian: Besenyő, Greek: Patzinaki/Petsenegi or Πατζινάκοι/Πετσενέγοι/Πατζινακίται The Battle of Levounion was the first decisive Byzantine victory of the Komnenian restoration. |
| 1097 | The recapture of Nicaea from the Turks by the Byzantine armies and the First Crusaders. The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II with the dual goals of conquering the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land and freeing |
| 1097-1176 | The Byzantine armies recapture the coasts of Asia Minor from the Turks, and push east towards central Anatolia. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black The Crusader Principality of Antioch becomes a Byzantine protectorate. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The Principality of Antioch, including parts of modern-day Turkey and Syria, was one of the Crusader states created during the First Crusade In International law, a protectorate is a autonomous territory that is "protected" by a stronger state or entity hense the protector which engages to protect |
| 1122 | The Byzantines defeat the Pechenegs at the Battle of Beroia. The Battle of Beroia (modern Stara Zagora) was fought between the Pechenegs and Emperor John II Komnenos of the Byzantine Empire in the |
| 1167 | The Byzantine armies win a decisive victory over the Hungarians at the Battle of Sirmium and Hungary subsequently becomes a Byzantine client state. The Kingdom of Hungary (short form Hungary) was a considerable state in Central Europe that existed from 1001 to 1918 then from 1919 to 1946 The Battle of Sirmium or Battle of Zemun (Hungarian zimonyi csata) was fought on July 8, 1167 between the Byzantine Empire (also Client state is one of several terms used to describe the subordination of one state to a more powerful state in international affairs |
| 1176 | Byzantine-Seljuk Wars: Manuel I Komnenos is defeated at the Battle of Myriokephalon; attempts to capture Konya, the capital of the Seljuk Turks are abandoned after the destruction of his siege equipment. For the eldest son of Andronikos I Komnenos and father of Alexios I of Trebizond, see Manuel Komnenos (born 1145. The Battle of Myriokephalon, also known as the Myriocephalum, or Miryakefalon Savaşı in Turkish, was a battle between the Byzantine Empire Konya ( قونیه; also Koniah, Konieh, Konia, and Qunia; historically also known as Iconium ( Latin The Seljuq (also Seljuq Turks, Seldjuks, Seldjuqs, Seljuks; in Turkish Selçuklular; in Ṣaljūqīyān; in Within a year Manuel recovers the situation status quo ante bellum. |
| 1180 | With the death of the Emperor, Manuel I Komnenos, the decline of the Empire recommences. |
| 1185 | A successful rebellion is organized in Bulgaria and other lands are lost in the Balkans. |
| 1204 | Constantinople is conquered by Crusaders, attempting to establish a Latin Empire. The Fourth Crusade (1202&ndash1204 was originally designed to conquer Muslim Jerusalem by means of an invasion through Egypt. The Latin Empire or Latin Empire of Constantinople (original Latin name Imperium Romaniae, " Empire of Romania " is the |
| 1261 | Constantinople is reconquered by the Patriarch of Constantinople sponsored Emperor of Nicaea, Michael VIII Palaiologos, re-establishing Greek rule of a terminally diminished empire. "Patriarch of Constantinople" redirects here For the institutional church itself see Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. The Empire of Nicaea ( Greek: Βασίλειον τῆς Νίκαιας Turkish: İznik İmparatorluğu) was the largest of the Byzantine Michael VIII Palaiologos or Palaeologus ( Greek: Μιχαήλ Η΄ Παλαιολόγος Mikhaēl VIII Palaiologos) (1223 &ndash December 11 The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions |
| 1326 | The city of Prusa in Asia Minor falls to the Ottoman Turks. Bursa (historically also known as Prussa, Greek: Προύσα and later as Brusa) is a city in northwestern Turkey and the seat The Ottoman Turks were the subdivision of the Ottoman Muslim Millet that dominated the ruling class of the Ottoman Empire. |
| 1331 | The city of Nicaea, capital of the Empire only 100 years previously, falls to the Ottoman Turks. The Ottoman Turks were the subdivision of the Ottoman Muslim Millet that dominated the ruling class of the Ottoman Empire. |
| 1453 | The Ottoman Turks conquer Constantinople, and with the death of Constantine XI Palaiologos, the last emperor of the Byzantine Empire, the Byzantine Empire comes to an end, marking final destruction of the Roman Empire. The Ottoman Turks were the subdivision of the Ottoman Muslim Millet that dominated the ruling class of the Ottoman Empire. Constantine XI Palaiologos or Palaeologus ( Greek: Κωνσταντίνος ΙΑ' Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος Kōnstantinos XI Dragasēs Palaiologos The Palaiologos or Palaeologus ( Greek: Παλαιολόγος pl |
The term "Byzantine Empire" is an invention of historians and was never used during the Empire's lifetime. The Empire's name in Greek was Basileia Rhōmaiōn (Greek: Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων) — "The Empire of the Romans" — a translation of the Latin name of the Roman Empire (Latin: Imperium Romanōrum); or just Rhōmania (Greek: Ῥωμανία). Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly
The term "Byzantine" itself comes from "Byzantium", the name that the city of Constantinople had before it became the capital of Constantine. This article is about the city See also Byzantine Empire. Byzantium ( Greek: Βυζάντιον Latin: la BYZANTIVM Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts.
The designation of the Empire as "Byzantine" began in Western Europe in 1557, when German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ, a collection of Byzantine sources. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as Hieronymus Wolf (1516–1580 was a sixteenth century German Historian and humanist, most famous for introducing a system of Byzantine historiography The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre (Corpus Scriptorum Historiæ Byzantinæ), and in 1680 of Du Cange's Historia Byzantina further popularized the use of Byzantine among French authors, such as Montesquieu. Charles du Fresne sieur du Cange or Ducange ( Amiens, December 18, 1610 &ndash Paris, October 23, 1688) was Charles-Louis de Secondat baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (Eng [4] It was not until the 19th century, however, with the birth of modern Greece, that the term "Byzantine" came into general use in the Western world. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings
Before this, the Empire was described by Western Europeans as Imperium Graecorum (Empire of the Greeks)—Byzantine claims to Roman inheritance had been actively contested from at least the time of the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in 800. Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states Pope Leo III (died June 12, 816) was Pope from 795 to 816 Protected by Charlemagne from his enemies in Rome he subsequently strengthened Whenever the Popes or the rulers of the West wanted to make use of the name Roman to refer to the Byzantine emperors, they preferred the term Imperator Romaniæ instead of Imperator Romanorum, a title that Westerners maintained applied only to Charlemagne and his successors. History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and [5]
Origin
- See also: Late Antiquity
The Tetrarchy
During the 3rd century, three crises threatened the Roman Empire: external invasions, internal civil wars and an economy riddled with weaknesses and problems. [6] The city of Rome gradually became less important as an administrative centre. The crisis of the 3rd century displayed the defects of the heterogeneous system of government that Augustus had established to administer his immense dominion. Crisis of the Third Century (or "Military Anarchy" or "Imperial Crisis" was the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was His successors had introduced some modifications, but events made it clearer that a new, more centralised and more uniform system was required. [7]
Diocletian was responsible for creating a new administrative system (the tetrarchy). Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals [7] He associated himself with a co-emperor, or Augustus. Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman Each Augustus was then to adopt a young colleague, or Caesar, to share in the rule and eventually to succeed the senior partner. Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character After the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, however, the tetrachy collapsed, and Constantine I replaced it with the dynastic principle of hereditary succession. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Herculius (c 250 &ndash c Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine [8]
Constantine I and his successors
Constantine moved the seat of the Empire, and introduced important changes into its civil and religious constitution. [10] In 330, he founded Constantinople as a second Rome on the site of Byzantium, which was well-positioned astride the trade routes between East and West; it was a superb base from which to guard the Danube river, and was reasonably close to the Eastern frontiers. The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj Constantine also began the building of the great fortified walls, which were expanded and rebuilt in subsequent ages. The Walls of Constantinople are a series of stone walls that have surrounded and protected the city of Constantinople (today Istanbul in Turkey) since its J. B. Bury asserts that "the foundation of Constantinople [. John Bagnell Bury ( 16 October 1861 &ndash 1 June 1927) known as J . . ] inaugurated a permanent division between the Eastern and Western, the Greek and the Latin, halves of the Empire—a division to which events had already pointed—and affected decisively the whole subsequent history of Europe. The history of Europe describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present day "[7]
Constantine built upon the administrative reforms introduced by Diocletian. [11] He stabilized the coinage (the gold solidus that he introduced became a highly prized and stable currency[12]), and made changes to the structure of the army. To divide administrative responsibilities, Constantine replaced the single praetorian prefect, who had traditionally exercised both military and civil functions, with regional prefects enjoying civil authority alone. Praetorian prefect (Latin Praefectus praetorio) was the constant title of a high office in the Roman state that changed fundamentally in nature In the course of the 4th century, four great sections emerged from these Constantinian beginnings, and the practice of separating civil from military authority persisted until the 7th century. [13]
Under Constantine, Christianity did not become the exclusive religion of the state, but enjoyed imperial preference, since the Emperor supported it with generous privileges: clerics were exempted from personal services and taxation, Christians were preferred for administrative posts, and bishops were entrusted with judicial responsibilities. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Persecutions See also Persecution of Christians The first recorded significant persecution of Christians at the hands of the authorities of the Roman Empire [14] Constantine established the principle that emperors should not settle questions of doctrine, but should summon general ecclesiastical councils for that purpose. This is a general introduction to ecumenical councils For the Roman Catholic councils, see Catholic Ecumenical Councils. The Synod of Arles was convened by Constantine, and the First Council of Nicaea showcased his claim to be head of the Church. Arles in the south of Roman Gaul, modern France hosted several councils (Concilium Arelatense or Synods in the early Christian church The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea in Bithynia (present-day İznik in Turkey) convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine [15]
The state of the Empire in 395 may be described in terms of the outcome of Constantine's work. The dynastic principle was established so firmly that the emperor who died in that year, Theodosius I, could bequeath the imperial office jointly to his sons: Arcadius in the East and Honorius in the West. Flavius Theodosius (January 11 347 – January 17 395 also called Theodosius I and Theodosius the Great ( Greek: Θεοδόσιος Α΄ Flavius Arcadius (377/378&ndash May 1, 408) was Byzantine Emperor in the Eastern half of the Roman Empire from 395 until his death Flavius Honorius ( September 9, 384 &ndash August 15, 423) was Roman Emperor (393- 395 and then Western Roman Emperor Theodosius was the last emperor to rule over the full extent of the empire in both its halves. [16]
Early history
The Eastern Empire was largely spared the difficulties faced by the West in the third and fourth centuries, due in part to a more firmly established urban culture and greater financial resources, which allowed it to placate invaders with tribute and pay barbarian mercenaries. A tribute (from Latin tribulum, contribution is wealth one party gives to another as a sign of respect or as was often case in historical contexts of submission A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict who is not a national or a party to the conflict and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by Throughout the fifth century, various invading armies overran the Western Empire but spared the east. Theodosius II further fortified the walls of Constantinople, leaving the city impenetrable to attacks; they were not breached until 1204. Flavius Theodosius ( 10 April, 401 – July 28, 450) called the Calligrapher, known in English as Theodosius II, was The Walls of Constantinople are a series of stone walls that have surrounded and protected the city of Constantinople (today Istanbul in Turkey) since its To fend off the Huns of Attila, Theodosius gave them subsidies (purportedly 300 kg (700 lb) of gold). The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy [17] Moreover, he favored merchants living in Constantinople who traded with the barbarians.
His successor, Marcian, refused to continue to pay this exorbitant sum. Flavius Marcianus, known in English as Marcian, (396 &ndash January 457 was the emperor of the Byzantine Empire from 450 until his death However, Attila had already diverted his attention to the Western Roman Empire. [18] After he died in 453, his empire collapsed and Constantinople initiated a profitable relationship with the remaining Huns, who would eventually fight as mercenaries in Byzantine armies. [19]
After the fall of Attila, the true chief in Constantinople was the Alan general Aspar. The Alans or Alani (occasionally but more rarely termed Alauni or Halani) were an Iranian nomadic group among the Sarmatian people Flavius Ardabur Aspar ( c 400 - 471 an Alan, was Patrician and Magister militum ("Master of soldiers" of the Eastern Roman Leo I managed to free himself from the influence of the barbarian chief by supporting the rise of the Isaurians, a semi-barbarian tribe living in southern Anatolia. Isauria (Ισαυρία in ancient geography is a rugged isolated district in the interior of South Asia Minor, of very different extent at different periods but generally "Barbarian" is a pejorative term for an uncivilized person either in a general reference to a member of a nation or Ethnos perceived Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Aspar and his son Ardabur were murdered in a riot in 471, and henceforth, Constantinople was freed from the influence of barbarian leaders for centuries. [20]
Leo was also the first emperor to receive the crown not from a military leader, as was the Roman tradition, but from the Patriarch of Constantinople, representing the ecclesiastical hierarchy. "Patriarch of Constantinople" redirects here For the institutional church itself see Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. This change became permanent, and in the Middle Ages the religious characteristic of the coronation completely supplanted the old military form. In 468, Leo unsuccessfully attempted to reconquer North Africa from the Vandals. [21] By that time, the Western Roman Empire was restricted to Italy and the lands south of the Danube as far as the Balkans (the Angles and Saxons had invaded Britain as early as 410; the Visigoths and Suebi had possessed portions of Spania since 417, and the Vandals had entered Africa in 429; Gaul was contested by the Franks under Clovis I, Burgundians, Bretons, Visigoths and some Roman remnants; and Theodoric was destined to rule in Italy until 526[16]). The Angles is a modern English word for a Germanic-speaking people who took their name from the cultural ancestral region of Angeln, a modern district located in The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410 The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East The Suebi or Suevi (from Proto-Germanic * swēbaz based on the Proto-Germanic root * swē- meaning "one's own" Spania (Provincia Spaniae was a province of the Byzantine Empire from 552 until 624 in the south of the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group Clovis I (c 466 &ndash 27 November 511) was the first King of the Franks to unite all the Frankish tribes under one ruler The Burgundians or Burgundes were an East Germanic tribe which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of Bornholm, whose The Bretons are a distinct Ethnic group located in the region of Brittany in France.
In 466, as a condition of his Isaurian alliance, Leo married his daughter Ariadne to the Isaurian Tarasicodissa, who took the name Zeno. Aelia Ariadne (died 515 was the the Empress consort of Zeno and Anastasius I of the Byzantine Empire. Flavius Zeno, original name Tarasicodissa or Trascalissaeus, Byzantine Emperor ( Circa When Leo died in 474, Zeno and Ariadne's younger son succeeded to the throne as Leo II, with Zeno as regent. Flavius Leo or Leo II ( 467 - November 17, 474) served as Byzantine Emperor from January 18 to November 17 When Leo II died later that year, Zeno became emperor. The end of the Western Empire is sometimes dated to 476, early in Zeno's reign, when the barbarian general Odoacer deposed the titular Western Emperor Romulus Augustus, but declined to replace him with another puppet. Odoacer (435–493 also known as Odovacar (from the Germanic Audawakrs, meaning "watchful of wealth" was a Roman general and the Romulus Augustus (c 461/463 &ndash after 476 sometimes known as Romulus Augustulus ( Little Augustus) was the last Western Roman Emperor reigning from
To recover Italy, Zeno could only negotiate with the Ostrogoths of Theodoric, who had settled in Moesia. The Ostrogoths (Ostrogothi or Austrogothi were a branch of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe that played a major role in the political events of the late Moesia (Μοισία Moisía; Мизия Miziya; Moesia Мезија Mezija) was an ancient region and Roman province situated in the He sent the barbarian king to Italy as magister militum per Italiam ("commander in chief for Italy"). After the fall of Odoacer in 493, Theodoric, who had lived in Constantinople during his youth, ruled Italy on his own. Thus, by suggesting that Theodoric conquer Italy as his Ostrogothic kingdom, Zeno maintained at least a nominal supremacy in that western land while ridding the Eastern Empire of an unruly subordinate. [16]
In 475, Zeno was deposed by Basiliscus, the general who led Leo I's 468 invasion of North Africa, but he recovered the throne twenty months later. Flavius Basiliscus (d 476/477 was an Eastern Roman Emperor of the House of Leo, who ruled briefly (9 January 475–August 476 when Emperor Zeno However, he faced a new threat from another Isaurian, Leontius, who was also elected rival emperor. Leontios or Leontius (Λεόντιος LEONTIVS (d 705 was Byzantine emperor from 695 to 698 In 491 Anastasius I, an aged civil officer of Roman origin, became emperor , but it was not until 498 that the forces of the new emperor effectively took the measure of Isaurian resistance. Flavius Anastasius (Φλάβιος Ἀναστάσιος or Anastasius I (Ἀναστάσιος Β΄ (c [16] Anastasius revealed himself to be an energetic reformer and an able administrator. He perfected Constantine I's coinage system by definitively setting the weight of the copper follis, the coin used in most everyday transactions. [22] He also reformed the tax system, and permanently abolished the hated chrysargyron tax. In the Eastern Roman Empire, chrysargyron, also called chrysargyrum or collatio lustralis, was an unpopular Tax levied every four The State Treasury contained the enormous sum of 320,000 pounds of gold when he died.
Justinian I and his successors
- See also: Justinian I
Justinian I, who assumed the throne in 527, oversaw a period of Byzantine expansion into former Roman territories. Justinian, the son of an Illyrian peasant, may already have exerted effective control during the reign of his uncle, Justin I (518–527). Flavius Iustinus (c 450&ndash August 1, 527) known in English as Justin I, was an Byzantine Emperor (518&ndash527 who rose through the ranks [23] In 532, attempting to secure his eastern frontier, Justinian signed a peace treaty with Khosrau I of Persia agreeing to pay a large annual tribute to the Sassinids. Khosrau I or Khosrow I ( Chosroes I in classical sources most commonly known in Persian as Anushirvan, Persian انوشيروان meaning The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire In the same year, Justinian survived a revolt in Constantinople (the Nika riots) which ended with the death of (allegedly) thirty thousand rioters. The Nika riots (Στάση του Νίκα or Nika revolt, took place over the course of a week in Constantinople in 532. This victory solidified Justinian's power. [24] Pope Agapetus I was sent to Constantinople by the Ostrogoths king Theodahad, but failed in his mission to sign a peace with Justinian. Pope The Ostrogoths (Ostrogothi or Austrogothi were a branch of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe that played a major role in the political events of the late Theodahad (d 536 was the King of the Ostrogoths from 534 to 536 and a nephew of Theodoric the Great through his sister However, he succeeded in having the Monophysite Patriarch Anthimus I of Constantinople denounced, despite Empress Theodora's support. Monophysitism (from the Greek monos meaning 'one alone' and physis meaning 'nature' or Monophysiticism is the Christological position that Anthimus I was a Monophysite Patriarch of Constantinople from 535 - 536. Theodora ( Greek: Θεοδώρα (c 500 - June 28 548) was empress of the Byzantine Empire and the wife of Emperor Justinian The western conquests began in 533, as Justinian sent his general Belisarius to reclaim the former province of North Africa from the Vandals with a small army of about 15,000 men. Flavius Belisarius (Βελισάριος (505(? – 565 was one of the greatest Generals of the Byzantine Empire and one of the most acclaimed generals in history The Roman province of Africa was established after the Romans defeated Carthage in the Third Punic War. Success came with surprising ease, but it was not until 548 that the major local independent tribes were subdued. [24] In Ostrogothic Italy, the deaths of Theodoric the Great, his nephew and heir Athalaric, and his daughter Amalasuntha had left her murderer Theodahad on the throne despite his weakened authority. The Ostrogoths (Ostrogothi or Austrogothi were a branch of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe that played a major role in the political events of the late Theodoric the Great (454 – August 30, 526) known to the Romans as Flavius Theodoricus, was king of the Ostrogoths (471-526 ruler of Athalaric ( 516 - 2 October 534) was the King of the Ostrogoths in Italy. Amalasuntha (also known as Amalasuentha, Amalaswintha, Amalasuintha or Amalasontha) (died 535 was a queen of the Ostrogoths. Theodahad (d 536 was the King of the Ostrogoths from 534 to 536 and a nephew of Theodoric the Great through his sister In 535, a small Byzantine expedition sent to Sicily met with easy success, but the Goths soon stiffened their resistance, and victory did not come until 540, when Belisarius captured Ravenna, after successful sieges of Naples and Rome. Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Ravenna is a City and Comune in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. Naples ( Napoli, Neapolitan: Nàpule) is a historic City in southern Italy, the Capital of the [25]
Nevertheless, the Ostrogoths were soon reunited under the command of Totila and captured Rome on December 17, 546; Belisarius was eventually recalled by Justinian in early 549. Totila (died Jul 1 552) was king of the Ostrogoths from 541 until his death Events 546 - Gothic War (535–554: The Ostrogoths of King Totila Events By Place Byzantine Empire December 17 — The Ostrogoths under Totila retake Rome, bribing [26] The arrival of the Armenian eunuch Narses in Italy (late 551) with an army of some 35,000 men marked another shift in Gothic fortunes. A eunuch (ˈjuːnək is a Castrated man in particular one castrated early enough to have major hormonal consequences the term usually refers to those castrated in order to For other historical figures with similar names see Narses (disambiguation. Totila was defeated and died at the Battle of Busta Gallorum. At the Battle of Taginae (also known as the Battle of Busta Gallorum) in June/July 552, the forces of the Byzantine Empire under Narses broke His successor, Teias, was likewise defeated at the Battle of Mons Lactarius (October 552). Teia (d 552 or 553 also known as Teja, Theia, Thila, Thela, Teias, was the last Ostrogothic king in Italy. The Battle of Mons Lactarius (also known as Battle of the Vesuvius) took place in 553 during the Gothic War waged on behalf of Justinian I against Despite continuing resistance from a few Goth garrisons and two subsequent invasions by the Franks and Alamanni, the war for the Italian peninsula was at an end. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main river ( Germany [27] In 551, a noble of Visigothic Hispania, Athanagild, sought Justinian's help in a rebellion against the king, and the emperor dispatched a force under Liberius, who, although elderly, proved himself a successful military commander. The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar Athanagild (died 567 was Visigothic King of Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, today Spain and Portugal) The Byzantine empire held on to a small slice of the Spania coast until the reign of Heraclius. Spania (Provincia Spaniae was a province of the Byzantine Empire from 552 until 624 in the south of the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East [28]
In the east, Roman-Persian Wars continued until 561 when Justinian's and Khusro's envoys agreed on a 50-year peace. The History of Greece traditionally encompasses the study of the Greek people, the areas they ruled historically and the territory now composing the modern state of The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for Helladic is a modern archaeological term meant to identify a sequence of periods characterizing the culture of mainland Ancient Greece during the Bronze Age. Cycladic civilization (also known as Cycladic culture or The Cycladic period) is an Early Bronze Age culture of the Cyclades in the Aegean The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization which arose on the island of Crete. Mycenaean Greece is a cultural period of ancient Greece taking its name from the archaeological site of Mycenae in northeastern Argolis, in the Peloponnese The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The Dark Ages (ca 1150 BC–800 BC refers to Greek history from the presumed Dorian invasion and end of the Mycenaean civilization in the 11th century The archaic period in Greece ( 750 BC 480 BC) is a period of Ancient Greek history In the context of the art architecture and culture of Ancient Greece, the classical period corresponds to most of the 5th and 4th centuries The Hellenistic period of European history was the period between the death of Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon in 323 BC and the annexation Roman Greece is the period of Greek history (of Greece proper as opposed to the other centers of Hellenism in the Roman world following the Roman victory over Roman Greece See also Roman Greece The Greek peninsula became a Roman protectorate in 146 BC, and the Aegean islands were added Most of Greece was part of the Ottoman Empire from the 14th century until its declaration of independence in 1821. The history of modern Greece began with the recognition of Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1832 after the Greek War of Independence. The Greek War of Independence (1821–1829 also commonly known as the Greek Revolution (Ελληνική Επανάσταση Elliniki Epanastasi; Ottoman The Kingdom of Greece ( Greek:, Vasíleion tīs Elládos) was a state established in 1832 in the Convention of London by the Great The Axis occupation of Greece during World War II ( Η Κατοχή, I Katochi, meaning "The Occupation" began in April The Greek Civil War (ο Eμφύλιος, "the Civil War" fought from 1946 to 1949 by the Governmental forces receiving logistical support by the United Kingdom Regime of the Colonels redirects here For the Polish regime of colonels see Colonels' group. The history of the Hellenic Republic constitutes three discrete republican periods in modern Greek History: 1822 - 1832, 1924 - The economic history of the Greek World spans several millennia and encompasses many modern day nation states The military history of Greece is the history of the wars and battles of the Greek people in Greece, the Balkans and the Greek colonies in the Mediterranean In the modern history of Greece, starting from the Greek War of Independence, the Constitution of 1975/1986/2001 is the last in a series of democratically adopted Constitutions Since the time of Homer, some Greeks have called themselves Hellenes ( in Homer "Hellas" (Eλλάς and "Hellenes" were names of Greece has a rich and varied artistic history spanning some 5000 years By the mid-550s, Justinian had won victories in most theatres of operation, with the notable exception of the Balkans, which were subjected to repeated incursions from the Slavs. In 559, the Empire faced a great invasion of Kutrigurs and Sclaveni. The Kutrigurs (Kotrags/Kotzagerek/Kazarig were a horde of equestrian nomads later known as part of the Bulgars that inhabited the Eurasian plains during the dark ages The name Sclaveni was generally used to describe all Slavic peoples that the Byzantine Empire came into contact with Justinian called Belisarius out of retirement, but once the immediate danger was over, the emperor took charge himself. The news that Justinian was reinforcing his Danube fleet made the Kutrigurs anxious, and they agreed to a treaty which gave them a subsidy and safe passage back across the river. [24]
Justinian became universally famous because of his legislative work, remarkable for its sweeping character. [30] In 529 a ten-man commission chaired by John the Cappadocian revised the ancient Roman legal code, creating the new Corpus Juris Civilis, a collection of laws that came to be referred to as "Justinian's Code". A different John the Cappadocian was Patriarch from 518-520 See John of Cappadocia. Roman law is the legal system of Ancient Rome. As used in the West the term commonly refers to legal developments prior to the Roman/Byzantine state's adopting The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 In the Pandects, completed under Tribonian's direction in 533, order and system were found in the contradictory rulings of the great Roman jurists, and a textbook, the Institutiones, was issued to facilitate instruction in the law schools. Pandects ( Lat pandectae, adapted from Gr pandektes, all-containing is a name given to a compendium or digest of Roman law Tribonian (c 500–547 was a Jurist during the reign of the Emperor Justinian I, who revised the legal code of the Roman Empire. The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 The fourth book, the Novellae, consisted of collections of imperial edicts promulgated between 534 and 565. Because of his ecclesiastical policies, Justinian came into collision with the Jews, the pagans, and various Christian sects. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The latter included the Manichaeans, the Nestorians, the Monophysites, and the Arians. Manichaeism (in Modern Persian fa-Arab آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese zh 摩尼教 was one of the major Gnostic Religions originating Nestorius Nestorius (c 386 &ndashc 451) was a pupil of Theodore of Mopsuestia in Antioch in Syria (modern Monophysitism (from the Greek monos meaning 'one alone' and physis meaning 'nature' or Monophysiticism is the Christological position that In order to completely eradicate paganism, Justinian closed the famous philosophic school in Athens in 529. Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's [31]
During the 6th century, the traditional Greco-Roman culture was still influential in the Eastern empire with prominent representatives such as the natural philosopher John Philoponus. In modern Olympic and amateur Wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling is a particular style and variation John Philoponus ( ca 490&ndash ca 570 also known as John Grammarian of Alexandria was a Christian and Aristotelian commentator and the author of a considerable Nevertheless, the Christian philosophy and culture were in the ascendant and began to dominate the older culture. Hymns written by Romanos the Melode marked the development of the Divine Liturgy, while architects and builders worked to complete the new Church of the Holy Wisdom, Hagia Sophia, designed to replace an older church destroyed in the course of the Nika revolt. "Romanos" redirects here See Romanus for the Latin form of the same name or Romanos Spain for the municipality in Spain The Divine Liturgy is the common term for the Eucharistic service of the Byzantine tradition of Christian liturgy. Holy Wisdom, also called Divine Wisdom ( Ancient Greek: Ἁγία Σοφία Hagia Sophia; Latin: Sancta Sophia) is the theological Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya Αγία Σοφία " Holy Wisdom " Sancta Sophia or Sancta Sapientia) is a former patriarchal Basilica, later Hagia Sophia stands today as one of the major monuments of architectural history. [16] During the 6th and 7th centuries the Empire was struck by a series of epidemics, which would greatly devastate the population, contributing to a significant economic decline and weakening of the Empire. The Plague of Justinian was a Pandemic that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital Constantinople, in the years 541 – 542 [32]
Justinian's successor, Justin II, refused to pay the large tribute to the Persians. Flavius Iustinus (Iunior Augustus (c 520 - 578 was Eastern Roman emperor from 565 to 578 Meanwhile, the Germanic Lombards invaded Italy; by the end of the century only a third of Italy was in Byzantine hands. The Lombards ( Latin Langobardi, whence the alternative names Langobards and Longobards) were a Germanic people originally from Justin's successor, Tiberius II, choosing between his enemies, awarded subsidies to the Avars while taking military action against the Persians. Flavius Tiberius Constantinus Augustus or Tiberius II Constantine (c The Caucasian Avars are a modern people of Caucasus, mainly of Dagestan. Although Tiberius' general, Maurice, led an effective campaign on the eastern frontier, subsidies failed to restrain the Avars. Flavius Mauricius Tiberius Augustus (Φλάβιος Μαυρίκιος Τιβέριος Αύγουστος Մավրիկ Mavrig; 539 &ndash November 27 They captured the Balkan fortress of Sirmium in 582, while the Turks began to make inroads across the Danube. Sirmium in Pannonia should not be confused with Sirmio on Lake Garda Sirmium (today Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) was an ancient The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family Maurice, who in the meantime had become emperor, made peace with the Sassanian Emperor Khosrau II, achieving access to Armenia, and forced the Avars and Slavs back across the Danube by 602. Khosrau II or Khosrow II ( Chosroes II or Xosrov II in classical sources sometimes called [16]
Heraclian dynasty and shrinking borders
- See also: Heraclius, Roman-Persian Wars, and Byzantine-Arab Wars
After Maurice's murder by Phocas, Khosrau used the pretext to reconquer the Roman province of Mesopotamia. Byzantium under the Heraclians refers to the period where the East Roman or Byzantine Empire was ruled by the emperors of the Heraclian dynasty. Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East Flavius Phocas Augustus, (el Φωκάς Phokas; reigned 602–610 called the Tyrant, usurped the Byzantine throne from the Emperor Maurice Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding [33] Phocas, an unpopular ruler who is invariably described in Byzantine sources as a "tyrant", was the target of a number of senate-led plots. He was eventually deposed in 610 by Heraclius, who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers [34] Following the accession of Heraclius the Sassanid advance pushed deep into Asia Minor, also occupying Damascus and Jerusalem and removing the True Cross to Ctesiphon. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the The True Cross is the name for physical remnants which by a Christian tradition are believed to be from the actual cross upon which Jesus was crucified For the Spanish saint see Ctesiphon of Vergium. Ctesiphon (قطسيفون تیسفون was one of the great cities of the Persian Empire [35] The counter-offensive of Heraclius took on the character of a holy war, and an acheiropoietos image of Christ was carried as a military standard. Acheiropoieta (Greek) literally "not-handmade" or Icons Not Made by Hand (and variants are a particular kind of Icon, ones that are alleged to have [36] Similarly, when Constantinople was saved from an Avar siege in 626, the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin which were led in procession by Patriarch Sergius about the walls of the city. [37] The main Sassanid force was destroyed at Nineveh in 627, and in 629 Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony. The Battle of Nineveh was the climactic battle of the last of the Roman-Persian Wars between the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid Empire, in 627 [38] The war had exhausted both the Byzantine and Sassanid Empire, and left them extremely vulnerable to the Arab forces which emerged in the following years. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding [39] The Byzantines suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Yarmuk in 636, and Ctesiphon fell in 634. The Battle of Yarmouk ( معركة اليرموك, also spelled Yarmuk, Yarmuq or Hieromyax) comprised a series of engagements between the For the Spanish saint see Ctesiphon of Vergium. Ctesiphon (قطسيفون تیسفون was one of the great cities of the Persian Empire [40]
Heraclius was the first emperor to replace the traditional Latin title for his office (Augustus) with the Greek Basileus (Βασιλεύς). "Basilissa" redirects here For the saint of this name see Julian and Basilissa. [41] This shift from Latin to Greek finds a parallel in the contemporary abandonment of Latin in official documents. [42] In an attempt to heal the doctrinal divide between Chalcedonian and monophysite Christians, Heraclius proposed monotheletism as a compromise. Chalcedonian refers to churches and theologians which accept the definition given at the Council of Chalcedon (451 AD of how the divine and human relate in the person of Monophysitism (from the Greek monos meaning 'one alone' and physis meaning 'nature' or Monophysiticism is the Christological position that Monothelitism (a Greek Loanword meaning "one will" is a particular teaching about how the divine and human relate in the person of Jesus, known as a In 638 the new doctrine was posted in the narthex of Hagia Sophia as part of a text called the Ekthesis, which also forbade further discussion of the issue. By this time, however, Syria and Palestine, both hotbeds of monophysite belief, had fallen to the Arabs, and another monophysite center, Egypt, fell by 642. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. Ambivalence toward Byzantine rule on the part of monophysites may have lessened local resistance to the Arab expansion. [43]
Heraclius did succeed in establishing a dynasty, and his descendants held onto the throne, with some interruption, until 711. Their reigns were marked both by major external threats, from the west and the east, which reduced the territory of the empire to a fraction of its 6th-century extent, and by significant internal turmoil and cultural transformation.
The Arabs, now firmly in control of Syria and the Levant, sent frequent raiding parties deep into Anatolia, and between 674 and 678 laid siege to Constantinople itself. The Exarchate of Africa or of Carthage, after its capital was the name of an administrative division of the Eastern Roman Empire encompassing its possessions The First Arab Siege of Constantinople in 674 was a major conflict of the Byzantine-Arab Wars, and was one of the numerous times Constantinople 's defences The Arab fleet was finally repulsed through the use of Greek fire, and a thirty-years' truce was signed between the empire and caliphate. Greek fire was a burning-liquid weapon used by the Byzantine Empire. [44] The Anatolian raids continued unabated, and accelerated the demise of classical urban culture, with the inhabitants of many cities either refortifying much smaller areas within the old city walls, or relocating entirely to nearby fortresses. [45] The void left by the disappearance of the old semi-autonomous civic institutions was filled by the theme system, which entailed the division of Anatolia into "provinces" occupied by distinct armies which assumed civil authority and answered directly to the imperial administration. This system may have had its roots in certain ad hoc measures taken by Heraclius, but over the course of the seventh century it developed into an entirely new system of imperial governance. [46]
The withdrawal of massive amounts of troops from the Balkans to combat the Persians and then the Arabs in the east opened the door for the gradual southward expansion of Slavic peoples into the peninsula, and, as in Anatolia, many cities shrank to small fortified settlements. [47] In the 670s the Bulgars were pushed south of the Danube by the arrival of the Khazars, and in 680 Byzantine forces which had been sent to disperse these new settlements were defeated. The Bulgars (also Bolgars or proto-Bulgarians) were a seminomadic people probably of Turkic descent originally from Central Asia, "Kazar" redirects here for the Marvel Comics character see Ka-Zar; for the village in Azerbaijan see Xəzər. In the next year Constantine IV signed a treaty with the Bulgar khan Asparukh, and the new Bulgarian state assumed sovereignty over a number of Slavic tribes which had previously, at least in name, recognized Byzantine rule. Constantine IV ( Greek: Κωνσταντίνος Δ' Kōnstantinos IV) (652&ndash685 sometimes incorrectly called Pogonatos, "the Bearded" Asparuh or Isperih ( Bulgarian: Аспарух, Asparuh or Исперих, Isperih) was ruler of a Bulgar tribe The First Bulgarian Empire (Първo Българско царство Părvo Bălgarsko Tsarstvo) was a Medieval Bulgarian state founded in AD 632 [48] In 687/8, emperor Justinian II led an expedition against the Slavs and Bulgars which made significant gains, although the fact that he had to fight his way from Thrace to Macedonia demonstrates the degree to which Byzantine power in the north Balkans had declined. Justinian II (Ιουστινιανός Β΄ Ioustinianos II; 669&ndashDecember 711 known as Rinotmetos or Rhinotmetus (Ρινότμητος Thrace (Тракия Trakiya or "Trakija" or Trakia, Θράκη Thráki, Trakya is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe Macedonia is a Geographical and historical region of the Balkan peninsula in southeastern Europe whose area was re-defined in the early 20th century [49]
The one Byzantine city that remained relatively unaffected, despite a significant drop in population and at least two outbreaks of the plague, was Constantinople. [50] However, the imperial capital was marked by its own variety of conflict, both political and religious. Constans II continued the monothelete policy of his grandfather, Heraclius, meeting with significant opposition from laity and clergy alike. Constans II ( Greek: Κώνστας Β' Kōnstas II) also called "Constantine the Bearded" ( Kōnstantinos Pogonatos) ( November 7 The most vocal opponents, Maximus the Confessor and Pope Martin I were arrested, brought to Constantinople, tried, tortured, and exiled. Saint Maximus the Confessor (also known as Maximus the Theologian and Maximus de Constantinople) (c "Martin I" redirects here For the Aragonese king see Martin I of Aragon. [51] Constans seems to have become immensely unpopular in the capital, and moved his residence to Syracuse, Sicily, where he was ultimately murdered by a member of his court. Syracuse (Siracusa Sicilian: Sarausa, Classical Greek: / transliterated Syrakousai) is a historic City in [52] The Senate experienced a revival in importance in the seventh century and clashed with the emperors on numerous occasions. The Byzantine Senate or Eastern Roman Senate was the continuation of the Roman Senate, established in the 4th century by Constantine I. [53] The final Heraclian emperor, Justinian II, attempted to break the power of the urban aristocracy through severe taxation and the appointment of "outsiders" to administrative posts. Justinian II (Ιουστινιανός Β΄ Ioustinianos II; 669&ndashDecember 711 known as Rinotmetos or Rhinotmetus (Ρινότμητος He was driven from power in 695, and took shelter first with the Khazars and then with the Bulgars. In 705 he returned to Constantinople with the armies of the Bulgar khan Tervel, retook the throne, and instituted a reign of terror against his enemies. Tervel (Тервел also called Tarvel, or Terval, or Terbelis in some Byzantine sources was the ruler of the Bulgars at the beginning With his final overthrow in 711, supported once more by the urban aristocracy, the Heraclian dynasty came to an end. [54]
The 7th century was a period of radical transformation. The empire which had once stretched from Spain to Jerusalem was now reduced to Anatolia, Chersonesos, and some fragments of Italy and the Balkans. Chersonesos (Χερσόνησος Chersonesus Old East Slavic: Корсунь Korsun; Херсонес Khersones; also transliterated as Chersonese The territorial losses were accompanied by a cultural shift; urban civilization was massively disrupted, classical literary genres were abandoned in favor of theological treatises,[55] and a new "radically abstract" style emerged in the visual arts. [56] That the empire survived this period at all is somewhat surprising, especially given the total collapse of the Sassanid Empire in the face of the Arab expansion, but a remarkably coherent military reorganization helped to withstand the exterior pressures and laid the groundwork for the gains of the following dynasty. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire [57]
Isaurian dynasty and Iconoclasm
- See also: Iconoclasm (Byzantine)
Leo III the Isaurian turned back the Muslim assault in 718, and achieved a major victory at the expense of the Arabs in 740. Iconoclasm, Greek for "image-breaking" is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious Icons and other symbols or monuments Leo III the Isaurian ' or the Syrian ' ( Greek: Λέων Γ΄ Leōn III) (c He also addressed himself to the task of reorganizing and consolidating the themes in Asia Minor. His successor, Constantine V, won noteworthy victories in northern Syria, and thoroughly undermined Bulgar strength. Constantine V (718&ndash September 14, 775) was Byzantine emperor from 741 to 775 Greek: Κωνσταντίνος Ε΄ Kōnstantinos In the beginning of the 9th century the Arabs captured Crete, and successfully attacked Sicily, but on September 3, 863, general Petronas attained a huge victory against the emir of Melitene. Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius Events By Place Europe Constantine I succeeds as king of Scotland (or 862 Petronas the Patrician (d November 11, 865) was a Byzantine general and the brother of Empress Theodora and Bardas, uncle to the Byzantine Emir ( Arabic: ar أمير;, female أميرة; emira;) ( Farsi and Urdu: امیر) Malatya ( Hittite: Melid; Greek: Μαλάτεια Malateia; Armenian: Մալաթիա Malatia; Kurdish: Under the leadership of Krum the Bulgar threat also reemerged, but in 814 Krum's son, Omortag, arranged a peace with the Byzantine Empire. [58]
The 8th and 9th centuries were also dominated by controversy and religious division over Iconoclasm. Iconoclasm, Greek for "image-breaking" is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious Icons and other symbols or monuments Icons were banned by Leo and Constantine, leading to revolts by iconodules (supporters of icons) throughout the empire. An icon (from Greek εἰκών eikōn, "image" is a religious work of art most commonly a painting from Eastern Christianity. An iconodule (Greek eikono-doulos "One who serves images" also Iconodulist or Iconophile) is someone who espouses iconodulism, i After the efforts of Empress Irene, the Second Council of Nicaea met in 787, and affirmed that icons could be venerated but not worshipped. Irene Serantapechaina, known as Irene of Athens or Irene the Athenian ( Greek: Ειρήνη η Αθηναία Eirēnē) (c The Second Council of Nicaea was the seventh Ecumenical council of Christianity; it met in 787 AD in Nicaea (site of the First Council Irene is said to have endeavored to negotiate a marriage between herself and Charlemagne, but, according to Theophanes the Confessor, the scheme was frustrated by Aetios, one of her favourites. Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his Saint Theophanes Confessor (c 758/760 &ndash March 12, 817/818 was a Byzantine aristocratic Ascetic monk and Chronicler He is venerated [59] In 813 Leo V the Armenian restored the policy of iconoclasm, but in 843 Empress Theodora restored the veneration of the icons with the help of Patriarch Methodios. Leo V the Armenian ( Greek: Λέων Ε΄ Leōn V; Լեիոն Ե Leion Yech) (775 &ndash December 25, 820) was emperor Theodora (Greek Θεοδώρα c 815 - after 867 was the wife of the Byzantine emperor Theophilus. [60] Iconoclasm played its part in the further alienation of East from West, which worsened during the so-called Photian Schism, when Pope Nicholas I challenged Photios' elevation to the patriarchate. The Photian schism is a term for a controversy lasting from 863 - 867 between Eastern (Byzantine later Orthodox and Western (Roman Catholic Christianity Pope
Macedonian dynasty and resurgence
The Byzantine Empire reached its height under the Macedonian emperors (of Armenian and Greek descent) of the late 9th, 10th, and early 11th centuries, when it gained control over the Adriatic Sea, southern Italy, and all of the territory of tsar Samuil of Bulgaria. The following is a list of emperors of the Byzantine Empire belonging to the Macedonian dynasty (also known as the Armenian Dynasty) of Armenian Tsar csar and tzar redirect here For other uses see Tsar (disambiguation. The cities of the empire expanded, and affluence spread across the provinces because of the new-found security. The population rose, and production increased, stimulating new demand while also helping to encourage trade. Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. Culturally, there was considerable growth in education and learning. Ancient texts were preserved and patiently re-copied. Byzantine art flourished, and brilliant mosaics graced the interiors of the many new churches. Byzantine art is the term commonly used to describe the artistic products of the Byzantine Empire from about the 4th century until the Fall of Constantinople Art History Mosaics of the 4th century BC are found in the Macedonian palace-city of Aegae, and they enriched the floors of Hellenistic [61] Though the empire was significantly smaller than during the reign of Justinian, it was also stronger, as the remaining territories were less geographically dispersed and more politically and culturally integrated.
Internal developments
Although traditionally attributed to Basil I (867–886), initiator of the Macedonian dynasty, the "Byzantine renaissance" has been more recently ascribed to the reforms of his predecessor, Michael III (842–867) and his wife's counsellor, the erudite Theoktistos. For the Russian ruler see Basil I of Russia Basil I, called the Macedonian ( Greek: Βασίλειος Α΄ο Μακεδών Michael III the Drunkard (Μιχαήλ Γ΄ ο Μέθυσος Mikhaēl III ho Methysos) ( January 19, 840 &ndash September 23–24 867 Theoktistos Vriennion (Θεόκτιστος (d November 20, 855) was a Logothetes, a powerful Byzantine official responsible for the diplomatic The latter in particular favoured culture at the court, and, with a careful financial policy, steadily increased the gold reserves of the Empire. The rise of the Macedonian dynasty coincided with internal developments which strengthened the religious unity of the empire. [62] The iconoclast movement was experiencing a steep decline: this favoured its soft suppression by the emperors and the reconciliation of the religious strife that had drained the imperial resources in the previous centuries. Despite occasional tactical defeats, the administrative, legislative, cultural and economic situation continued to improve under Basil's successors, especially with Romanos I Lekapenos (920–944). Romanos I Lekapenos or Romanus I Lecapenus ( Greek: Ρωμανός Α΄ Λακαπήνος Rōmanos I Lakapēnos; Րոմանոս Ա Ղակապենոս The theme system reached its definitive form in this period. The church establishment began to loyally support the imperial cause, and the power of the landowning class was limited in favour of agricultural small holders, who made up an important part of the military force of the Empire. These favourable conditions contributed to the increasing ability of the emperors to wage war against the Arabs.
Wars against the Muslims
- See also: Muslim conquests
By 867, the empire had stabilised its position in both the east and the west, while the success of its defensive military structure had enabled the emperors to begin planning wars of reconquest in the east. The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732 (فتح Fatah, literally opening, also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab
The process of reconquest began with variable fortunes. The temporary reconquest of Crete (843) was followed by a crushing Byzantine defeat on the Bosporus, while the emperors were unable to prevent the ongoing Muslim conquest of Sicily (827–902). Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the The Bosporus or Bosphorus, also known as the Istanbul Strait, (İstanbul Boğazı (Βόσπορος is a Strait that forms the boundary between the Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Using present day Tunisia as their launching pad, the Muslims conquered Palermo in 831, Messina in 842, Enna in 859, Syracuse in 878, Catania in 900 and the final Greek stronghold, the fortress of Taormina, in 902. Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. Palermo ( Sicilian: Palermu, Greek: Panormus, al-Madinah during Muslim rule is a historic City in Enna is also a genus of spiders ( Trechaleidae) Enna ( Sicilian: Castrugiuvanni; Greek Syracuse (Siracusa Sicilian: Sarausa, Classical Greek: / transliterated Syrakousai) is a historic City in Catania ( Greek: &ndash Katánē; Latin: Catăna and Catĭna; Arabic: Taormina ( Sicilian: Taurmina; Greek: - Tauromenion; Latin Tauromenium) is a Comune and small town
These drawbacks were later counterbalanced by a victorious expedition against Damietta in Egypt (856), the defeat of the Emir of Melitene (863), the confirmation of the imperial authority over Dalmatia (867) and Basil I's offensives towards the Euphrates (870s). Damietta, Damiata, or Domyat (دمياط is a port and the capital of the governorate of Domyat, Egypt. Malatya ( Hittite: Melid; Greek: Μαλάτεια Malateia; Armenian: Մալաթիա Malatia; Kurdish: Dalmatia ( Croatian: Dalmacija, see names in other languages) is a region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, situated mostly in modern The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת
The threat from the Muslims was meanwhile reduced by inner struggles and by the rise of the Turks in the east. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family Muslims received assistance however from the Paulician sect, which had found a large following in the eastern provinces of the Empire and, facing persecution under the Byzantines, often fought under the Arab flag. Paulicians (Պավլիկյաններ were a Gnostic and Manichaean Christian group which flourished between 650 and 872 in Anatolia, It took several campaigns to subdue the Paulicians, who were eventually defeated by Basil I. [61]
In 904, disaster struck the empire when its second city, Thessaloniki, was sacked by an Arab fleet led by a Byzantine renegade. Thessaloniki (Θεσσαλονίκη), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of Macedonia The Byzantines responded by destroying an Arab fleet in 908, and sacking the city of Laodicea in Syria two years later. Laodicea (Λαοδίκεια also transliterated as Laodiceia or Laodikeia was the name for at least seven Hellenistic cities which were named for one Despite this revenge, the Byzantines were still unable to strike a decisive blow against the Muslims, who inflicted a crushing defeat on the imperial forces when they attempted to regain Crete in 911.
The situation on the border with the Arab territories remained fluid, with the Byzantines alternatively on the offensive or defensive. The Varangians, who attacked Constantinople for the first time in 860, constituted another new challenge. The Varangians or Varyags ( Old Norse: Væringjar Greek: Βάραγγοι Βαριάγοι Váraggoi / Varyágoi, Ukrainian In 941 they appeared on the Asian shore of the Bosporus, but this time they were crushed, showing the improvements in the Byzantine military position after 907, when only diplomacy had been able to push back the invaders. According to the Primary Chronicle, the first Rus'-Byzantine Treaty was concluded in 907 as a result of Oleg 's raid against Tsargrad (see The vanquisher of the Varangians was the famous general John Kourkouas, who continued the offensive with other noteworthy victories in Mesopotamia (943): these culminated in the reconquest of Edessa (944), which was especially celebrated for the return to Constantinople of the venerated Mandylion. John Kourkouas (Ιωάννης Κουρκούας was an Armenian -Byzantine general under Romanos I Lekapenos. Edessa ( Greek:) is the historical name of a Syriac town in northern Mesopotamia, refounded on an ancient site by Seleucus I Nicator
The soldier emperors Nikephoros II Phokas (reigned 963–969) and John I Tzimiskes (969–976) expanded the empire well into Syria, defeating the emirs of north-west Iraq and reconquering Crete and Cyprus. John I Tzimiskes or Tzimisces, (Ιωάννης Α΄ Τζιμισκής Iōannēs I Tzimiskēs; Հովհաննես Ա Չմշկիկ Hovhannes Ayp Chmshgig Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía At one point under John, the empire's armies even threatened Jerusalem, far to the south. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the The emirate of Aleppo and its neighbours became vassals of the empire in the east, where the greatest threat to the empire was the Egyptian Fatimid kingdom. For other meanings see Aleppo (disambiguation. Halab redirects here for other meanings see Halab (disambiguation. [61]
Wars against the Bulgarians
-
For more details on this topic, see Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars.
The traditional struggle with the See of Rome continued, spurred by the question of religious supremacy over the newly Christianized Bulgaria. The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, commonly known as the Pope, and is the preeminent Episcopal see of the Roman Catholic This prompted an invasion by the powerful Tsar Simeon I in 894, but this was pushed back by the Byzantine diplomacy, which called on the help of the Hungarians. Tsar csar and tzar redirect here For other uses see Tsar (disambiguation. Simeon (also Symeon) I the Great (Симеон I Велики transliterated Simeon I Veliki; simɛˈɔn ˈpɤrvi vɛˈliki ruled over Bulgaria The Byzantines were in turn defeated, however, at the Battle of Bulgarophygon (896), and obliged to pay annual subsides to the Bulgarians. The battle of Bulgarophygon was fought in the summer of 896 near the town of Babaeski in modern Turkey, between the Byzantine Empire and the Later (912) Simeon even had the Byzantines grant him the crown of basileus of Bulgaria and had the young emperor Constantine VII marry one of his daughters. Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos or Porphyrogenitus, "the Purple-born" ( Greek: Κωνσταντίνος Ζ΄ Πορφυρογέννητος When a revolt in Constantinople halted his dynastic project, he again invaded Thrace and conquered Adrianople. Edirne (anc Hadrianopolis; Greek Adrianople; Slavic/Bulgarian Одрин, see also its other names) is a city in Thrace, the westernmost [61]
A great imperial expedition under Leo Phocas and Romanos Lekapenos ended again with a crushing Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Anchialus (917), and the following year the Bulgarians were free to ravage northern Greece up to Corinth. Leo Phocas was a 10th century Byzantine general Leo was the son of Nikephoros Phokas the Elder, an eminent Byzantine general Romanos I Lekapenos or Romanus I Lecapenus ( Greek: Ρωμανός Α΄ Λακαπήνος Rōmanos I Lakapēnos; Րոմանոս Ա Ղակապենոս This article refers to the Battle of Anchialus fought in 917 For other battles with the same name see Battle of Anchialus (disambiguation The Battle Corinth, or Korinth ( Greek Κόρινθος ( is a city in Greece. Adrianople was captured again in 923 and in 924 a Bulgarian army laid siege to Constantinople. The situation in the Balkans improved only after Simeon's death in 927.
Under the emperor Basil II (reigned 976–1025), the Bulgarians, who had conquered much of the Balkans from the Byzantines since their arrival three hundred years previously, became the target of annual campaigns by the Byzantine army. Basil II, surnamed the Bulgar-slayer (Βασίλειος Β΄ Βουλγαροκτόνος Basileios II Boulgaroktonos, 958 &ndash December 15 1025 The war was to drag on for nearly twenty years, but eventually at the Battle of Kleidon the Bulgarians were completely defeated. The Battle of Kleidion (bg Битка при с Ключ Битка при Беласица Беласишка битка grc Μάχη του Κλειδίου also Clidium [63] The Bulgarian army was captured, and it is said that 99 out of every 100 men were blinded, with the remaining hundredth man left with one eye so as to lead his compatriots home. When Tsar Samuil saw the broken remains of his once gallant army, he died of shock. In 1018 Bulgaria surrendered and became part of the empire. This stunning victory restored the Danube frontier, which had not been held since the days of the emperor Heraclius. The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj [61]
The empire also gained a new ally at this time in the new Varangian state in Kiev, from which the empire received an important mercenary force, the famous Varangian Guard, in exchange for the marriage of Basil's sister Anna to Vladimir I of Kiev. The Varangians or Varyags ( Old Norse: Væringjar Greek: Βάραγγοι Βαριάγοι Váraggoi / Varyágoi, Ukrainian Kiev, also known as Kyiv ( Ukrainian:, Kyiv, ˈkɪjiw Russian:, Kiyev; see also Cities' alternative names) is the The Varangians or Varyags ( Old Norse: Væringjar Greek: Βάραγγοι Βαριάγοι Váraggoi / Varyágoi, Ukrainian Saint Vladimir Svyatoslavich the Great ( Old Russian: Володимеръ Святославичь, c [61] During this period the Byzantine princess Theophanu, wife of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto II, served as regent of the Holy Roman Empire, paving the way for the westward spread of Byzantine culture. Theophanu (960 &ndash June 15, 991) ( Greek: Θεοφανώ Theophano also spelled Theophania, Theophana or Theophano The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in
Triumph
The Byzantine Empire now stretched to Armenia in the east, to Calabria in Southern Italy in the west. Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Calabria ( Latin: Brutium) is a region in southern Italy, south of Naples, located at the "toe" of Geography Southern Italy forms the lower "boot" of the Italian peninsula containing the ankle (Abruzzo and Molise and southern Lazio the toe (Calabria and the heel [61] Many successes had been achieved, ranging from the conquest of Bulgaria, to the annexation of parts of Georgia and Armenia, to the total annihilation of an invading force of Egyptians outside Antioch. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Antioch on the Orontes (Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη Antiochia ad Orontem also Yet even these victories were not enough; Basil considered the continued Arab occupation of Sicily to be an outrage. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Accordingly, he planned to reconquer the island, which had belonged to the empire for over 300 years (c. 550 – c. 900). However, his death in 1025 put an end to the project. [61]
The 11th century was also momentous for its religious events. In 1054, relations between Greek-speaking Eastern and Latin-speaking Western traditions within the Christian Church reached a terminal crisis. Although there was a formal declaration of institutional separation, on July 16, when three papal legates entered the Hagia Sophia during Divine Liturgy on a Saturday afternoon and placed a bull of excommunication on the altar, the so-called Great Schism was actually the culmination of centuries of gradual separation. Events 622 - The beginning of the Islamic calendar. 1054 - Three Roman legates fractured relations between the Western and The Divine Liturgy is the common term for the Eucharistic service of the Byzantine tradition of Christian liturgy. A Papal bull is a particular type of Letters patent or charter issued by a Pope. Excommunication is a religious Censure used to deprive or suspend membership in a religious community The East-West Schism, or the Great Schism, divided medieval Christendom into Eastern (Greek and Western (Latin branches which later became known as the Although the schism was brought about by doctrinal disputes (in particular, Eastern refusal to accept the Western Church doctrine of the filioque, or double procession of the Holy Spirit), disputes over administration and political issues had simmered for centuries. Filioque, a Latin phrase meaning "and (from the Son" In Western Christianity, it was added to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed In mainstream Christianity, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is one of the three entities of the Holy Trinity which make up the single substance The formal separation of the Byzantine Orthodox Church and the Western Catholic Church would have wide ranging consequences for the future of Byzantium. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world
Crisis and fragmentation
Byzantium soon fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the undermining of the theme system and the neglect of the military. Nikephoros II, John Tzimiskes and Basil II changed the military divisions (τάγματα, tagmata) from a rapid response, primarily defensive, citizen army into a professional, campaigning army increasingly manned by mercenaries. The tagma ( τάγμα, pl tagmata) is a term for a military unit of Battalion size Mercenaries, however, were expensive and as the threat of invasion receded in the 10th century, so did the need for maintaining large garrisons and expensive fortifications. [64] Basil II left a burgeoning treasury upon his death, but neglected to plan for his succession. None of his immediate successors had any particular military or political talent and the administration of the Empire increasingly fell into the hands of the civil service. Efforts to revive the Byzantine economy only resulted in inflation and a debased gold coinage. The army was now seen as both an unnecessary expense and a political threat. Therefore, native troops were cashiered and replaced by foreign mercenaries on specific contract. [65]
At the same time, the Empire was faced with new, ambitious enemies. Byzantine provinces in southern Italy faced the Normans, who arrived in Italy at the beginning of the 11th century. The Normans were the people who gave their names to Normandy, a region in northern France. The allied forces of Melus of Bari and the Normans were defeated at the Battle of Cannae in 1018, and two decades later Michael IV the Paphlagonian equipped an expedition for the reconquest of Sicily from the Arabs. Melus (also Milus or Meles, Melo in Italian) (died 1020 was a Lombard nobleman from the Apulian town of Bari The Battle of Cannae took place in 1018 between the Byzantines under the Catepan of Italy Basil Boioannes and the Lombards under Michael IV the Paphlagonian ( Greek: Μιχαήλ Δ΄ Παφλαγών Mikhaēl IV Paphlagōn) (1010 &ndash December 10, 1041) Although the campaign was initially successful, the reconquest of Sicily was not accomplished, mainly because George Maniaces, the commander of the Byzantine forces, was recalled when he was suspected of having ambitious schemes. George Maniakes (Γεώργιος Μανιάκης transliterated as Georgios Maniaces, Maniakis, or Maniaches, Giorgio Maniace (d During a period of strife between Byzantium and Rome which ended in the East-West Schism of 1054, the Normans began to advance, slowly but steadily, into Byzantine Italy. The East-West Schism, or the Great Schism, divided medieval Christendom into Eastern (Greek and Western (Latin branches which later became known as the [66]
It was in Asia Minor, however, that the greatest disaster would take place. The Seljuq Turks made their first explorations across the Byzantine frontier into Armenia in 1065 and in 1067. The Seljuq (also Seljuq Turks, Seldjuks, Seldjuqs, Seljuks; in Turkish Selçuklular; in Ṣaljūqīyān; in The emergency lent weight to the military aristocracy in Anatolia who, in 1068, secured the election of one of their own, Romanos Diogenes, as emperor. In the summer of 1071, Romanos undertook a massive eastern campaign to draw the Seljuks into a general engagement with the Byzantine army. At Manzikert Romanos not only suffered a surprise defeat at the hands of Sultan Alp Arslan, but was also captured. The Battle of Manzikert, or Malazgirt, was fought between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuq forces led by Alp Arslan on August 26 1071 near Manzikert Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings Alp Arslan (1029 &ndash December 15, 1072) was the second sultan of the Seljuk dynasty and great-grandson of Seljuk, the Eponym of Alp Arslan treated him with respect, and imposed no harsh terms on the Byzantines. [65] In Constantinople, however, a coup took place in favor of Michael Doukas, who soon faced the opposition of Nikephoros Bryennios and Nikephoros Botaneiates. Nikephoros Bryennios or Nicephorus Bryennius ( Greek: Νικηφόρος Βρυέννιος Nikēphoros Bryennios) 1062 &ndash 1137 Byzantine By 1081 the Seljuks expanded their rule over virtually the entire Anatolian plateau from Armenia in the east to Bithynia in the west and founded their capital in Nicea. Description Several major cities sat on the fertile shores of the Propontis (which is now known as Sea of Marmara) Nicomedia, Chalcedon, Cius [67]
Komnenian dynasty and the crusaders
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For more details on this topic, see Byzantium under the Komnenoi. The Byzantine Empire or Byzantium is the term conventionally used by historians to describe the Greek -speaking Roman Empire of the Middle
- See also: Byzantine-Seljuk wars
Alexios I and the First Crusade
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For more details on this topic, see Alexios I Komnenos. Alexios I Komnenos, or Comnenus (Greek Αλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός (1048 &ndash August 15, 1118) Byzantine emperor (1081&ndash1118
- See also: First Crusade
After Manzikert, a partial recovery (referred to as the Komnenian restoration) was made possible by the efforts of the Komnenian dynasty. The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II with the dual goals of conquering the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land and freeing The Komnenian restoration is the term used by Byzantinists to describe the military financial and territorial recovery of the Byzantine Empire under the Komnenian [68] The first emperor of this royal line was Isaac I (1057–1059) and the second Alexios I. Isaac I Komnenos or Comnenus ( Greek: Ισαάκιος Α΄ Κομνηνός Isaakios I Komninos; Սահակ Ա Կոմնինոս Sahag Ayp Gomninos At the very outset of his reign, Alexios faced a formidable attack by the Normans under Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund of Taranto, who captured Dyrrhachium and Corfu, and laid siege to Larissa in Thessaly. Robert Guiscard (from Latin Viscardus and Old French Viscart, often rendered the Resourceful, the Cunning, the Wily Bohemond I (also spelled Bohemund or Boamund; c 1058&ndash 3 March 1111) Prince of Taranto and Prince of Antioch The Battle of Dyrrhachium (near present-day Durrës in Albania) took place on 18 October 1081 between the Byzantine Empire, led by the Emperor Corfu (Κέρκυρα Kérkyra, ˈkʲe̞ɾkʲiɾa Κέρκυρα or Κόρκυρα Corcyra Corfù is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea Larissa ( Greek: Λάρισα, Lárisa) is the capital city of the Thessaly periphery of Greece, and capital of the Thessalia redirects here For the Butterfly Genus, see Thessalia (butterfly. Robert Guiscard's death in 1085 temporarily eased the Norman problem. The following year the Seljuq sultan died, and the sultanate was split by internal rivalries. By his own efforts, Alexios defeated the Pechenegs; they were caught by surprise and annihilated at the Battle of Levounion on 28 April 1091. The Pechenegs or Patzinaks ( Turkish: Peçenekler, Hungarian: Besenyő, Greek: Patzinaki/Petsenegi or Πατζινάκοι/Πετσενέγοι/Πατζινακίται The Battle of Levounion was the first decisive Byzantine victory of the Komnenian restoration. Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title [16]
Having achieved stability in the West, Alexios could turn his attention to the severe economic difficulties and the disintegration of the empire's traditional defences. [69] However, he still did not have enough manpower to recover the lost territories in Asia Minor, and to advance against the Seljuks. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black At the Council of Piacenza in 1095, Alexios' envoys spoke to Pope Urban II about the suffering of the Christians of the East, and underscored that without help from the West they would continue to suffer under Muslim rule. The Council of Piacenza was a mixed synod of ecclesiastics and laymen of the Roman Catholic Church, which took place from March 1 to March 5, 1095 Pope Urban saw Alexius' request as a dual opportunity to cement Western Europe and enhance papal power. [70] On 27 November 1095, Pope Urban II called together the Council of Clermont, and urged all those present to take up arms under the sign of the Cross and launch an armed pilgrimage to recover Jerusalem and the East from the Muslims. Events 1095 - Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont Pope The Council of Clermont was a mixed Synod of ecclesiastics and laymen of the Catholic Church, which was held on November 27 1095 at Clermont France The Christian cross is the best-known Religious symbol of Christianity. In Religion and Spirituality, a pilgrimage is a long journey or Search of great Moral significance The response in Western Europe was overwhelming. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' [16]
Alexios had anticipated help in the form of mercenary forces from the West, but was totally unprepared for the immense and undisciplined force which soon arrived in Byzantine territory. It was no comfort to Alexius to learn that four of the eight leaders of the main body of the Crusade were Normans, among them Bohemund. Since the crusade had to pass through Constantinople, however, the Emperor had some control over it. He required its leaders to swear to restore to the empire any towns or territories they might conquer from the Turks on their way to the Holy Land. In return, he gave them guides and a military escort. [71] Alexios was able to recover a number of important cities and islands, and in fact much of western Asia Minor. Nevertheless, the crusaders believed their oaths were invalidated when Alexios did not help them during the siege of Antioch (he had in fact set out on the road to Antioch, but had been persuaded to turn back by Stephen of Blois, who assured him that all was lost and that the expedition had already failed). Antioch on the Orontes (Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη Antiochia ad Orontem also Stephen II Henry (c 1045 &ndash 19 May 1102) (in French, Étienne Henri) Count of Blois and Count of Chartres, [72] Bohemund, who had set himself up as Prince of Antioch, briefly went to war with the Byzantines, but agreed to become Alexios' vassal under the Treaty of Devol in 1108, which marked the end of Norman threat during Alexios' reign. The Principality of Antioch, including parts of modern-day Turkey and Syria, was one of the Crusader states created during the First Crusade The Treaty of Devol was an agreement made in 1108 between Bohemond I of Antioch and Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos, in the wake of the [73]
Alexios reconstituted the army and navy, but only by means of stabilizing the gold coinage at one-third of its original value and by imposing supplementary taxes. The supply of native soldiers had virtually ceased with the disappearance or absorption of their military holdings. Alexios promoted an alternative source of native manpower by extending the system of granting estates in pronoia (by favour of the emperor) and tying the grant to a military obligation. For other uses of the term pronoia, please see Pronoia (disambiguation. Similarly, Alexios tried to promote more profitable development of the estates of the church by granting them to the management of laymen. [16] The final years of Alexios's reign were marked by persecution of the followers of the Paulician and Bogomil heresies, and by anxieties as to the succession, which his wife Irene Doukaina wished to alter in favor of her daughter Anna's husband, Nikephoros Bryennios. Paulicians (Պավլիկյաններ were a Gnostic and Manichaean Christian group which flourished between 650 and 872 in Anatolia, Bogomilism (Богомилство is the Gnostic dualistic Sect, the Synthesis of Armenian Paulicianism and the Bulgarian Slavonic Irene Doukaina or Ducaena ( Greek: Ειρήνη Δούκαινα, Eirēnē Doukaina) (c Anna Komnene or Comnena (Greek Άννα Κομνηνή Anna Komnēnē December 1, 1083 &ndash1153 was a Byzantine princess and scholar daughter of Nikephoros Bryennios or Nicephorus Bryennius ( Greek: Νικηφόρος Βρυέννιος Nikēphoros Bryennios) 1062 &ndash 1137 Byzantine [74]
John II, Manuel I and the Second Crusade
Alexios' son John II Komnenos succeeded him in 1118, and was to rule until 1143. John II Komnenos or Comnenus ( Iōannēs II Komnēnos) ( September 13, 1087 &ndash April 8, 1143) was Byzantine John was a pious and dedicated emperor who was determined to undo the damage his empire had suffered at the battle of Manzikert, half a century earlier. The Battle of Manzikert, or Malazgirt, was fought between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuq forces led by Alp Arslan on August 26 1071 near Manzikert [76] Famed for his piety and his remarkably mild and just reign, John was an exceptional example of a moral ruler, at a time when cruelty was the norm. [77] For this reason, he has been called the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (often referred to as "the wise" ( April 26, 121 – March 17, 180) was Roman Emperor In the course of his twenty-five year reign, John made alliances with the Holy Roman Empire in the west, decisively defeated the Pechenegs at the Battle of Beroia,[78] and personally led numerous campaigns against the Turks in Asia Minor. The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in The Pechenegs or Patzinaks ( Turkish: Peçenekler, Hungarian: Besenyő, Greek: Patzinaki/Petsenegi or Πατζινάκοι/Πετσενέγοι/Πατζινακίται The Battle of Beroia (modern Stara Zagora) was fought between the Pechenegs and Emperor John II Komnenos of the Byzantine Empire in the The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black John's campaigns fundamentally changed the balance of power in the east, forcing the Turks onto the defensive and restoring to the Byzantines many towns, fortresses and cities right across the peninsula. [75] He also thwarted Hungarian, and Serbian threats during the 1120s, and in 1130 allied himself with the German emperor Lothair III against the Norman King Roger II of Sicily. This article lists the German monarchs, ruling over the territory of Germany from the creation of a separate Eastern Frankish Kingdom in 843 until the end of monarchy Lothair III of Supplinburg (1075 &ndash 1137 was Duke of Saxony (1106 King of Germany (1125 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1133 to 1137 Roger II ( 22 December 1095 &ndash 26 February 1154) was King of Sicily, son of Roger I of Sicily and successor to his [79] In the later part of his reign John focused his activities on the East. He defeated the Danishmend emirate of Melitene, and reconquered all of Cilicia, while forceing Raymond of Poitiers, Prince of Antioch, to recognize Byzantine suzerainty. The Danishmend dynasty was a Turcoman Dynasty that ruled in north-central and eastern Anatolia in the 11th and 12th centuries Malatya ( Hittite: Melid; Greek: Μαλάτεια Malateia; Armenian: Մալաթիա Malatia; Kurdish: Geography Cilicia extended along the Aegean coast east from Pamphylia, to Mount Amanus ( Gavurdağı Mount) which separated it from Syria Raymond of Poitiers (c 1115 &ndash June 29, 1149) was Prince of Antioch 1136&ndash1149 In an effort to demonstrate the Byzantine emperor's role as the leader of the Christian world, John marched into the Holy Land at the head of the combined forces of Byzantium and the Crusader states; yet despite the great vigour with which he pressed the campaign, John's hopes were disappointed by the treachery of his Crusader allies. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth The Holy Land ( Arabic: الأرض المقدسة al-Arḍ ul-Muqaddasah;Ancient Aramaic: ארעא קדישא Ar'a Qaddisha; Hebrew: ארץ_הקודש The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents [80] In 1142 John returned to press his claims to Antioch, but he died in the spring of 1143 following a hunting accident. Raymond was emboldened to invade Cilicia, but he was defeated and forced to go to Constantinople to beg mercy from the new emperor. [81]
John's chosen heir was his fourth son, Manuel I Komnenos, who campaigned aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and in the east. For the eldest son of Andronikos I Komnenos and father of Alexios I of Trebizond, see Manuel Komnenos (born 1145. In Palestine, he allied himself with the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem and sent a large fleet to participate in a combined invasion of Fatimid Egypt. This article is about the Christian kingdom For the history of the city see History of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem was a Christian During the initial Islamic invasion in 639 AD, Egypt was ruled at first by governors acting in the name of the Righteous Caliphs, and then the Ummayad Manuel reinforced his position as overlord of the Crusader states, with his hegemony over Antioch and Jerusalem secured by agreement with Raynald, Prince of Antioch, and Amalric, King of Jerusalem respectively. Amalric I of Jerusalem (also Amaury or Aimery) (1136 &ndash July 11 1174) was King of Jerusalem 1162&ndash1174 and Count of [82] In an effort to restore Byzantine control over the ports of southern Italy, he sent an expedition to Italy in 1155, but disputes within the coalition led to the eventual failure of the campaign. Despite this military setback, Manuel's armies successfully invaded the Kingdom of Hungary in 1167, defeating the Hungarians at the Battle of Sirmium. The Kingdom of Hungary (short form Hungary) was a considerable state in Central Europe that existed from 1001 to 1918 then from 1919 to 1946 The Battle of Sirmium or Battle of Zemun (Hungarian zimonyi csata) was fought on July 8, 1167 between the Byzantine Empire (also By 1168 nearly the whole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuel's hands. [83] Manuel made several alliances with the Pope and Western Christian kingdoms, and successfully handled the passage of the Second Crusade through his empire. The Second Crusade (1147&ndash1149 was the second major Crusade launched from Europe, called in 1145 in response to the fall of the County of Edessa the [84] Although hopes for a lasting Papal-Byzantine alliance came up against insuperable problems, Pope Innocent III clearly had a positive view of Manuel when he told Alexios III that he should imitate "your predecessor Manuel of famous memory" who "always replied favourably to ourselves and our predecessors". Pope Innocent III ( February 22, 1161 &ndash June 16, 1216) born Lotario de' Conti di Segni, was Pope from January [85]
In the east, however, Manuel suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Myriokephalon, in 1176, against the Turks. The Battle of Myriokephalon, also known as the Myriocephalum, or Miryakefalon Savaşı in Turkish, was a battle between the Byzantine Empire Yet the losses were quickly made good, and in the following year Manuel's forces inflicted a defeat upon a force of "picked Turks". [86] John Vatatzes, who was sent by the Emperor to repel the Turkish invasion, not only brought troops from the capital but also was able to gather an army along the way; a sign that the Byzantine army remained strong and that the defensive program of western Asia Minor was still successful. [87]
12th century Renaissance
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For more details on this topic, see Byzantine civilisation in the twelfth century. During the 12th century, the civilization of the Byzantine Empire experienced a period of intense change and development
- See also: Komnenian army
John and Manuel pursued active military policies, and both deployed considerable resources on sieges and on city defenses; aggressive fortification policies were at the heart of their imperial military policies. The Komnenian army was the force established by Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos during the late eleventh/early twelfth century and perfected by his successors [88] Despite the defeat at Myriokephalon, the policies of Alexios, John and Manuel resulted in vast territorial gains, increased frontier stability in Asia Minor, and secured the stabilization of the empire's European frontiers. From c. 1081 to c. 1180, the Komnenian army assured the empire's security, enabling Byzantine civilization to flourish. [89]
This allowed the Western provinces to achieve an economic revival which continued until the close of the century. It has been argued that Byzantium under the Komnenian rule was more prosperous than at any time since the Persian invasions of the 7th century. During the 12th century population levels rose and extensive tracts of new agricultural land were brought into production. Archaeological evidence from both Europe and Asia Minor shows a considerable increase in the size of urban settlements, together with a notable upsurge in new towns. Trade was also flourishing; the Venetians, the Genoese and others opened up the ports of the Aegean to commerce, shipping goods from the Crusader kingdoms of Outremer and Fatimid Egypt to the west and trading with the Byzantine Empire via Constantinople. Genoa ( Genova, ˈdʒɛːnova in Italian; Zena in Genoese and Ligurian; Genua in Latin and archaically in English During the initial Islamic invasion in 639 AD, Egypt was ruled at first by governors acting in the name of the Righteous Caliphs, and then the Ummayad [90]
In artistic terms, there was a revival in mosaic, and regional schools of architecture began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences. Art History Mosaics of the 4th century BC are found in the Macedonian palace-city of Aegae, and they enriched the floors of Hellenistic The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation [91] During the 12th century the Byzantines provided their model of early humanism as a renaissance of interest in classical authors. Renaissance Humanism was a European intellectual movement beginning in Florence in the last decades of the 14th century In Eustathius of Thessalonica Byzantine humanism found its most characteristic expression. Eustathius of Thessalonica (Εὐστάθιος (1110c - 1198 was a native of Constantinople who became archbishop of Thessalonica. [92]
Decline and disintegration
Dynasty of the Angeloi and Third Crusade
| "Whatever paper might be presented to the Emperor (Alexios III) for his signature, he signed it immediately; it did not matter that in this paper there was a senseless agglomeration of words, or that the supplicant demanded that one might sail by land or till the sea, or that mountains should be transferred into the middle of the seas or, as a tale says, that Athos should be put upon Olympus. The Byzantine Empire or Byzantium is the term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the Greek-speaking Roman Empire of the Middle Ages, " |
| Nicetas Choniates[93] |
Manuel's death on 24 September 1180 left his 11-year-old son Alexios II Komnenos on the throne. Events 622 - Prophet Muhammad completes his hegira from Mecca to Medina. Alexios II Komnenos or Alexius II Comnenus ( Greek: Αλέξιος Β’ Κομνηνός Alexios II Komnēnos) ( 14 September 1169 Alexios was highly incompetent at the office, but it was his mother, Maria of Antioch, and her Frankish background that made his regency unpopular. Maria of Antioch (1145 &ndash 1182 was the daughter of Constance of Antioch and her first husband Raymond of Poitiers. [94] Eventually Andronikos I Komnenos, a grandson of Alexios I, launched a revolt against his younger relative and managed to overthrow him in a violent coup d'état. Andronikos I Komnenos or Andronicus I Comnenus ( Greek: Ανδρόνικος Α’ Κομνηνός Andronikos I Komninos; c Utilizing his good looks and his immense popularity with the army, he marched on to Constantinople in August 1182, and incited a massacre of the Latins. [95] After eliminating his potential rivals, he had himself crowned as co-emperor in September 1183; he eliminated Alexios II and even took his 12-year-old wife Agnes of France for himself. Agnes of France (1171 &ndash after 1204 was a daughter of Louis VII of France by his third wife Adèle of Champagne. [95]
This troubled succession weakened the dynastic continuity and solidarity on which the strength of the Byzantine state had come to rely. [96] The new emperor was a man of astounding contrasts. [96] Handsome and eloquent, Andronikos was at the same time known for his licentious exploits. [97] Energetic, able and determined, he had been called a "true Komnenos". [98] However, he was also capable of terrifying brutality, violence and cruelty. [96]
Andronikos began his reign well; in particular, the measures he took to reform the government of the empire have been praised by historians. According to George Ostrogorsky, Andronikos was determined to root out corruption: Under his rule the sale of offices ceased; selection was based on merit, rather than favoritism; officials were paid an adequate salary so as to reduce the temptation of bribery. George Alexandrovič Ostrogorsky (Георгий Александрович Острогорский also known as George Ostrogorsky; 19 January 1902 In the provinces Andronikos' reforms produced a speedy and marked improvement. [96] The people felt the severity of his laws, but acknowledged their justice, and found themselves protected from the rapacity of their superiors. [96] Andronikos' efforts to rein in the oppressive tax collectors and officials of the empire did much to alleviate the lot of the peasantry, but his attempt to check the power of the nobility was considerably more problematic. The aristocrats were infuriated against him, and to make matters worse, Andronikos seems to have become increasingly unbalanced; executions and violence became increasingly common, and his reign turned into a reign of terror. [99] Andronikos seemed almost to seek the extermination of the aristocracy as a whole. The struggle against the aristocracy turned into wholesale slaughter, while the emperor resorted to ever more ruthless measures to shore up his regime. [96]
Despite his military background, Andronikos failed to deal with Isaac Komnenos, Béla III who reincorporated Croatian territories into Hungary, and Stephen Nemanja of Serbia who declared his independence from Byzantium. Isaac Komnenos or Comnenus ( Greek: Ισαάκιος Κομνηνός Isaakios Komnēnos) (c Béla III ( Hungarian: III Béla, Croatian: Bela II, Slovak: Belo III) (c Stefan Nemanja ( Old Church Slavonic: Стѣфань Serbian: Стефан Yet none of these troubles would compare to William II of Sicily's invasion force of 300 ships and 80,000 men, arriving in 1185. William II (French language Guillaume II, 1155 &ndash November 11 1189 Palermo) called the Good, was king of Sicily [100] Andronikos mobilized a small fleet of 100 ships to defend the capital but other than that he was indifferent to the populace. He was finally overthrown when Isaac Angelos, surviving an imperial assassination attempt, seized power with the aid of the people and had Andronikos killed. Isaac II Angelos or Angelus ( Greek: Ισαάκιος Β’ Άγγελος Isaakios II Angelos) (September 1156 &ndash January 1204 was Byzantine [101]
The reign of Isaac II , and, still more, that of his brother Alexios III, saw the collapse of what remained of the centralized machinery of Byzantine government and defense. Although, the Normans were driven out of Greece, in 1186 the Bulgars began a rebellion that was to lead to the formation of the Second Bulgarian Empire. The Second Bulgarian Empire ( Bulgarian: Второ българско царство Vtorо Balgarskо Tsartsvo) was a Medieval Bulgarian state The mismanagement of the Third Crusade clearly demonstrated Byzantium's weaknesses under the Angeli. The Third Crusade (1189&ndash1192 also known as the Kings' Crusade, was an attempt by European leaders to reconquer the Holy Land from Saladin When Richard I of England appropriated Cyprus from its ruler, Isaac Komnenos, he refused to hand it back to the Empire,[102] And when Frederick Barbarossa conquered Iconium, Isaac failed to seize the initiative. Richard I (8 September 1157 &ndash 6 April 1199 was King of England from 6 July 1189 until his death Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía Isaac Komnenos or Comnenus ( Greek: Ισαάκιος Κομνηνός Isaakios Komnēnos) (c Frederick I Barbarossa (1122 &ndash 10 June 1190) was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned Konya ( قونیه; also Koniah, Konieh, Konia, and Qunia; historically also known as Iconium ( Latin [103] The internal policy of the Angeloi was characterized by the squandering of the public treasure, and the fiscal maladministration. Byzantine authority was severely weakened, and the growing power vacuum at the center of the empire encouraged fragmentation. There is evidence that some Komnenian heirs had set up a semi-independent state in Trebizond before 1204. [104] According to Alexander Vasiliev, "the dynasty of the Angeloi, Greek in its origin, [. For a Russian journalist see Alexander Vassiliev. Alexander Alexandrovich Vasiliev (Александр Александрович Васильев . . ] accelerated the ruin of the Empire, already weakened without and disunited within. "[93]
Fourth Crusade
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For more details on this topic, see Fourth Crusade. The Fourth Crusade (1202&ndash1204 was originally designed to conquer Muslim Jerusalem by means of an invasion through Egypt.
In 1198, Pope Innocent III broached the subject of a new crusade through legates and encyclical letters. Pope Innocent III ( February 22, 1161 &ndash June 16, 1216) born Lotario de' Conti di Segni, was Pope from January A Papal Legate – from the Latin authentic Roman title Legatus – is a personal representative of the Pope to Foreign nations or to some part of the Catholic An encyclical was originally a circular letter sent to all the churches of a particular area in the ancient Christian church [105] The stated intent of the crusade was to conquer Egypt, now the centre of Muslim power in the Levant. During the initial Islamic invasion in 639 AD, Egypt was ruled at first by governors acting in the name of the Righteous Caliphs, and then the Ummayad See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the The crusader army that arrived at Venice in the summer of 1202 was somewhat smaller than had been anticipated, and there were not sufficient funds to pay the Venetians, whose fleet was hired by the crusaders to take them to Egypt. The Most Serene Republic of Venice ((Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia Serenissima Repubblica Venetian policy under the aging and blind but still ambitious Doge Enrico Dandolo was potentially at variance with that of the Pope and the crusaders, because Venice was closely related commercially with Egypt. The Doge ( Venetian language, also Doxe, derived from Latin Dux military leader duke cf Enrico Dandolo (also Anglicised Henry Dandolo or in Latin Henricus Dandulus, 1107? &ndash June 21 1205) was the Doge [106] The crusaders accepted the suggestion that in lieu of payment they assist the Venetians in the capture of the (Christian) port of Zara in Dalmatia (vassal city of Venice, which had rebelled and placed itself under Hungary's protection in 1186). Zadar is a city in Croatia on the Adriatic Sea, with a population of 72717 (2001 Dalmatia ( Croatian: Dalmacija, see names in other languages) is a region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, situated mostly in modern [107] The city fell in November 1202 after a brief siege. The Siege of Zara ( Croatian - Zadar) ( November 10 - November 23, 1202) was the first major action of the Fourth Crusade. [108] Innocent, who was informed of the plan, but his veto was disregarded, was reluctant to jeopardize the Crusade, and gave conditional absolution to the crusaders—not, however, to the Venetians. [106]
After the death of Theobald III, Count of Champagne, the leadership of the Crusade passed to Boniface of Montferrat, a friend of the Hohenstaufen Philip of Swabia. Theobald III (Thibaut 13 May 1179 &ndash 24 May 1201) was Count of Champagne from 1197 to his death Boniface of Montferrat (Bonifacio del Monferrato Βονιφάτιος Μομφερρατικός Vonifatios Momferratikos) (c Philip of Swabia (1177 &ndash June 21, 1208) was king of Germany and duke of Swabia, the rival of the emperor Otto IV. Both Boniface and Philip had married into the Byzantine imperial family. In fact, Philip's brother-in-law, Alexios Angelos, son of the deposed and blinded emperor Isaac II Angelos, had appeared in Europe seeking aid and had made contacts with the crusaders. Isaac II Angelos or Angelus ( Greek: Ισαάκιος Β’ Άγγελος Isaakios II Angelos) (September 1156 &ndash January 1204 was Byzantine Alexios offered to reunite the Byzantine church with Rome, pay the crusaders 200,000 silver marks, and join the crusade with 200,000 silver marks and all the supplies they needed to get to Egypt. [109] Innocent was aware of a plan to divert the Crusade to Constantinople, and forbade any attack on the city; but the papal letter arrived after the fleets had left Zara.
Alexios III made no preparations for the defense of the city; thus, when the Venetian fleet entered the waters of Constantinople on June 24, 1203, they encountered little resistance. Events 972 - Battle of Cedynia, the first documented victory of Polish forces takes place [109] In the summer of 1203 Alexios III fled, and Alexios Angelos was elevated to the throne as Alexios IV along with his blind father Isaac. Innocent reprimanded the leaders of the crusaders, and ordered them to proceed forthwith to the Holy Land. [110]
| "None of you should therefore dare to assume that it is permissible for you to seize or to plunder the land of the Greeks, even though the latter may be disobedient to the Apostolic See, or on the grounds that the Emperor of Constantinople has deposed and even blinded his brother and usurped the imperial throne. For though this same emperor and the men entrusted to his rule may have sinned, both in these and in other matters, it is not for you to judge their faults, nor have you assumed the sign of the cross to punish this injury; rather you specifically pledged your self to the duty of avenging the insult to the cross. " |
| Innocent III to Boniface I of Montferrat, Baldwin IX, Count of Flanders, and Louis I, Count of Blois (Ferentino, summer 1203, c. Boniface of Montferrat (Bonifacio del Monferrato Βονιφάτιος Μομφερρατικός Vonifatios Momferratikos) (c Baldwin I (July 1172 &ndash 1205 Bulgaria) the first emperor of the Latin Empire of Constantinople, as Baldwin IX Count of Flanders Louis I of Blois (1172 &ndash April 14, 1205) was Count of Blois from 1191 to 1205 Ferentino is a town and Comune in Italy, in the Province of Frosinone, Lazio, 65 km southeast of Rome. June 20). Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun. [111] |
When in late November 1203 Alexios IV announced that his promises were hard to keep as the empire was short on funds (he had managed to pay roughly half of the promised amount of 200,000 silver marks, and could not fulfil his promise that he would cover the Venetians' rent of the fleet for the crusaders. [112]), the crusaders declared war on him. Meanwhile, internal opposition to Alexios IV grew, and, on January 25, 1204, one of his courtiers, Alexios Doukas killed him, and took the throne himself as Alexios V; Isaac died soon afterwards, probably naturally. Events 41 - After a night of negotiation Claudius is accepted as Roman Emperor by the Senate [113] The crusaders and Venetians, incensed at the murder of their supposed patron, prepared to assault the Byzantine capital. They decided that 12 electors (six Venetians and six crusaders) should choose a Latin emperor. The Latin Empire or Latin Empire of Constantinople (original Latin name Imperium Romaniae, " Empire of Romania " is the [106]
Eventually, the crusaders took the city on April 13, 1204. Events 1111 - Henry V is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. 1204 - The Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople Constantinople was subjected by the rank and file to pillage and massacre for three days. Many priceless icons, relics, and other objects later turned up in Western Europe, a large number in Venice. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' According to Choniates, a prostitute was even set up on the Patriarchal throne. Prostitution is the act of performing Sexual activity in exchange for Money. [114] When Innocent III heard of the conduct of his crusaders, he castigated them in no uncertain terms. But the situation was beyond his control, especially after his legate, on his own initiative, had absolved the crusaders from their vow to proceed to the Holy Land. [115] When order had been restored, the crusaders and the Venetians proceeded to implement their agreement; Baldwin of Flanders was elected emperor and the Venetian Thomas Morosini chosen patriarch. Baldwin I (July 1172 &ndash 1205 Bulgaria) the first emperor of the Latin Empire of Constantinople, as Baldwin IX Count of Flanders Thomas I was the Patriarch of Constantinople from 607 to 610. The lands parcelled out among the leaders did not include all the former Byzantine possessions. The Byzantine rule continued in Nicaea, Trebizond, and Epirus. The Empire of Nicaea ( Greek: Βασίλειον τῆς Νίκαιας Turkish: İznik İmparatorluğu) was the largest of the Byzantine The Empire of Trebizond ( was a Byzantine Greek successor state of the Byzantine Empire founded in 1204 as a result of the capture of Constantinople The Principality of Epirus can also refer to the pashalik of Ali Pasha The Despotate or Principality of Epirus (Δεσποτάτο της [106] (Capital cities of the latter, Nicaea,Trebizond, Ioannina).
Fall
Empire in exile
After the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin Crusaders, three Byzantine successor states were established: the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents Succession of states is a theory in International relations regarding the recognition and acceptance of a newly created State by other states based on The Empire of Nicaea ( Greek: Βασίλειον τῆς Νίκαιας Turkish: İznik İmparatorluğu) was the largest of the Byzantine The Empire of Trebizond ( was a Byzantine Greek successor state of the Byzantine Empire founded in 1204 as a result of the capture of Constantinople The Principality of Epirus can also refer to the pashalik of Ali Pasha The Despotate or Principality of Epirus (Δεσποτάτο της Of these three successor states, Epirus and Nicaea stood the best chance of reclaiming Constantinople. The Nicaean Empire struggled, however, to survive the next few decades, and by the mid 13th century it lost much of southern Anatolia. [116] The weakening of the Sultanate of Rum following the Mongol Invasion in 1242-43 allowed many Beyliks and fanatical ghazis to set up their own principalities in Anatolia, weakening the Byzantine hold on Asia Minor. The Battle of Köse Dağ was fought between the Seljuk Turks of Rum and the Mongols on June 26 1243 at the defile of Köse thumb|350px|Anatolian Turkish Beyliks map Anatolian Beyliks or Turkmen Beyliks ( Turkish: Anadolu Beylikleri, Ottoman Turkish: [117] In time, one of the Beys, Osman I, created an empire that would conquer Byzantium. Osman I (1258 Sogut, Anatolia, Turkey &ndash1326 Sogut) Ottoman: عثمان بن أرطغرل Turkish: Osman However, the Mongol Invasion also gave Nicaea a temporary respite from Seljuk attacks allowing it to concentrate on the Latin Empire only north of its position.
Reconquest of Constantinople
The Empire of Nicaea, founded by the Laskaris, managed to reclaim Constantinople from the Latins in 1261 and defeat Epirus. The Laskaris or Lascaris (Λάσκαρις family was the Dynasty ruling the Empire of Nicaea. This led to a short lived revival of Byzantine fortunes under Michael VIII, but the war-ravaged empire was ill-equipped to deal with the enemies that now surrounded it. Michael VIII Palaiologos or Palaeologus ( Greek: Μιχαήλ Η΄ Παλαιολόγος Mikhaēl VIII Palaiologos) (1223 &ndash December 11 In order to maintain his campaigns against the Latins, Michael pulled troops from Asia Minor, and levied crippling taxes on the peasantry, causing much resentment. [118] Massive construction projects were completed in Constantinople to repair the damages of the Fourth Crusade, but none of these initiatives was of any comfort to the farmers in Asia Minor, suffering raids from fanatical ghazis.
Rather than holding on to his possessions in Asia Minor, Michael chose to expand the Empire, gaining only short-term success. To avoid another sacking of the capital by the Latins, he forced the Church to submit to Rome, again a temporary solution for which the peasantry hated Michael and Constantinople. [119] The efforts of Andronikos II and later his grandson Andronikos III marked Byzantium's last genuine attempts in restoring the glory of the empire. Andronikos II Palaiologos or Andronicus II Palaeologus ( Greek:) ( 25 March 1259, Constantinople &ndash February 13 Andronikos III Palaiologos or Andronicus III Palaeologus ( Greek: Ανδρόνικος Γ' Παλαιολόγος Andronikos III Paleologos; Անդրանիկ However, the use of mercenaries by Andronikos II would often backfire, with the Catalan Company ravaging the countryside and increasing resentment towards Constantinople[120] By 1390, Philadelphia, the last Byzantine stronghold in inner Asia Minor, fell to the Turks. The Catalan Company of the East ( Catalan Companyia Catalana d'Orient) officially the Company of the Army of the Franks in Romania Alaşehir ( Greek: Philadélphia (Φιλαδέλφεια is a town and district of Manisa Province in the Aegean region of Turkey
Civil war wrecked the empire during the 14th century, since Andronikos III's successor was far too young to rule and the resulting regency's rivalry tore the Empire. The Asian provinces were lost to the Turks, while the Serbians and Bulgarians conquered the Empire's remaining territory in Europe. For a while, the empire survived simply because the Turks of Anatolia were too divided to attack. Nevertheless, the unifying influence of Osman I (1258–1326) allowed the newly founded Ottoman Empire to deprive the Byzantines of all but a handful of port cities. Osman I (1258 Sogut, Anatolia, Turkey &ndash1326 Sogut) Ottoman: عثمان بن أرطغرل Turkish: Osman The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish [74]
Things went worse for Byzantium, when, during the civil war, an earthquake at Gallipoli in 1354 devastated the fort, allowing the Turks the very next day to cross into Europe. [121] By the time the Byzantine civil war had ended, the Ottomans had defeated the Serbians and subjugated them as vassals. Following the Battle of Kosovo, much of the Balkans became dominated by the Ottomans. This page is about the Battle of Kosovo of 1389; for other battles see Battle of Kosovo (disambiguation. [122]
The Emperors appealed to the west for help, but the Pope would only consider sending aid in return for a reunion of the Eastern Orthodox Church with the See of Rome. The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, commonly known as the Pope, and is the preeminent Episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Church unity was considered, and occasionally accomplished by imperial decree, but the Orthodox citizenry and clergy intensely resented Roman authority and the Latin Rite. The Latin Rite is one of the 23 Sui iuris Particular Churches within the Catholic Church. [123] Some western mercenaries arrived to bolster the Christian defence of Constantinople, but most Western rulers, distracted by their own affairs, did nothing as the Ottomans picked apart the remaining Byzantine territories. [124]
Constantinople by this stage was underpopulated and dilapidated. The population of the city had collapsed so severely that it was now little more than a cluster of villages separated by fields. On April 2, 1453, the Sultan's army of some 80,000 men and his hordes of irregulars laid siege to the city. Events 68 - Galba, Governor of Hispania, names himself legatus senatus populique Romani, breaking the line of [125] Despite a desperate last-ditch defense of the city by the massively outnumbered Christian forces (c. 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreign mercenaries[124]), Constantinople finally fell to the Ottomans after a two-month siege on May 29, 1453. The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire on Tuesday May 29, 1453 (Julian Calendar Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the The last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, was last seen casting off his imperial regalia and throwing himself into hand-to-hand combat after the walls of the city were taken. Constantine XI Palaiologos or Palaeologus ( Greek: Κωνσταντίνος ΙΑ' Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος Kōnstantinos XI Dragasēs Palaiologos
Aftermath
Mehmed II went on to conquer the Greek statelets of Mistra in 1460 and Trebizond in 1461. Mystras (also Mistra, Mystra and Mistras Greek: Μυστράς Μυζηθράς Mizithras or Myzithras in the Trabzon ( Greek: Τραπεζούντα, Trapezounta) is a city on the Black Sea coast of north-eastern Turkey and the capital of The nephew of the last Emperor, Constantine XI, Andreas Palaeologos had inherited the defunct title of Byzantine Emperor and used it from 1465 until his death in 1503. Andreas Palaiologos (or Palaeologus) (1453 - 1502 De jure Byzantine emperor and Despot of Morea from 1465 until death in 1502 This is a list of the Emperors of the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly known as the Byzantine Empire by modern historians [5] By the end of the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire had established its firm rule over Asia Minor and parts of the Balkan peninsula. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Mehmed II and his successors continued to consider themselves proper heirs to the Byzantine Empire until the demise of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century. Meanwhile, the Danubian Principalities harbored Orthodox refugees, including some Byzantine nobles. Danubian Principalities (Principatele Dunărene was a conventional name given to the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which emerged in the
At his death, the role of the emperor as a patron of Eastern Orthodoxy was claimed by Ivan III, Grand Duke of Muscovy. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world Ivan III Vasilevich (Иван III Васильевич ( 22 January 1440, Moscow – 27 October 1505, Moscow also known as Ivan the Great The Title grand duke (in Latin, magnus dux; in Spanish, gran duque; in Russian, Великий Герцог The Grand Duchy of Moscow (Великое княжество Московское was a medieval Russian polity centered on Moscow between 1340 and He had married Andreas' sister, Sophia Paleologue, whose grandson, Ivan IV, would become the first Tsar of Russia (tsar, or czar, meaning caesar, is a term traditionally applied by Slavs to the Byzantine Emperors). Zoe Palaiologina ( Greek Ζωή Παλαιολόγου, Russian Софья Фоминична Палеолог, c Tsar csar and tzar redirect here For other uses see Tsar (disambiguation. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the proper heir to Rome and Constantinople. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of The idea of the Russian Empire as the new, Third Rome was kept alive until its demise with the Russian Revolution of 1917. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya The term Third Rome describes the idea that some European city or state is the successor to the legacy of the Roman Empire, with Byzantium being the "second See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them [126]
Culture
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| Byzantine Culture |
|---|
| Art |
| Aristocracy & Bureaucracy |
| Army |
| Architecture |
| Coinage |
| Cuisine |
| Dance |
| Diplomacy |
| Dress |
| Economy |
| Gardens |
| Law |
| Literature |
| Music |
| Medicine |
| Navy |
| Science |
Economy
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For more details on this topic, see Byzantine economy. Byzantine art is the term commonly used to describe the artistic products of the Byzantine Empire from about the 4th century until the Fall of Constantinople The Byzantine Empire had a complex system of Aristocracy and Bureaucracy, which was inherited from the Roman Empire. The Byzantine army was the primary military body of the Byzantine armed forces serving alongside the Byzantine navy. Byzantine architecture is the Architecture of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine currency, money used in the Eastern Roman Empire after the fall of the West consisted of mainly two types of Coins the Gold solidus Byzantine cuisine was marked by a merger of Greek and Roman gastronomy History Greek Dance in Antiquity was originally held to have some kind of educational value as evidenced in Plato's dialogues on this Byzantine diplomacy concerns the principles and methods the mechanisms the ideals and techniques that the Byzantine empire espoused and used in order to negotiate with the other Byzantine dress changed considerably over the thousand years of the Empire but was essentially conservative The Byzantine economy was among the most advanced in Europe and the Mediterranean for many centuries Byzantium undoubtedly occupies an important place in the history of garden design Byzantine Law was essentially a continuation of Roman Law with Christian influence however this is not to doubt its later influence on the western practice Byzantine literature may be defined as the Greek literature of the Middle Ages, whether written in the territory of the Byzantine Empire or outside Byzantine music is the music of the Byzantine Empire composed to Greek texts as ceremonial festival or church music Byzantine medicine is the medicine practiced in the Byzantine Empire from about 400 AD to 1453 AD The Byzantine navy comprised the naval forces of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine science played an important role in the transmission of classical knowledge to the Islamic world and to Renaissance Italy, and also in the transmission The Byzantine economy was among the most advanced in Europe and the Mediterranean for many centuries
The Byzantine economy was among the most advanced in Europe and the Mediterranean for many centuries. Europe, in particular, was unable to match Byzantine economic strength until late in the Middle Ages. Constantinople was a prime hub in a trading network that at various times extended across nearly all of Eurasia and North Africa, in particular being the primary western terminus of the famous silk road. For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the Some scholars argue that, up until the arrival of the Arabs in the 7th century, the Empire had the most powerful economy in the world. The Arab conquests, however, would represent a substantial reversal of fortunes contributing to a period of decline and stagnation. The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732 (فتح Fatah, literally opening, also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab Constantine V's reforms (c. 765) marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204. From the 10th century until the end of the 12th, the Byzantine Empire projected an image of luxury, and the travelers were impressed by the wealth accumulated in the capital. All this changed with the arrival of the Fourth Crusade, which was an economic catastrophe. [127] The Palaiologoi tried to revive the economy, but the late Byzantine state would not gain full control of either the foreign or domestic economic forces. The Palaiologos or Palaeologus ( Greek: Παλαιολόγος pl Gradually, it also lost its influence on the modalities of trade and the price mechanisms, and its control over the outflow of precious metals and, according to some scholars, even over the minting of coins. [128]
One of the economic foundations of the empire was trade. Justinian II (Ιουστινιανός Β΄ Ioustinianos II; 669&ndashDecember 711 known as Rinotmetos or Rhinotmetus (Ρινότμητος Textiles must have been by far the most important item of export; silks were certainly imported into Egypt, and appeared also in Bulgaria, and the West. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons [129] The state strictly controlled both the internal and the international trade, and retained the monopoly of issuing coinage. Byzantine currency, money used in the Eastern Roman Empire after the fall of the West consisted of mainly two types of Coins the Gold solidus The government exercised formal control over interest rates, and set the parameters for the activity of the guilds and corporations, in which it had a special interest. A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers The emperor and its officials intervened at times of crisis to ensure the provisioning of the capital, and to keep down the price of cereals. Finally, the government often collected part of the surplus through taxation, and put it back into circulation, through redistribution in the form of salaries to state officials, or in the form of investment in public works. [130]
Science, Medicine, Law
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For more details on this topic, see Byzantine science. Byzantine science played an important role in the transmission of classical knowledge to the Islamic world and to Renaissance Italy, and also in the transmission
- See also: Byzantine medicine and Byzantine law
The writings of Classical antiquity never ceased to be cultivated in Byzantium. Byzantine medicine is the medicine practiced in the Byzantine Empire from about 400 AD to 1453 AD Byzantine Law was essentially a continuation of Roman Law with Christian influence however this is not to doubt its later influence on the western practice Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean Therefore, Byzantine science was in every period closely connected with ancient philosophy, and metaphysics. This page lists some links to ancient philosophy. In Western philosophy, the spread of Christianity through the Roman Empire marked the end of Hellenistic Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science [131] Although at various times the Byzantines made magnificent achievements in the application of the sciences (notably in the construction of the Hagia Sophia), after the 6th century Byzantine scholars made few novel contributions to science in terms of developing new theories or extending the ideas of classical authors. In the Middle Ages, Science progressed dramatically from the time of antiquity in areas as diverse as Astronomy, Medicine, and Mathematics Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya Αγία Σοφία " Holy Wisdom " Sancta Sophia or Sancta Sapientia) is a former patriarchal Basilica, later [132] Scholarship particularly lagged during the dark years of plague and the Arab conquests, but then during the so-called Byzantine Renaissance at the end of the first millennium Byzantine scholars re-asserted themselves becoming experts in the scientific developments of the Arabs and Persians, particularly in astronomy and mathematics. The Plague of Justinian was a Pandemic that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital Constantinople, in the years 541 – 542 Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and [133]
In the final century of the Empire, Byzantine grammarians were those principally responsible for carrying, in person and in writing, ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to early Renaissance Italy. The Italian Renaissance began the opening phase of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and achievement in Europe that spanned the period from the end of the 14th [134] During this period astronomy and other mathematical sciences were taught in Trebizond; medicine attracted the interest of almost all scholars. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and [135]
In the field of law, Justinian I's reforms had a clear effect on the evolution of jurisprudence, and Leo III's Ecloga influenced the formation of legal institutions in the Slav world. Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus ( Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; known in English as Justinian I or Jurisprudence is the Theory and Philosophy of Law. Scholars of jurisprudence or legal philosophers hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature [136]
Religion
- Further information: Eastern Orthodox Church
According to Joseph Raya, "Byzantine culture and Orthodoxy are one and the same. Joseph Raya ( August 15, 1916 &ndash June 10, 2005) born in Zahlé Lebanon, was a prominent Melkite Greek Catholic The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world "[137] The survival of the Empire in the East assured an active role of the Emperor in the affairs of the Church. The Byzantine state inherited from pagan times the administrative, and financial routine of administering religious affairs, and this routine was applied to the Christian Church. Church (disambiguation Christian Church and the word church are used to denote both a Christian association of people and a Place of worship Following the pattern set by Eusebius of Caesarea, the Byzantines thought of the Emperor as a representative or messenger of Christ, responsible particularly for the propagation of Christianity among pagans, and for the "externals" of the religion, such as administration and finances. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) The imperial role, however, in the affairs of the Church never developed into a fixed, legally defined system. [138]
With the decline of Rome, and internal dissension in the other Eastern patriarchates, the church of Constantinople became, between the 6th and 11th centuries, the richest and most influential center of Christendom. Christendom usually refers to Christianity as a territorial phenomenon [139] Even when the Empire was reduced to only a shadow of itself, the Church, as an institution, had never exercised so much influence both inside and outside of the imperial frontiers. As George Ostrogorsky points out:
The Patriarchate of Constantinople remained the center of the Orthodox world, with subordinate metropolitan sees and archbishoprics in the territory of Asia Minor and the Balkans, now lost to Byzantium, as well as in Caucasus, Russia and Lithuania. George Alexandrovič Ostrogorsky (Георгий Александрович Острогорский also known as George Ostrogorsky; 19 January 1902 History Early history Christianity in Byzantium existed from the time of the Twelve Apostles, but it was in the year 330 that the Roman Emperor The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the The Church remained the most stable element in the Byzantine Empire. [140]
However, there were some non-Christian minorities in Byzantium, most notably Jews. The juridical standing of the Jews of the Byzantine Empire was unique during the entire history of the Empire they did not belong to the Eastern Orthodox
Art and literature
- See also: Byzantine music and Byzantine dress
Architecture, painting, and other visual arts produced in the Byzantine Empire and in various areas that came under its influence. Byzantine architecture is the Architecture of the Byzantine Empire. Painting (pān'tīng in Art, is the practice of applying Color to a Surface (support base such as e Byzantine art is almost entirely concerned with religious expression and, more specifically, with the impersonal translation of carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms. Byzantine forms were spread by trade and conquest to Italy and Sicily, where they persisted in modified form through the 12th century, and became formative influences on Italian Renaissance art. The Italian Renaissance began the opening phase of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and achievement in Europe that spanned the period from the end of the 14th By means of the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church, Byzantine forms spread to eastern European centers, particularly Russia. [141] Influences from Byzantine architecture, particularly in religious buildings, can be found in diverse regions from Egypt and Arabia to Russia and Romania.
In Byzantine literature, therefore, four different cultural elements are to be reckoned with: the Greek, the Christian, the Roman, and the Oriental. Greek literature refers to those writings autochthonic to the areas of Greek influence typically though not necessarily in one of the Greek dialects throughout the Latin literature, the body of written works in the Latin language remains an enduring legacy of the culture of Ancient Rome. Byzantine literature is often classified in five groups: historians and annalists, encyclopedists (Patriarch Photios, Michael Psellos, and Michael Choniates are regarded as the greatest encyclopedists of Byzantium) and essayists, and writers of secular poetry (The only genuine heroic epic of the Byzantines is the Digenis Acritas). This article is about the 11th-century Byzantine historian and philosopher Michael Choniates or Acominatus (Μιχαήλ Χωνιάτηςc Digenis Acritis (Διγενῆς Ἀκρίτης) known in Folksongs as Διγενῆς Ἀκρίτας ( is the most famous of the Acritic Songs. The remaining two groups include the new literary species: ecclesiastical and theological literature, and popular poetry. Of the approximately two to three thousand volumes of Byzantine literature that survive, only three hundred and thirty consist of secular poetry, history, science and pseudo-science. [142] While the most flourishing period of the secular literature of Byzantium runs from the ninth to the twelfth century, its religious literature (sermons, liturgical books and poetry, theology, devotional treatises etc. A sermon is an oration by a Prophet or member of the Clergy. Sermons address a Biblical, theological, or religious topic A liturgical book is a book published by the authority of a Church, that contains the text and directions for the Liturgy of its official Religious services ) developed much earlier with Romanos the Melodist being its most prominent representative. "Romanos" redirects here See Romanus for the Latin form of the same name or Romanos Spain for the municipality in Spain [143]
Government and bureaucracy
The themes c. 650
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The themes c. 950
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- See also: Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy
In the Byzantine state, the emperor was the sole and absolute ruler, and his power was regarded as having divine origin. The Byzantine Empire had a complex system of Aristocracy and Bureaucracy, which was inherited from the Roman Empire. This is a list of the Emperors of the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly known as the Byzantine Empire by modern historians [5] By the end of the 8th century, a civil administration focused on the court was formed as part of a large-scale consolidation of power in the capital (the rise to pre-eminence of the position of sakellarios is related to this change). Sakellarios is an official of Greek Orthodox Church who was in charge of sakelle ( sakellion) which is the treasury of Patriarch ( Bishop [144] The most important reform of this period is the creation of themes, where civil and military administration is exercised by one person, the strategos. For the board game see Stratego. "Strategus" redirects here [5]
Despite the occasionally derogatory use of the word "Byzantine", the Byzantine bureaucracy had a distinct ability for reinventing itself in accordance with the Empire's situation. The term Byzantine was first applied to the eastern Roman Empire by historians in the 16th century decades after the Fall of Constantinople to the forces The Byzantine system of titulature and precedence makes the imperial administration look like an ordered bureaucracy to modern observers. Officials were arranged in strict order around the emperor, and depended upon the imperial will for their ranks. There were also actual administrative jobs, but authority could be vested in individuals rather than offices. [145] In the 8th and 9th centuries civil service constituted the clearest path to aristocratic status, but, starting in the 9th century, the civil aristocracy was rivaled by an aristocracy of nobility. According to some studies of Byzantine government, 11th-century politics were dominated by competition between the civil and the military aristocracy. During this period, Alexios I undertook important administrative reforms, including the creation of new courtly dignities and offices. [146]
Diplomacy
-
For more details on this topic, see Byzantine diplomacy. Byzantine diplomacy concerns the principles and methods the mechanisms the ideals and techniques that the Byzantine empire espoused and used in order to negotiate with the other
After the fall of Rome, the key challenge to the Empire was to maintain a set of relations between itself and its sundry neighbors. Saint Olga (Ольга also called Olga Prekrasa (Ольга Прекраса or Olga the Beauty, Old Norse: Helga; born c Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Русь romanised: Kievskaya Rus', rusʲ also written as Kyivan Rus′ (Ки́ївська Русь or Kievan When these nations set about forging formal political institutions, they were dependent on Constantinople. Byzantine diplomacy soon managed to draw its neighbors into a network of international and inter-state relations. [147] This network revolved around treaty making, and included the welcoming of the new ruler into the family of kings, and the assimilation of Byzantine social attitudes, values and institutions. [148] Byzantines regarded diplomacy as a form of war by other means: the Bureau of Barbarians was the first foreign intelligence agency, gathering information on the empire's rivals from every imaginable source. The Bureau of Barbarians, or Skrinion Barbaron, was a ministry of the government in the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, Empire [149]
Byzantines availed themselves of a number of diplomatic practices. For example, embassies to the capital would often stay on for years. A member of other royal houses would routinely be requested to stay on in Constantinople, not only as a potential hostage, but also as a useful pawn in case political conditions where he came from changed. Another key practice was to overwhelm visitors by sumptuous displays. [147] According to Dimitri Obolensky, the preservation of civilization in Eastern Europe was due to the skill and resourcefulness of Byzantine diplomacy, which remains one of Byzantium's lasting contributions to the history of Europe. Dimitri Obolensky ( St Petersburg 19 March / 1 April 1918 - Burford Oxfordshire 23 December 2001) was born Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. [150]
Language
-
For more details on this topic, see Medieval Greek. Medieval Greek (Μεσαιωνική Ελληνική is a linguistic term that describes the fourth period in the history of the Greek language.
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Left: The Mudil Psalter, the oldest complete psalter in the Coptic language (Coptic Museum, Egypt, Coptic Cairo). A Psalter is a volume containing the Book of Psalms and which often contains other devotional material Coptic Museum is a Museum in Coptic Cairo, Egypt with the largest collection of Egyptian Christian artifacts in the world Coptic Cairo is a part of Old Cairo which encompasses the Babylon Fortress, the Coptic Museum, the Hanging Church, the Greek Church of St
Middle: The Codex Armenicus Rescriptus, a 6th/10th century parchment containing Armenian and Syriac liturgy (The Schøyen Collection). |
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Owing its origins to Rome the original language of the Empire was Latin and this continued to be its official language until the 7th century AD when it was changed to Greek by Heraclius. Scholarly Latin would rapidly fall into disuse among the educated classes although the language would continue to be at least a ceremonial part of the Empire's culture for some time. [151] Additionally common Latin continued to be a minority language in the Empire which many scholars believe gave birth to the Vlach languages. Vulgar Latin (in Latin sermo vulgaris, "folk speech" is a Blanket term covering the popular Dialects and Sociolects of the Latin The Eastern Romance languages, sometimes known as the Vlach languages, are a group of Romance languages that developed in Southeastern Europe [152]
Apart from the Imperial court, though, the primary language used in the eastern Roman provinces (i. e. the Eastern Roman Empire) even before the decline of the Western Empire had always been Greek. The Decline of the Roman Empire, leading to the Fall of the Roman Empire, or the Fall of Rome, was the end of the Western Roman Empire. [153] Indeed early on in the life of the Roman Empire Greek had become the common language in the Christian Church, the language of scholarship and the arts, and, to a large degree, the lingua franca for trade between provinces and with other nations. [154] The language itself for a time gained a dual nature with the primary spoken language, Koine, existing alongside an older literary language with Koine eventually evolving into the standard dialect. In Linguistics, diglossia is a situation where in a given society there are two (often closely-related languages one of high prestige, which is generally used Koine Greek (Κοινὴ Ἑλληνική, "common Greek" or, ciˈni ðiˈale̞kto̞s "the common dialect" is the popular form of Greek which emerged in Attic Greek is the Prestige dialect of Ancient Greece that was spoken in Attica, which includes Athens. [155]
Many other languages existed in the multi-ethnic Empire as well, and some of these were given limited official status in their provinces at various times. Notably, by the beginning of the Middle Ages, Syriac and Aramaic had become more widely used by the educated classes in the far eastern provinces. See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language Aramaic is a Semitic language with [156] Similarly Coptic, Armenian, and Georgian became significant among the educated in their provinces,[157] and later foreign contacts made the Slavonic, Vlach, and Arabic languages important in the Empire and its sphere of influence. Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt The Armenian language (hy հայերեն լեզու hajɛɹɛn lɛzu —, conventional short form) is an Indo-European language spoken by the Armenian Georgian (ka ქართული ენა kartuli ena) is the Official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus. to make sure old Cyrillic letters are displayed properly (For example instead of just Ѣ write Ѣ Classical Arabic (CA also known as Qur'anic or Koranic Arabic, is the form of the Arabic language used in literary texts from Umayyad [158]
Aside from these, since Constantinople was a prime trading center in the Mediterranean region and beyond, virtually every known language of the Middle Ages was spoken in the Empire at some time, even Chinese. The history of the Mediterranean region is the History of the interaction of the cultures and peoples of the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea [159] As the Empire entered its final decline the Empire's citizens became more culturally homogeneous and the Greek language became synonymous with their identity and their religion. [160]
Legacy
As the only stable long-term state in Europe during the Middle Ages, Byzantium isolated Western Europe from newly emerging forces to the East. Constantly under attack, it distanced Western Europe from Persians, Arabs, Seljuk Turks, and for a time, the Ottomans. The Byzantine-Arab Wars, for example, are recognized by some historians as being a key factor behind the rise of Charlemagne,[161] and a huge stimulus to feudalism and economic self-sufficiency. Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed Medieval technology refers to the technology used in medieval Europe, which generally does not include the parts of Europe under Arab rule, such as Islamic
For centuries, Western historians have used the terms Byzantine and Byzantinism as bywords for decadence, duplicitous politics and complex bureaucracy, and there was a strongly negative assessment of Byzantine civilization and its legacy in Southeastern Europe. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings The term Byzantine was first applied to the eastern Roman Empire by historians in the 16th century decades after the Fall of Constantinople to the forces [162] Byzantinism in general was defined as a body of religious, political, and philosophical ideas which ran contrary to those of the West. [163] Similarly until the 20th century the term East, in the context of Eastern and Western culture, was commonly used to refer to cultures that had strong influences from the Byzantine Empire (including by extension the Arabs and the Ottomans). The 20th and 21st centuries, however, have seen attempts by historians in the West to understand the Empire in a more balanced and accurate fashion including its influences on the West, and as a result the complex character of Byzantine culture has received more attention and a more objective treatment than previously. [163]
See also
Footnotes
- ^ Neubecker, Ottfried (1977). This is a list of people places things and concepts related to or originating from the Byzantine Empire. Le grand livre de l’héraldique. Elsevier Séquoïa: Brussels.
- ^ Corvisier, Andre (1994). A Dictionary of Military History and the Art of War. Blackwell Publishing.
- ^ Moravcsik (1970), 11-12
* The Blackwell encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England by Michael Lapidge,ISBN 0631224920,1999,page 79,"Byzantium is the name given to the eastern largely Greek speaking part of the Roman empire from the founding of Constantinople in 325 (and especially from the effective division of the empire into western/Latin-speaking and eastern /Greek-speaking under Honorius in 395 )" until the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453
* Encarta © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved Byzantine Empire Quote: Its predominant language was Greek
* Columbia Encyclopedia Byzantine Empire Quote: Greek was the prevalent language The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright© 2004, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Lernout & Hauspie Speech Products N. V. All rights reserved - ^ Fox, What, If Anything, Is a Byzantine?
- ^ a b c d "Hellas, Byzantium". Encyclopaedia The Helios.
- ^ Bury (1923), 1
* Fenner, Economic Factors - ^ a b c Bury (1923), 1
- ^ "Byzantine Empire". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
* Gibbon (1906), II, 200PDF (2. 61 MiB) - ^ Eusebius, IV, lxii
- ^ Gibbon (1906), III, 168PDF (2. A mebibyte (a contraction of me ga bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, abbreviated MiB. 35 MiB)
- ^ Bury (1923), 1
* Esler (2000), 1081 - ^ Esler (2000), 1081
- ^ Bury (1923), 25–26
- ^ Esler (2000), 1081
* Mousourakis (2003), 327–328 - ^ Bury (1923), 163
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Byzantine Empire". A mebibyte (a contraction of me ga bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, abbreviated MiB. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- ^ Nathan, Theodosius II (408-450 A.D.)
- ^ Treadgold (1995), 193
- ^ Alemany (2000), 207
* Treadgold (1997), 184 - ^ Treadgold (1997), 152-155
- ^ Cameron (2000), 553
- ^ Grierson (1999), 17
- ^ "Byzantine Empire". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
* Evans, Justinian (AD 527–565) - ^ a b c Evans, Justinian (AD 527–565)
- ^ Bury (1923), 180–216
- ^ Bury (1923), 236–258
- ^ Bury (1923), 259–281
- ^ Bury (1923), 286–288
- ^ Procopius, IX
- ^ Vasiliev, The Legislative Work of Justinian and Tribonian
- ^ Vasiliev, The Ecclesiastical Policy of Justinian
- ^ Bray (2004), 19-47
* Haldon (1997), 110-111
* Treadgold (1997), 196-197 - ^ Foss (1975), 722
- ^ Haldon (1997), 41
* Speck (1984), 178. - ^ Haldon (1997), 42-43
- ^ Grabar (1984), 37
* Cameron (1979), 23. - ^ Cameron (1979), 5-6, 20-22
- ^ Haldon (1997), 46
* Baynes (1912), passim
* Speck (1984), 178 - ^ Foss (1975), 746-47.
- ^ Haldon (1997), 50
- ^ Shahid (1972), 295-96, 305.
- ^ Haldon (1997), 404
- ^ Haldon (1997), 49-50
- ^ Haldon (1997), 61-62
- ^ Haldon (1997), 102-14.
- ^ Haldon (1997), 208-15
* Kaegi (2003), 236, 283. - ^ Haldon (1997), 43-45, 66, 114-15.
- ^ Haldon (1997), 66-67.
- ^ Haldon (1997), 71.
- ^ Haldon (1997), 115-16.
- ^ Haldon (1997), 56-59.
- ^ Haldon (1997), 59-61.
- ^ Haldon (1997), 53, 61, 68-69, 74.
- ^ Haldon (1997), 70-78, 169-71
* Haldon (2004), 216-217
* Kountoura-Galake (1996), 62-75 - ^ Cameron (1992)
- ^ Kitzinger (1976), 195
- ^ Haldon (1997), 251.
- ^ "Byzantine Empire". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
* "Hellas, Byzantium". Encyclopaedia The Helios. - ^ Garland (1996), 89
- ^ Parry (1996), 11–15
- ^ a b c d e f g h Norwich (1998)
- ^ Treadgold (1991)
- ^ Angold (1997)
- ^ Treadgold (1997), 548–549
- ^ a b Markham, The Battle of Manzikert
- ^ Vasiliev, Relations with Italy and Western Europe
- ^ "Byzantine Empire". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
* Markham, The Battle of Manzikert - ^ Magdalino (2002), 124
- ^ Birkenmeier (2002)
- ^ Harris (2003)
* Read (2003), 124
* Watson (1993), 12 - ^ Anna Komnene, X, 261
- ^ Anna Komnene, XI, 291
- ^ Anna Komnene, XIII, 348–358
* Birkenmeier (2002), 46 - ^ a b Garland (2006), 126
* Runciman (1982), 72 - ^ a b Stone, John II Komnenos
- ^ Norwich (1998), 267
- ^ Ostrogorsky (1990), 377
- ^ Birkenmeier (2002), 90
- ^ "John II Komnenos". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- ^ Harris (2003), 84
- ^ Brooke (2004), 326
- ^ Magdalino (2002), 74
* Stone, Manuel I Comnenus - ^ Sedlar (1994), 372
- ^ Magdalino (2002), 67
- ^ Innocent III, Letter to the Illustrious Emperor of Constantinople (no 121)
- ^ Birkenmeier (2002), 128
- ^ Birkenmeier (2002), 196
- ^ Birkenmeier (2002), 185–186
- ^ Birkenmeier (2002), 1
- ^ Day (1977), 289–290
* Harvey (1998) - ^ Diehl, Byzantine Art
- ^ Tatakes-Moutafakis (2003), 110
- ^ a b Vasiliev, Foreign policy of the Angeloi
- ^ Norwich (1998), 291
- ^ a b Norwich (1998), 292
- ^ a b c d e f P. Magdalino (2002), 194
- ^ J. Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades, 117
- ^ J. J. Norwich, A short history of Byzantium, 291
- ^ J. Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades, 118
- ^ Norwich (1998), 293
- ^ Norwich (1998), 294-295
- ^ Norwich (1998), 296
- ^ T. Madden, Crusades, 85
* Norwich (1998), 297 - ^ Angold (1997)
* Paparrigopoulos (1925), Db, 216 - ^ Norwich (1998), 299
- ^ a b c d "The Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Constantinople". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- ^ Britannica Concise, Siege of Zara
- ^ Geoffrey of Villehardouin, 46
- ^ a b Norwich (1998), 301
- ^ Harris (2003)
* "The Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Constantinople". Encyclopaedia Britannica. - ^ Innocent III, Innocent III to the Marquis of Montferrat and the Counts of Flanders, Blois and St. Pol. (no 101)
- ^ Madden (2005), 110
- ^ Paparrigopoulos (1925), Db, 230
- ^ Choniates, The Sack of Constantinople
- ^ Norwich (1998)
* "The Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire of Constantinople". Encyclopaedia Britannica. - ^ Kean (2005)
* Madden (2005), 162
* Lowe-Baker, The Seljuks of Rum - ^ Lowe-Baker, The Seljuks of Rum
- ^ Madden (2005), 179
* Reinert (2002), 260 - ^ Reinert (2002), 257
- ^ Reinert (2002), 261
- ^ Reinert (2002), 268
- ^ Reinert (2002), 270
- ^ Runciman (1990), 71-72
- ^ a b Runciman (1990), 84-85
- ^ Runciman (1990), 84-86
- ^ Seton-Watson (1967), 31
- ^ Magdalino in Laiou (2002), 532PDF (519 KiB)
- ^ Matschke (2002), 805–806PDF (255 KiB)
- ^ Laiou (2002), 723PDF (463 KiB)
- ^ Laiou (2002), 3–4PDF (77. A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International 5 KiB)
- ^ Anastos (1962), 409
- ^ Cohen (1994), 395
* Dickson, Mathematics Through the Middle Ages - ^ King (1991), 116-118
- ^ Robins (1993), 8
- ^ Tatakes-Moutafakis (2003), 189
- ^ Troianos-Velissaropoulou (1997), 340
- ^ Raya, The Byzantine Church and Culture
- ^ Meyendorff (1982), 13
- ^ Meyendorff (1982), 19
- ^ Meyendorff (1982), 130
- ^ "Byzantine Art". A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- ^ Mango (1980), 233–4
- ^ "Byzantine Literature". Catholic Encyclopedia.
- ^ Louth (2005), 291
* Neville (2004), 7 - ^ Neville (2004), 34
- ^ Neville (2004), 13
- ^ a b Neumann (2006), 869–871
- ^ Chrysos (1992), 35
- ^ Antonucci (1993), 11–13
- ^ Obolensky (1994), 3
- ^ Apostolides (1992), 25-26
* Wroth (1908), Introduction, section 6, cv - ^ Saramandru, Torna, Torna Fratre
* Sedlar (1994), 403-404 - ^ Millar (2006), 279
- ^ Bryce (1901), 59
* McDonnell (2006), 77
* Millar (2006), 97-98 - ^ Greek Language, Encyclopedia Britannica
- ^ Beaton (1996), 10
* Jones (1986), 991
* Versteegh (1977), Chapter 1 - ^ Campbell (2004), 40
* Hacikyan (2002), part 1 - ^ Baynes (1907), 289
* Gutas (1998), Chapter 7, section 4
* Shopen (1987), 129 - ^ Beckwith (1986), 171
* Halsall(2006) - ^ Greece during the Byzantine period (c. AD 300–c. 1453), Population and languages, Emerging Greek identity, Encyclopedia Britannica
* Kaldellis (2008), Chapter 6
* Nicol (1993), Chapter 5 - ^ Pirenne, Henri
- Mediaeval Cities: Their Origins and the Rivival of Trade (Princeton, NJ, 1925). Henri Pirenne ( December 23 1862, Verviers - October 25 1935, Uccle) was a leading Belgian historian ISBN 0691007608
- See also Mohammed and Charlemagne (London 1939) Dover Publications (2001). ISBN 0-486-42011-6.
- ^ Angelov (2001), 1
- ^ a b Angelov (2001), 7-8
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- Choniates, Nicetas (1912). Niketas Choniates ( Greek: Νικήτας Χωνιάτης c 1155 &ndash 1215 or 1216 sometimes called Acominatus, was a Byzantine Greek Historian "The Sack of Constantinople (1204)", Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History by D. C. Munro (Series 1, Vol 3:1). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 15–16.
- Eusebius. Life of Constantine (Book IV). Christian Classics Ethereal Library. The Christian Classics Ethereal Library (CCEL is a Digital library that provides free electronic copies of Christian Scripture and Literature
- Geoffrey of Villehardouin (1963). Geoffrey of Villehardouin (in French Geoffroi de Villehardouin) (1160 &ndash c "The Conquest of Constantinople", Chronicles of the Crusades (translated by Margaret R. Shaw). Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-140-44124-7.
- Innocent III (1993). Pope Innocent III ( February 22, 1161 &ndash June 16, 1216) born Lotario de' Conti di Segni, was Pope from January in Othmar Hageneder, Christoph Egger, Karl Rudolf, and Andrea Sommerlechner: Die Register Innocenz' III. 5: 5. Pontifikatsjahr, 1202/1203, Texte. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: Publikationen des Historischen Instituts beim Österreichischen Kulturinstitut in Rom.
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- Cohen, H. Floris (1994). "The Emergence of Early Modern Science", The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-11280-2.
- Day, Gerald W. (Jun 1977). "Manuel and the Genoese: A Reappraisal of Byzantine Commercial Policy in the Late Twelfth Century". The Journal of Economic History 37 (2): 289–301.
- Dickson, Paul. Mathematics Through the Middle Ages (320-1660AD). Medieval mathematics. University of South Australia. Retrieved on 2008-04-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne
- Diehl, Charles. Manuel I Comnenus (AD 1143–1180). Byzantium, An Introduction to East Roman Civilization. Myriobiblos - Library. Retrieved on 2007-05-18. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine.
- Esler, Philip Francis (2000). "Constantine and the Empire", The Early Christian World. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-33312-1.
- Evans, James Allan. Justinian (AD 527–565). Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Retrieved on 2007-05-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1535 - French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail on his second voyage to North America with three ships 110 men and
- Fenner, Julian. To What Extent Were Economic Factors to Blame for the Deterioration of the Roman Empire in the Third Century A.D?. The Romans. Retrieved on 2007-05-25. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors.
- Foss, Clive (1975). "The Persians in Asia Minor and the End of Antiquity". The English Historical Review 90: 721–47. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- Fox, Clifton R. What, if Anything, Is a Byzantine. Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Retrieved on 2007-05-25. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors.
- Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204. Routledge. ISBN 0415146887.
- Garland, Linda (2006). "Middle Byzantine Family Values and Anna Komnene's Alexiad", Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience 800–1200. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. . ISBN 0-754-65737-X.
- Gibbon, Edward (1906). Edward Gibbon ( April 27, 1737 January 16, 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament. in J. B. Bury (with an Introduction by W. E. H. Lecky): The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Volumes II, III, and IX). New York: Fred de Fau and Co. .
- Grabar, André (1984). L'iconoclasme Byzantin: le dossier archéologique. Flammarion. ISBN 2-08-081634-9.
- Grierson, Philip (1999). Byzantine Coinage. Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0-88402-274-9.
- Gutas, Dimitri (1998). Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement. ISBN 0415061326.
- Hacikyan, Agop Jack (2002). The Heritage of Armenian Literature. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0814330231.
- Haldon, John (2002). Byzantium: A History. Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-2343-6.
- Haldon, John (1997). Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture. Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-31917-X.
- Haldon, John (2003). Byzantium at War 600 - 1453. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-96861-5.
- Haldon, John (2004). "The fate of the late Roman senatorial elite: extinction or transformation?", in John Haldon and Lawrence I. Conrad: The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East VI: Elites old and new in the Byzantine and early Islamic Near East. Darwin Press. ISBN 0-87850-144-4.
- Halsall, Paul (2006). East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. - 1643 C.E.. Fordham University. Retrieved on 2007-04-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1450 - Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English
- Harris, Jonathan (2003). Byzantium and the Crusades. Hambledon and London. ISBN 1-85285-298-4.
- Harvey, Alan (1989). Economic Expansion in the Byzantine Empire, 900–1200. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37151-1.
- "Hellas, Byzantium". Encyclopaedia The Helios. (1952).
- Herrin, Judith (2007). Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691131511.
- "Greece during the Byzantine period (c. AD 300–c. 1453), Population and languages, Emerging Greek identity". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2008).
- Hooker, Richard. The Byzantine Empire. Retrieved on 2007-06-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins
- Jenkins, Romilly (1987). Byzantium: The ImperialCenturies, AD 610–1071. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-802-06667-4.
- Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin (1986). The Later Roman Empire, 284-602: A Social Economic and Administrative Survey. JHU Press. ISBN 0801833531.
- "John II Komnenos". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
- Kaegi, Walter Emil (2003). Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge. ISBN 0521814596.
- Kaldellis, Anthony (2008). Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521876885.
- Kean, Roger Michael (2005). Forgotten Power. Thalamus Publishing. ISBN 1-902-88607-0.
- King, David A. (March 1991), “Reviews: The Astronomical Works of Gregory Chioniades, Volume I: The Zij al- Ala'i by Gregory Chioniades, David Pingree; An Eleventh-Century Manual of Arabo-Byzantine Astronomy by Alexander Jones”, Isis 82 (1): 116-118
- Kitzinger, Ernst (1976). Isis is an Academic journal published by The University of Chicago Press devoted to the History of science, History of medicine "Byzantine Art in the Period between Justinian and Iconoclasm", in W. E. Kleinbauer: The Art of Byzantium and the Medieval West: Selected Studies. Indiana University. ISBN 0-253-31055-5.
- Kountoura-Galake, Eleonora (1996). The Byzantine Clergy and the Society of "Dark Ages" (in Greek). Institute of Byzantine Research. ISBN 9-789-60709-446-9.
- Laiou, Angeliki E. (2002). "Exchange and Trade, Seventh-Twelfth Centuries", in Angeliki E. Laiou: The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 2). Dumbarton Oaks.
- Laiou, Angeliki E. (2002). "Writing the Economic History of Byzantium", in Angeliki E. Laiou: The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 1). Dumbarton Oaks.
- Louth, Andrew (2005). "The Byzantine Empire in the Seventh Century", in Paul Fouracre: The New Cambridge Medieval History (Volume I). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36291-1.
- Lowe, Steven; Baker, Martin. The Seljuqs of Rum. Retrieved on 2007-07-09. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- Madden, Thomas F. (2005). This article is about the modern historian at Saint Louis University Crusades: The Illustrated History. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-03127-9.
- Magdalino, Paul (2002). "Medieval Constantinople: Built Environment and Urban Development", in Angeliki E. Laiou: The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 2). Dumbarton Oaks.
- Magdalino, Paul (2002). The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 1143–1180. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52653-1.
- Mango, Cyril (1980). Cyril Alexander Mango (born 14 April 1928 in Istanbul) is a British Scholar in the History, art, and architecture Byzantium: The Empire of the New Rome. Phoenix Press. ISBN 1-89880-044-8.
- Markham, Paul. The Battle of Manzikert: Military Disaster or Political Failure?. Retrieved on 2007-05-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1535 - French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail on his second voyage to North America with three ships 110 men and
- Matschke, Klaus-Peter (2002). "Commerce, Trade, Markets, and Money: Thirteenth-Fifteenth Centuries", in Angeliki E. Laiou: The Economic History of Byzantium (Volume 2). Dumbarton Oaks.
- McDonnell, Myles Anthony (2006). "Hellinization and Arete: Semantic Borrowing", Roman Manliness: Virtus and the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press.
- Meyendorff, John (1982). John Meyendorff ( February 17, 1926 - July 22, 1992) was a modern Orthodox scholar writer and teacher The Byzantine Legacy in the Orthodox Church. St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 0-913-83690-7.
- Millar, Fergus (2006). A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408-450). University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24703-5.
- Moravcsik, Gyula (1970). Byzantium and the Magyars. Hakkert.
- Mousourakis, George (2003). "The Dominate", The Historical and Institutional Context of Roman Law. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. . ISBN 0-754-62114-6.
- Nathan, Geoffrey S. . Roman Emperors: Theodosius II. Retrieved on 2007-01-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, signaling the start of civil war.
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- Neubecker, Ottfried (1997). Heraldry: Sources, Symbols and Meaning. Time Warner Books UK. ISBN 0-316-64141-3.
- Neville, Leonora (2004). "Imperial Administration and Byzantine Political Culture", Authority in Byzantine Provincial Society, 950–1100. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-83865-7.
- Nicol, Donald MacGillivray (1993). The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521439914.
- Norwich, John Julius (1998). A Short History of Byzantium. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-025960-0.
- Obolensky, Dimitri (1994). Dimitri Obolensky ( St Petersburg 19 March / 1 April 1918 - Burford Oxfordshire 23 December 2001) was born "The Principles and Methods of Byzantine Diplomacy", Byzantium and the Slavs. St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 0-881-41008-X.
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- Paparrigopoulos, Constantine; Karolidis, Pavlos (1925). Constantine Paparrigopoulos (Κωνσταντίνος Παπαρρηγόπουλος (1815-1891 is considered the founder of modern Greek Historiography. History of the Hellenic Nation (Volume Db) (in Greek). Eleftheroudakis.
- Parry, Kenneth (1996). "Historical Introduction", Depicting the Word: Byzantine Iconophile Thought of the Eighth and Ninth Centuries. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9-004-10502-6.
- Raya, Joseph. Joseph Raya ( August 15, 1916 &ndash June 10, 2005) born in Zahlé Lebanon, was a prominent Melkite Greek Catholic The Byzantine Church and Culture. Retrieved on 2007-06-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 455 - The Vandals enter Rome, and plunder the city for two weeks
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- Reinert, Stephen W. (2002). "Fragmentation (1204-1453)", in Cyril Mango: The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19814-098-3.
- Robins, Robert Henry (1993). The Byzantine Grammarians: Their Place in History. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-110-13574-4.
- Runciman, Steven (1982). "The Bogomils", The Medieval Manichee: A Study of the Christian Dualist Heresy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-28926-2.
- Runciman, Steven (1990). The Fall of Constantinople, 1453. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39832-0.
- Ryan, Herbert J. (1993). "The Church in History", The College Student's Introduction to Theology. Liturgical Press. ISBN 0-814-65841-5.
- Saramandru, Nicolae. Torna, Torna Fratre (Romanian). Editura Academiei Române. Retrieved on 2007-04-25. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.
- Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). "Foreign Affairs", East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-97290-4.
- Seton-Watson, Hugh (1967). "The Church", The Russian Empire, 1801-1917. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-198-22152-5.
- Shahid, Irfan (1972). "The Iranian factor in Byzantium during the reign of Heraclius". Dumbarton Oaks Papers 26: 293–320. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- Shopen, Timothy (1987). Languages and Their Status. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0812212495.
- Speck, Paul (1984). "Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance", Varia 1 (Poikila Byzantina 4). Rudolf Halbelt, 175-210.
- Stone, Andrew. John II Komnenos (AD 1118–1143). Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Retrieved on 2007-05-18. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine.
- Stone, Andrew. Manuel I Komnenos (AD 1143–1180). Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors. Retrieved on 2007-02-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1576 - Henry of Navarre converts to Roman Catholicism in order to ensure his right to the throne of France.
- "Siege of Zara". Encyclopaedia Britannica Concise. Retrieved on 2007-05-18. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine.
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- Treadgold, Warren (1995). "The Army and the State", Byzantium and Its Army, 284-1081. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-804-73163-2.
- Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-804-72630-2.
- Treadgold, Warren (1991). The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-804-71896-2.
- Troianos, Spyros; Velissaropoulou-Karakosta, Julia (1997). "Byzantine Law", History of Law. Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers. ISBN 9-602-32594-1.
- Vasiliev, Alexander Alexandrovich (1928–1935). For a Russian journalist see Alexander Vassiliev. Alexander Alexandrovich Vasiliev (Александр Александрович Васильев "Byzantium and the Crusades", History of the Byzantine Empire.
- Versteegh, Cornelis H. M. (1977). "1", Greek Elements in Arabic Linguistic Thinking. ISBN 9004048553.
- Watson, Bruce Allen (1993). "Jerusalem 1099", Sieges: A Comparative Study. Praeger/Greenwood. ISBN 0-275-94034-9.
- Williams, Stephen (1999). "Jerusalem 1099", The Rome that Did Not Fall: The Survival of the East in the Fifth Century. Routledge. ISBN 0415154030.
- Wroth, Warwick (1908). Catalogue of the Imperial Byzantine Coins in the British Museum. British Museum Dept. of Coins and Medals.
Further reading
- Ahrweiler, Helene "Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire", Harvard University Press, 1998.
- Ahrweiler, Helene Les Europeens, Herman (Paris), 2000.
- Haldon, John (2001). The Byzantine Wars: Battles and Campaigns of the Byzantine Era. ISBN 0-7524-1795-9.
- J. M. Hussey, The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV — The Byzantine Empire Part I, Byzantium and its Neighbors, Cambridge University Press 1966.
- Runciman, Steven (1966). Sir James Cochran Stevenson Runciman CH ( 7 July, 1903 &ndash 1 November, 2000) better known as Sir Steven Runciman, was Byzantine Civilisation. Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. . ISBN 1-56619-574-8.
- Runciman, Steven (1990). The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and his Reign.
- Toynbee, Arnold J. (1972). Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019215253X.
- Treadgold, Warren (1991). The Byzantine Revival 780–842. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804718962.
External links
Byzantine studies, resources and bibliography
- Byzantine studies homepage at Dumbarton Oaks. Dumbarton Oaks is a 19th century Federal-style Mansion with famous gardens in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington D Includes links to numerous electronic texts.
- Byzantium: Byzantine studies on the Internet. Links to various online resources.
- Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c. 700-1204. Online sourcebook, maintained by Paul Stephenson.
- De Re Militari. Resources for medieval military history, including numerous translated sources on the Byzantine wars.
- Medieval sourcebook: Byzantium. Numerous primary sources on Byzantine history.
- Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life. Hosted by the University of Vienna; in English. The University of Vienna (Universität Wien is a Public university located in Vienna, Austria.
- Constantinople Home Page. Links to texts, images and videos on Byzantium.
Miscellaneous
- De Imperatoribus Romanis. Scholarly biographies of many Byzantine emperors.
- The Fall of the Empire. Byzantine Lesson (2007). (Russian: Гибель империи. Византийский урок) The movie explicating the political and economical reasons for the fall of the Byzantine Empire, filmed by Russian Orthodox Church.
- 12 Byzantine Rulers by Lars Brownworth of The Stony Brook School; audio lectures. The Stony Brook School (SBS is a private Christian boarding High school for boys and girls grades 7-12 NYTimes review.
- 18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman (Maps of the Roman/Byzantine Empire throughout its lifetime)
Dictionary
Byzantine Empire
-proper noun
- An ancient Greek-speaking empire of Eastern Europe, capital Constantinople, ended in 1453.
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