The Sabrina I is a modern Handymax bulk carrier.
Class overview
Name:	Bulk carrier
Subclasses:	Handymax, Handysize, Panamax, Capesize
Built:	c. Handymax or Supramax is a Naval architecture term for a Bulk carrier, typically between 35000 and. Although there is no official definition in terms of exact tonnages Handysize most usually refers to a dry bulk vessel (or less commonly to a product tanker " Panamax " ships are of the maximum dimensions that will fit through the locks of the Panama Canal. Capesize ships are Cargo ships originally too large to transit the Suez Canal (i 1850–present
Active:	6,225 vessels over 10,000 long tons of deadweight (DWT)[1]
General characteristics
Type:	Cargo ship
Propulsion:	2-stroke diesel engine and 1 propeller
Capacity:	up to 364,000 DWT
Notes:	Rear house, full hull, series of large hatches
Plans of a geared Handymax bulker

A bulk carrier, bulk freighter, or bulker is a merchant ship specially designed to transport unpackaged bulk cargo, such as grains, coal, ore, and cement in its cargo holds. Deadweight tonnage (also known as deadweight and variously abbreviated as DWT, D A cargo ship or freighter is any sort of Ship or vessel that carries Cargo, goods and materials from one port to another A merchant vessel is a Ship that transports Cargo and Passengers during peace time Bulk cargo is Commodity Cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities A ship's hold, in older Ships was below the Orlop deck, the lower part of the interior of a ship's hull, especially when considered as storage space as Since the first specialized bulk carrier was built in 1852, economic forces have fueled the development of these ships, causing them to grow in size and sophistication. Today's bulkers are specially designed to maximize capacity, safety, efficiency, and to be able to withstand the rigors of their work.

Today, bulkers make up 40% of the world's merchant fleets and range in size from single-hold mini-bulkers to mammoth ore ships able to carry 365,000 metric tons of deadweight (DWT). A merchant vessel is a Ship that transports Cargo and Passengers during peace time Deadweight tonnage (also known as deadweight and variously abbreviated as DWT, D A number of specialized designs exist: some can unload their own cargo, some depend on port facilities for unloading, and some even package the cargo as it is loaded. Over half of all bulkers have Greek, Japanese, or Chinese owners and more than a quarter are registered in Panama. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Panama, officially the Republic of Panama (República de Panamá) is the southernmost country of Central America. Japan is the largest single builder of bulkers, and 82% of these ships were built in Asia.

A bulk carrier's crew participates in the loading and unloading of cargo, navigating the ship, and keeping its machinery and equipment properly maintained. Loading and unloading the cargo is difficult, dangerous, and can take up to 120 hours on larger ships. Crews can range in size from three people on the smallest ships to over 30 on the largest.

Bulk cargo can be very dense, corrosive, or abrasive, and presents safety problems: cargo shifting, spontaneous combustion, and cargo saturation can all doom a ship. Weight distribution is the apportioning of Weight within a Vehicle, especially Cars, Airplanes, and Watercraft. The use of ships that are old and have corrosion problems has been linked to a spate of bulker sinkings in the 1990s, as have the bulker's large hatchways, important for efficient cargo handling. New international regulations have since been introduced to improve ship design and inspection, and to streamline the process of abandoning ship.

Definition

Cross section of a typical bulker. 1.  Cargo hold 2.  Hatch cover 3.  Upper hopper tank for water ballast or oil 4.  Double bottom 5.  Lower hopper tank, for water ballast

There are various ways to define the term bulk carrier. As of 1999, the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea defines a bulk carrier as "a ship constructed with a single deck, top side tanks and hopper side tanks in cargo spaces and intended to primarily carry dry cargo in bulk; an ore carrier; or a combination carrier. The Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS is the most important treaty protecting the safety of merchant ships "^[2] However, most classification societies use a broader definition where a bulker is any ship that carries dry unpackaged goods. In the Shipping industry classification societies are Non-governmental organizations or groups of professionals Ship surveyors and representatives of offices ^[3] Multipurpose cargo ships can carry bulk cargo, but can also carry other cargoes and are not specifically designed for bulk carriage. A cargo ship or freighter is any sort of Ship or vessel that carries Cargo, goods and materials from one port to another The term "dry bulk carrier" is used to distinguish bulkers from bulk liquid carriers such as oil, chemical, or liquefied petroleum gas carriers. History The technology of oil transportation has evolved alongside the oil industry See also Merchant ship A chemical tanker is a type of tanker designed to transport Chemicals in bulk Very small bulkers are almost indistinguishable from general cargo ships, and they are often classified based more on the ship's use than its design.

A number of abbreviations are used to describe bulkers. "OBO" describes a bulker which carries a combination of ore, bulk, and oil, and "O/O" is used for combination oil and ore carriers. An Ore-bulk-oil carrier, also known as combination carrier or OBO, is a Ship designed to be capable of carrying wet or dry Cargoes The idea is ^[4] The terms "VLOC," "VLBC," "ULOC," and "ULBC" for very large and ultra large ore and bulk carriers were adapted from the supertanker designations very large crude carrier and ultra large crude carrier. History The technology of oil transportation has evolved alongside the oil industry ^[5]

History

The four-masted barque Pamir, shown here in 1905, carried nitrates, corn, and barley. Pamir was one of the famous Flying P-Liner sailing ships of the German shipping company F

Before specialized bulk carriers existed, shippers had two methods to move bulk goods by ship. In the first method, longshoremen loaded the cargo into sacks, stacked the sacks onto pallets, and put the pallets into the cargo hold with a crane. A pallet (ˈpæːlɨt (sometimes called a skid) is a flat transport structure that supports goods in a stable fashion while being lifted by a Forklift, Pallet ^[6] The second method required the shipper to charter an entire ship and spend time and money to build plywood bins into the holds. ^[7] Then, to guide the cargo through the small hatches, wooden feeders and shifting boards had to be constructed. ^[7] These methods were slow and labor intensive. Labor intensity is the relative proportion of labor (compared to capital used in a process As with the container ship, the problem of efficient loading and unloading has driven the evolution of the bulk carrier. Container ships are Cargo ships that carry all of their load in truck-size containers in a technique called Containerization.

Specialized bulk carriers began to appear as steam-powered ships became more popular. A steamboat or steamship, sometimes called a steamer, is a ship in which the primary method of propulsion is steam power, typically driving a Propeller ^[6] The first steam ship recognized as a bulk carrier was the British coal carrier SS John Bowes in 1852. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located ^[8][9] She featured a metal hull, a steam engine, and a ballasting system which used seawater instead of sandbags. A hull is the body of a Ship or Boat. It is a central concept in floating vessels as it provides the Buoyancy that keeps the vessel from sinking A steam engine is a Heat engine that performs Mechanical work using Steam as its Working fluid. A ballast tank is a compartment within a boat or ship that holds water ^[8] These features helped her succeed in the competitive British coal market. ^[8] The first bulkers with diesel propulsion began to appear in 1911. A diesel engine is an Internal combustion engine which operates using the Diesel cycle (named after Dr ^[8][9]

Before World War II, the demand for bulk products was low—about 25 million tons for metal ores^[10][11]—and most of this trade was coastal. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The coast is defined as the part of the land adjoining or near the Ocean. ^[12] However, two defining characteristics of bulkers were already emerging: the double bottom, which was adopted in 1890,^[8] and the triangular structure of the ballast tanks, which was introduced in 1905. A double bottom is a Ship hull design and construction method where the bottom of the ship has two complete layers of watertight hull surface one outer layer forming ^[8] After World War II, an international bulk trade began to develop among industrialized nations, particularly between the European countries, the United States and Japan. The term developed country, or advanced country, is used to categorize countries with developed Economies in which the tertiary and quaternary sectors The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. ^[10] Due to the economics of this trade, bulkers became larger and more specialized. ^[13][11]

Categories

Size categories

Bulkers are segregated into six major size categories: small, handysize, handymax, panamax, capesize, and very large. Although there is no official definition in terms of exact tonnages Handysize most usually refers to a dry bulk vessel (or less commonly to a product tanker Handymax or Supramax is a Naval architecture term for a Bulk carrier, typically between 35000 and. " Panamax " ships are of the maximum dimensions that will fit through the locks of the Panama Canal. Capesize ships are Cargo ships originally too large to transit the Suez Canal (i ^[19] Very large bulk and ore carriers fall into the capesize category but are often considered separately.

Other categories occur in regional trade, such as Kamsarmax, with a maximum length of 229 meters, the maximum length that can load in the port of Kamsarin the Republic of Guinea. Intra Regional Trade refers to Trade which focuses on Economic exchange primarily between countries of the same region or economic zone Kamsar is a port city in Guinea in west Africa It is located on the mouth of the Río Nunez. Guinea, officially Republic of Guinea (pronounced /ˈgɪni/ République de Guinée is a country in West Africa, formerly known as French Guinea ^[20] Other terms such as Setouchmax, Dunkirkmax, and Newcastlemax also appear in regional trade. ^[19]

Mini-bulkers are prevalent in the category of small vessels with a capacity of under 10,000 DWT. Mini-bulkers carry from 500 to 2,500 tons, have a single hold, and are designed for river transport. "Riverine" redirects here For the use of that term in Maritime geography, see there They are often built to be able to pass under bridges and have small crews of three to eight people. A bridge is a Structure built to span a Gorge, Valley, Road, railroad track, River, Body of water

Handysize and Handymax ships are general purpose in nature. ^[3] These two segments represent 71% of all bulk carriers over 10,000 DWT and also have the highest rate of growth. ^[21] This is partly due to new regulations coming into effect which put greater constraints on the building of larger vessels. ^[21] Handymax ships are typically 150–200 m in length and 52,000 – 58,000 DWT with five cargo holds and four cranes. ^[3] These ships are also general purpose in nature. ^[3]

The size of a Panamax vessel is limited by the Panama canal's lock chambers, which can accommodate ships with a beam of up to 32. The Panama Canal Locks, which lift ships up 259 m (85 ft to the main elevation of the Panama Canal 31 m, a length overall of up to 294. 13 m, and a draft of up to 12. 04 m. ^[22]

Capesize ships are too large to traverse the Suez or Panama canals and must round the Cape of Good Hope or Cape Horn to travel between oceans. The Suez Canal is a Canal in Egypt. Opened in 1869 it allows Water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation The Cape of Good Hope ( Afrikaans: Kaap die Goeie Hoop, Kaap de Goede Hoop Cabo da Boa Esperança Persian Language: دماغه امید نیک Cabo de Hornos redirects here for the Chilean commune see Cabo de Hornos Chile. Capesize bulkers are specialized: 93% of their cargo is iron ore and coal. Specialization is the separation of tasks within a system In a multicellular creature cells are specialized for functions such as bone construction or oxygen transport ^[3] Very large ore carriers and very large bulk carriers are a subset of the capesize category reserved for vessels over 200,000 DWT. ^[19] Carriers of this size are almost always designed to carry iron ore. ^[19]

General types

General Bulk Carrier Types
Illustration	Description
	Geared bulk carriers feature a series of holds (from 5 for a 35,000 ton vessel to 9 for a 250,000 ton vessel)[23] covered by prominent hatch covers. They have cranes which allow them to discharge cargo in ports without shore-based equipment. ||-||-|-||-||-||-||-||-||-|} A port is a facility for receiving Ships and transferring cargo This gives geared bulkers flexibility in the cargoes they can carry and the routes they can travel. (Photo: A typical geared handysize bulk carrier. )
	Combined carriers are designed to transport both liquid and dry bulk cargoes. An Ore-bulk-oil carrier, also known as combination carrier or OBO, is a Ship designed to be capable of carrying wet or dry Cargoes The idea is If both are carried simultaneously, they are segregated in separate holds and tanks. Combined carriers require special design and are expensive. They were prevalent in the 1970s, but their numbers have dwindled since 1990. (Photo: The oil pipeline and dry bulk hold aboard the Maya. )
	Gearless carriers are bulkers without cranes or conveyors. These ships depend on the shore-based equipment of the ports they visit for loading and unloading. Due to their large size, they can only dock at the largest and most advanced ports. The use of gearless bulkers avoids the costs of installing, operating, and maintaining cranes. (Photo:Berge Athen, a 225,000 ton gearless bulker. )
	Self-dischargers are bulkers with conveyor belts which allow them to discharge their cargo quickly and efficiently. A belt conveyor consists of two or more Pulleys with a continuous loop of material - the conveyor belt - that rotates about them (Photo: The John B. Aird a self-discharger on the Great Lakes. )
	Lakers are the bulkers prominent on the Great Lakes, often identifiable by having a forward house which helps in transiting locks. The Laurentian Great Lakes are a chain of freshwater lakes located in eastern North America, on the Canada–United States border. A superstructure is an upward extension of an existing structure above a baseline A lock is a mechanical fastening device which may be used on a Door, Vehicle, or container restricting access to the area or Property enclosed Operating in fresh water, these ships suffer much less corrosion damage and have a much longer lifespan than saltwater ships. Corrosion means the breaking down of essential properties in a material due to Chemical reactions with its surroundings [24] As of 2005, there were 98 lakers of 10,000 DWT or over. [25] (Photo: Edmund Fitzgerald, a Great Lakes bulker. Construction and operation On February 1, 1957, Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company of Milwaukee, Wisconsin contracted )
	BIBO or "Bulk In, Bags Out" bulkers are equipped to bag cargo as it is loaded. The CHL Innovator, shown in the photo, is a BIBO bulker. In one hour, this ship can load and package 300 tons of bulk sugar into 50 kg sacks. [26]

Fleet characteristics

Growth of bulk carrier deadweight tonnage in green and percentage of bulkers to the entire fleet in red, from 1977 to 1999^[27]

The world's bulk transport has reached immense proportions: in 2005, 1. 7 billion metric tons of coal, iron ore, grain, bauxite, and phosphate was transported by ship. ^[28] Today, the world's bulker fleet includes 6,225 ships of over 10,000 DWT, and represent 40% of all ships in terms of tonnage and 39. 4% in terms of vessels. ^[29] Including smaller ships, bulkers have a total combined capacity of almost 346 million DWT. ^[30] Combined carriers are a very small portion of the fleet, representing less than 3% of this capacity. ^[30] The bulkers of the Great Lakes, with 98 ships of 3. The Laurentian Great Lakes are a chain of freshwater lakes located in eastern North America, on the Canada–United States border. 2 million total DWT, form another small fraction of the total fleet. ^[29]

As of 2005, the average bulker was just over 13 years old. ^[31] About 41% of all bulkers were less than ten years old, 33% were over twenty years old, and the remaining 27% were between ten and twenty years of age. ^[31] All of the 98 bulkers registered in the Great Lakes trade are over 20 years old. ^[32]

Bulk carriers by flag state^[33] (source data)

Flag states

As of 2005, the United States Maritime Administration counted 6,225 bulkers of 10,000 DWT or greater worldwide. The United States Maritime Administration or MARAD, is an agency of the United States Department of Transportation that maintains the National Defense ^[1] More bulkers are registered in Panama, with 1,703 ships, than any four other flag states combined. Panama, officially the Republic of Panama (República de Panamá) is the southernmost country of Central America. Flag State refers to the Authority under which a country exercises Regulatory control over the Commercial vessel which is registered under its flag ^[1] In terms of the number of bulk carriers registered, the top five flag states also include Hong Kong with 492 ships, Malta (435), Cyprus (373), and China (371). Hong Kong ( officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located on China 's south coast on the Pearl River Delta, and borders Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES ^[1] Panama also dominates bulker registration in terms of deadweight tonnage. Deadweight tonnage (also known as deadweight and variously abbreviated as DWT, D Positions two through five are held by Hong Kong, Greece, Malta, and Cyprus. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία ^[1]

Largest fleets

Greece, Japan, and China are the top three owners of bulk carriers, with 1,326, 1,041, and 979 vessels respectively. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National ^[34] These three nations account for over 53% of the world's fleet. ^[34]

Several companies have large private bulker fleets. The multinational company Gearbulk Holding Ltd. has over 7 bulkers. Gearbulk Holding Limited is an international shipping company headquartered in Hamilton, Bermuda. ^[35] The Fednav Group in Canada operates a fleet of over 80 bulkers, including two designed to work in Arctic ice. Fednav Group is a group of eight Canadian companies in the Ship transport industry Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page ^[36] Croatia's Atlantska Plovidba d.d. has a fleet of 14 bulkers. Croatia (Hrvatska ˈxȓvatska officially the Republic of Croatia ( Republika Hrvatska) is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between Atlantska Plovidba dd or Atlantska Plovidba is an Croatian shipping company. ^[37] The H. Vogemann Group in Hamburg, Germany operates a fleet of 19 bulkers. The H Vogemann Group is a German shipping company. Founded in 1886 the company is privately owned by its managing partners and its fleet of Bulk carriers Hamburg (English, German: ˈhambʊɐk local pronunciation Low German / Low Saxon: Hamborg) is the second-largest city in Germany ^[38] Portline in Portugal, owns 10 bulkers. Portline Transportes Marítimos Internacionais SA, often simply called Portline is a Portuguese shipping company. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. ^[39] Dampskibsselskabet Torm in Denmark and Elcano in Spain also own notable bulker fleets. A/S Dampskibsselskabet TORM or TORM, based in Copenhagen, Denmark, is a Shipping company that owns and operates product tankers The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. ^[40] Other companies specialize in mini-bulker operations: England's Stephenson Clarke Shipping Limited owns a fleet of eight mini-bulkers and five small Handysize bulkers,^[41] and Cornships Management and Agency Inc. in Turkey owns a fleet of seven mini-bulkers. Stephenson Clarke Shipping Limited, established in 1730 is Great Britain 's oldest shipping company. Cornships Management and Agency Inc often known as Cornships is a Turkish shipping company. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches ^[42]

Builders

Asian companies dominate the construction of bulk carriers. Of the world's 6,225 bulkers, almost 62% were built in Japan^[43] by shipyards such as Oshima Shipbuilding and Sanoyas Hishino Meisho. Oshima Shipbuilding Co Ltd is a privately held Japanese Shipbuilding company Sanoyas Hishino Meisho Corporation is a Japanese company that consists of four principal business groups and twelve affiliated companies ^[3] South Korea, with notable shipyards Daewoo and Hyundai Heavy Industries,^[3] ranked second among builders, with 643 ships. South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː This article is about the Chaebol Daewoo Group For the Korean auto company Daewoo Motors that is associated with Chevrolet, see GM Daewoo. Hyundai Heavy Industries Co Ltd (HHI is the world's largest shipbuilder company headquartered in Ulsan, South Korea. The People's Republic of China, with large shipyards such as Dalian, Chengxi, and Shanghai Waigaoqiao, ranked third, with 509 ships. ^[43] Taiwan, with shipyards such as China Shipbuilding Corporation,^[3] ranked fourth, accounting for 129 ships. Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. CSBC Corporation Taiwan (台灣國際造船 literally "Taiwan International Shipbuilding" CSBC for short formerly known as China Shipbuilding Corporation (中國造船 ^[43] Shipyards in these top four countries built over 82% of the bulkers afloat. ^[43]

Freight charges

Several factors affect the cost to move a bulk cargo by ship. The bulk freight market is very volatile, and it fluctuates, along with the type of cargo, the ship's size, and the route traveled all affect the final price. Moving a capesize load of coal from South America to Europe cost anywhere from $15 to $25 per ton in 2005. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a ^[44] Hauling a panamax-sized load of aggregate materials from the Gulf of Mexico to Japan that year could cost as little as $40 per ton to as much as $70 per ton. Aggregate is the component of a Composite material used to resist compressive stress The Gulf of Mexico ( Spanish: Golfo de México) is the ninth largest Body of water in the world ^[44]

Some shippers choose instead to charter a ship, paying a daily rate instead of a set price per ton. In some cases a charterer may own Cargo and employs a Shipbroker to find a Ship to deliver the Cargo for a certain Freight rate. ^[44] In 2005, the average daily rate for a Handymax ship varied between $18,000 – $30,000. ^[44] A Panamax ship could be chartered for $20,000 – $50,000 per day, and a Capesize for $40,000 – $70,000 per day. ^[44]

Ship breaking

Generally, ships are removed from the fleet go through a process known as ship breaking or scrapping. Ship breaking or ship demolition is a type of Recycling involving the breaking up of Ships for Scrap. ^[45] Ship-owners and buyers negotiate scrap prices based on factors such as the ship's empty weight (called light ton displacement or LDT) and prices in the scrap metal market. A Shipowner is the owner of a commercial Ship. In the commercial sense of the term a shipowner is someone who equips and exploits a ship usually for delivering ^[46] In 1998, almost 700 ships were scrapped in places like Alang, India and Chittagong, Bangladesh. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Alang is a Census town in Bhavnagar district in the Indian state Chittagong ( Bengali: চট্টগ্রাম Chôţţogram) is Bangladesh 's main Seaport and its second-largest city ^[45] Half a million deadweight tons of worth of bulk carriers were scrapped in 2004, accounting for 4. 7% of the year's scrapping. ^[44] That year, bulkers fetched particularly high scrap prices, between $340 and $350 per LDT. ^[44]

Operation

Crew

The crew on a bulker typically consists of 20 to 30 people, though smaller ships can be handled by 8. See also Seafarer's professions and ranks An oiler is an unlicensed member of the Engineering department of a Merchant ship. See also Seafarer's professions and ranks A Chief Steward is the senior unlicensed crew member working in the Steward's Department of a ship See also Seafarer's professions and ranks A Chief Cook (often shortened to Cook is a senior unlicensed crewmember working in the Steward's department of a See also Seafarer's professions and ranks A Steward's Assistant ( SA) is an unlicensed entry-level crewmember in the Steward's Department The crew includes the captain or master, the deck department, the engineering department, and the steward's department. The Deck Department is an organizational unit aboard naval and merchant ships Marine Engineers are the members of a ship's crew that operate and maintain the propulsion and other systems on board the vessel See also Ship transport Seafarers hold a variety of professions and ranks, and each of these roles carries unique responsibilities which are integral to the The practice of taking passengers aboard cargo ships, once almost universal, is very rare today and almost non-existent on bulkers. This article is about passengers in commercial transportation for other uses see Passenger (disambiguation A passenger is a term broadly used ^[47]

During the 1990s, bulkers were involved in an alarming number of shipwrecks. A shipwreck can refer to a wrecked ship or to the event that caused the wreck such as the striking of something that causes the ship to sink the stranding of the ship on rocks This led ship-owners to commission a study seeking to explain the effect of various factors on the crew's effectiveness and competence. ^[48] The study showed that crew performance aboard bulk carriers was the lowest of all groups studied. ^[48] Among bulker crews, the best performance was found aboard younger and larger ships. ^[48] Crews on better-maintained ships performed better, as did crews on ships where fewer languages were spoken. ^[48]

Fewer deck officers are employed on bulkers than on similarly sized ships of other types. The Deck Department is an organizational unit aboard naval and merchant ships ^[48] A mini-bulker carries two to three deck officers, while larger Handysize and Capesize bulkers carry four. ^[48] Liquid natural gas tankers of the same size have an additional deck officer and unlicensed mariner. An LNG carrier is a ship designed for transporting liquefied natural gas ( LNG) ^[48]

Voyages

A bulker's voyages are determined by market forces; routes and cargoes often vary. A ship may engage in the grain trade during the harvest season and later move on to carry other cargoes or work on a different route. In Agriculture, the harvest is the process of Gathering mature crops from the fields Reaping is the cutting of Grain Aboard a coastal carrier in the tramp trade, the crew will often not know the next port of call until the cargo is fully loaded. See also Merchant ship Coastal trading vessels, also known as coasters, are shallow-hulled Ships used for trade between locations on the same island A Ship engaged in the tramp trade is one which does not have a fixed schedule or published ports of call

Because bulk cargo is so difficult to discharge, bulkers spend more time in port than other ships. A study of mini-bulkers found that it takes, on average, twice as much time to unload a ship as it does to load it. ^[48] A mini-bulker spends 55 hours at a time in port, compared to 35 hours for a lumber carrier of similar size. ^[48] This time in port increases to 74 hours for Handymax and 120 hours for Panamax vessels. ^[48] Compared with the 12-hour turnarounds common for container ships, 15-hour turnarounds for car carriers, and 26-hour turnarounds for large tankers, bulker crews have more opportunities to spend time ashore. ^[48]

Loading and unloading

Loading and unloading a bulker is time-consuming and dangerous. The process is planned by the ship's captain, often with assistance from the chief mate. Captain is the traditional customary title given to the person in charge in command of a Ship at sea See also Seafarer's professions and ranks A Chief Mate (C/M or Chief Officer, usually also synonymous (except on Passenger liners which International regulations require that the captain and terminal master agree on a detailed plan before operations begin. ^[49] Deck officers and stevedores oversee the operations. The Deck Department is an organizational unit aboard naval and merchant ships Occasionally loading errors are made that cause a ship to capsize or break in half at the pier. ^[50]

The loading method used depends on both the cargo and the equipment available on the ship and on the dock. In the least advanced ports, cargo can be loaded with shovels or bags poured from the hatch cover. This system is being replaced with faster, less labor-intensive methods. ^[51] Double-articulation cranes, which can load at a rate of 1,000 tons per hour, represent a widely used method,^[51] and the use of shore-based gantry cranes, reaching 2,000 tons per hour, is growing. A crane is a lifting machine equipped with a Winder, Wire ropes or Chains and sheaves that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to Both overhead travelling cranes and gantry cranes are types of crane which lift objects by a hoist which is fitted in a trolley and can move ^[51] A crane's discharge rate is limited by the bucket's capacity (from 6 to 40 tons) and by the speed at which the crane can take a load, deposit it at the terminal, and to return to take the next. For modern gantry cranes, the total time of the grab-deposit-return cycle is about 50 seconds. ^[3]

Conveyor belts offer a very efficient method of loading, with standard loading rates varying between 100 and 700 tons per hour, although the most advanced ports can offer rates of 16,000 tons per hour. ^[52][51] Start-up and shutdown procedures with conveyor belts, though, are complicated and require time to carry out. ^[52] Self-discharging ships use conveyor belts with load rates of around 1,000 tons per hour. ^[51]

Once the cargo is discharged, the crew begins to clean the holds. This is particularly important if the next cargo is of a different type. ^[53] The immense size of cargo holds and the tendency of cargoes to be physically irritating add to the difficulty of cleaning the holds. When the holds are clean, the process of loading begins.

It is crucial to keep the cargo level during loading in order to maintain stability. ^[54] As the hold is filled, machines such as excavators and bulldozers are often used to keep the cargo in check. An excavator is an Engineering vehicle consisting of an articulated arm (boom stick bucket and Cab mounted on a Pivot (a rotating platform like a ----A bulldozer is a crawler ( Caterpillar tracked Tractor) equipped with a substantial metal plate (known as a blade) used to push large quantities Leveling is particularly important when the hold is only partly full, since cargo is more likely to shift. ^[55] Extra precautions are taken, such as adding longitudinal divisions and securing wood atop the cargo. ^[6] If a hold is full, a technique called tomming is used,^[54] which involves digging out a 6 feet (2 m) hole below the hatch cover and filling it bagged cargo or weights. ^[54]

A typical bulker offload

1. A bulldozer is loaded into the hold.	2. The bulldozer pushes cargo to the center of the hold.	3. The gantry crane picks up the cargo.	4. The gantry crane removes the cargo from the ship.	5. The gantry crane moves the cargo to a bin on the pier.
Photos courtesy of Danny Cornelissen of portpictures.nl.

Architecture

Examples of bulker architectural plans

Line plan of a 1990 Capesize ore carrier.

 

Typical midship section of a bulker with a single hull and double bottom.

A bulk carrier's design is largely defined by the cargo it will carry. Naval architecture is an engineering discipline dealing with the design construction and repair of marine vehicles The cargo's density, also known as its stowage factor, is the key factor. Densities for common bulk cargoes vary from 0. 6 tons per cubic meter for light grains to 3 tons per cubic meter for iron ore. ^[3]

The overall cargo weight is the limiting factor in the design of an ore carrier, since the cargo is so dense. Coal carriers, on the other hand, are limited by overall volume, since most bulkers can be completely filled with coal before reaching their maximum draft. ^[3]

For a given tonnage, the second factor which governs the ship's dimensions is the size of the ports and waterways it will travel to. A waterway is any navigable Body of water. These include Rivers Lakes Seas Oceans and Canals In order for a waterway For example, a vessel that will pass the Panama Canal will be limited in its beam and draft. The beam of a ship is its width at the widest point or at the mid-point of its length The draft (or draught) of a ship's hull is the vertical distance between the Waterline and the bottom of the hull ( Keel) with the thickness For most designs, the ratio of length-to-width ranges between 5 and 7, with an average of 6. 2. ^[3] The ratio of length-to-height will be between 11 and 12. ^[3]

Machinery

The engine room on a bulker is usually near the stern, under the house and above the fuel tanks. In a Ship, an engine room is where the main engine(s generators compressors pumps fuel/lubrication oil purifiers and other major machinery are located The stern is the rear or aft part of a Ship or Boat, technically defined as the area built up over the Sternpost, extending upwards from the Counter A superstructure is an upward extension of an existing structure above a baseline A fuel tank is safe container for flammable liquids and typically part of an Engine system in which the Fuel is stored and propelled (fuel pump or released (pressurized Larger bulkers, from Handymax up, have a two-stroke diesel engine which directly moves a single propeller. The two-stroke Internal combustion engine differs from the more common Four-stroke engine by completing the same four processes (intake compression combustion exhaust A diesel engine is an Internal combustion engine which operates using the Diesel cycle (named after Dr A propeller is essentially a type of fan which transmits power by converting Rotational motion into Thrust for propulsion of a vehicle such as an An alternator is coupled directly with the propeller shaft, and an auxiliary generator is used. alternator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical energy to Alternating current electrical energy ^[3] On the smallest bulkers, one or two four-stroke diesels are used, and coupled with the propeller via a gear box. Today Internal combustion engines in cars, Trucks motorcycles aircraft construction machinery and many others most commonly use a four-stroke cycle. ^[3] The average design ship speed for bulkers of Handysize and above is between 13. 5 and 15 knots (28 km/h). ^[19] The propeller speed is relatively low, at about 90 revolutions per minute. ^[3]

As a result of the 1973 oil crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, and the resulting rise in oil prices, experimental designs using coal to fuel ships were tested in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The 1973 oil crisis began on October 17 1973 when the members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC consisting of the Arab members of The 1979 (or second) oil crisis in the United States occurred in the wake of the Iranian Revolution. The Australian company New Lines constructed a 74,700-ton coal-burner called the River Boyne. ^[56] The ship was marginally effective, and its steam engine was able to generate a shaft-power of 19,000 horsepower (14,000 kW). A steam engine is a Heat engine that performs Mechanical work using Steam as its Working fluid. ^[56] This strategy gave an interesting advantage to carriers of bauxite and similar fuel cargoes, but suffered from poor engine yield, maintenance problems, and high initial costs. Bauxite is the most important Aluminium Ore. It consists largely of the minerals Gibbsite Al(OH3 Boehmite γ-AlO(OH and ^[56]

Hatches

The sliding hatchcovers of the Zaira.

A hatch or hatchway is the opening at the top of a cargo hold. A ship's hold, in older Ships was below the Orlop deck, the lower part of the interior of a ship's hull, especially when considered as storage space as The mechanical devices which allow hatches to be opened and closed are called hatch covers. In general, hatch covers are between 45% and 60% of the ship's breadth, or beam, and 57% to 67% of the length of the holds. ^[3] To efficiently load and unload cargo, hatches must be large, but large hatches present structural problems. Hull stress is concentrated around the edges of the hatches, and these areas must be reinforced. ^[57] Often, hatch areas are reinforced by locally increasing the scantlings or by adding structural members called stiffeners. Both of these options have the undesired effect of adding weight to the ship.

As recently as the 1950s, hatches had wooden covers that would be broken apart and rebuilt by hand, rather than opened and closed. ^[58] Newer vessels have hydraulic-operated metal hatch covers that can often be operated by one person. ^[59] Hatch covers can slide forwards, backwards, or to the side, lift up or fold up. It is essential that the hatch covers be watertight: unsealed hatches lead to accidental cargo hold flooding, which has caused many bulkers to sink. ^[60]

Regulations regarding hatch covers have evolved since the investigation following the loss of the MV Derbyshire. 2001 RINA Analysis In 2001 Prof Douglas Faulkner Emeritus Professor of Naval architecture, University of Glasgow published a lengthy and highly analytical paper ^[61] The Load Line Conference of 1966 imposed a requirement that hatch covers be able to withstand load of 1. 74 tons/m² due to sea water, and a minimum scantling of 6 mm for the tops of the hatch covers. The International Association of Classification Societies then increased this strength standard by creating its Unified Requirement S21^[62] in 1998. The International Association of Classification Societies (IACS is a gathering of ten classification socities. This standard requires that the pressure due to sea water be calculated as a function of freeboard and speed, especially for hatch covers located on the forward portion of the ship. ^[62]

Hull

Bulkers are designed to be easy to build and to store cargo efficiently. To facilitate construction, bulkers are built with a single hull curvature. Several basic ship types are considered The particular features of appearance construction layout size etc ^[3] Also, while a bulbous bow allows a ship to move more efficiently through the water, designers lean towards simple vertical bows on larger ships. The bulbous bow, a standard feature of most large modern Ships with displacement hulls, is a protruding bulb at the bow (or front below the Waterline ^[3] Full hulls, with large block coefficients, are almost universal, and as a result, bulkers are inherently slow. A hull is the body of a Ship or Boat. It is a central concept in floating vessels as it provides the Buoyancy that keeps the vessel from sinking ^[3] This is offset by their efficiency. Comparing a ship's carrying capacity in terms of deadweight tonnage to its weight when empty is one way to measure its efficiency. ^[3] A small Handymax ship can carry five times its weight. ^[3] In larger designs, this efficiency is even more pronounced: Capesize vessels can carry over eight times their weight. ^[3]

Bulkers have a cross-section typical of most merchant ships. The upper and lower corners of the hold are used as ballast tanks, as is the double bottom area. A ballast tank is a compartment within a boat or ship that holds water A double bottom is a Ship hull design and construction method where the bottom of the ship has two complete layers of watertight hull surface one outer layer forming The corner tanks are reinforced and serve another purpose besides controlling the ship's trim. Designers choose the angle of the corner tanks to be less than that of the angle of repose of the anticipated cargoes. The angle of repose is an Engineering property of Granular materials The angle of repose is the maximum angle of a stable slope determined by friction cohesion ^[12] This greatly reduces side-to-side movement, or "shifting," of cargo which can endanger the ship. ^[12]

The double bottoms are also subject to design constraints. The primary concern is that they be high enough to allow the passage of pipes and cables. These areas must also be roomy enough to allow people safe access to perform surveys and maintenance. On the other hand, concerns of excess weight and wasted volume keep the double bottoms very tight spaces.

Bulker hulls are made of steel, usually mild steel. Carbon steel, also called plain carbon steel, is Steel where the main alloying constituent is Carbon. ^[63] Some manufacturers have preferred high-tensile steel recently in order to reduce the tare weight. ^[64] However, the use of high-tensile steel for longitudinal and transverse reinforcements can reduce the hull's rigidity and resistance to corrosion. ^[12] Forged steel is used for some ship parts, such as the propeller shaft support. ^[3] Transverse partitions are made of corrugated iron, reinforced at the bottom and at connections. Corrugated galvanised iron (colloquially corrugated iron, commonly abbreviated CGI is a Building material composed of sheets of hot-dip galvanised ^[3] The construction of bulker hulls using a concrete-steel sandwich has been investigated. Concrete is a construction material composed of Cement (commonly Portland cement) as well as other cementitious materials such as Fly ash and Slag ^[65]

Double hulls have become popular in the past ten years. ^[3] Designing a vessel with double sides adds primarily to its breadth, since bulkers are already required to have double bottoms. A double bottom is a Ship hull design and construction method where the bottom of the ship has two complete layers of watertight hull surface one outer layer forming ^[66] One of the advantages of the double hull is to make room to place all the structural elements in the sides, removing them from the holds. A ship's hold, in older Ships was below the Orlop deck, the lower part of the interior of a ship's hull, especially when considered as storage space as ^[67] This increases the volume of the holds, and simplifies their structure which helps in loading, unloading, and cleaning. ^[68] Double sides also improve a ship's capacity for ballasting, which is useful when carrying light goods: the ship may have to increase its draft for stability or seakeeping reasons, which is done by adding ballast water.

A recent design, called Hy-Con, seeks to combine the strengths of single-hull and double-hull construction. Short for Hybrid Configuration, this design doubles the forward-most and rear-most holds and leaves the others single-hulled. ^[69] This approach increases the ship's solidity at key points, while reducing the overall tare weight. ^[70]

Since the adoption of double hull has been more of an economic than a purely architectural decision, some argue that double-sided ships receive less comprehensive surveys and suffer more from hidden corrosion. ^[71] In spite of opposition, double hulls became a requirement for Panamax and Capesize vessels in 2005. ^[72]

Freighters are in continual danger of "breaking their back"^[73] and thus longitudinal strength is a primary architectural concern. A naval architect uses the correlation between longitudinal strength and a set of hull thicknesses called scantlings to manage problems of longitudinal strength and stresses. Naval architecture is an engineering discipline dealing with the design construction and repair of marine vehicles Scantling is a measurement of prescribed size dimensions or cross sectional areas A ship's hull is comprised of individual parts called members. ^[73] The set of dimensions of these members is called the ship's scantlings. ^[73] Naval architects calculate the stresses a ship can be expected to be subjected to, add in safety factors, and then can calculate the required scantlings. ^[73]

These analyses are conducted when traveling empty, loading and unloading, when partially and fully loaded, and under conditions of temporary overloading. ^[3] Places subject to the largest stresses are studied carefully, such as hold-bottoms, hatch-covers, bulkheads between holds, and the bottoms of ballast tanks. ^[3] Great Lakes bulkers also must be designed to withstand springing, or developing resonance with the waves, which can cause fatigue fractures. Springing as a nautical term refers to global vertical resonant hull girder vibration due to oscillating wave loads along the hull of the ship In Physics, resonance is the tendency of a system to Oscillate at maximum Amplitude at certain frequencies, known as the system's Ocean surface waves are Surface waves that occur on the Free surface of the Ocean. ^[74]

Since April 1, 2006, the International Association of Classification Societies has adopted the Common Structural Rules. Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The rules apply to bulkers more than 90 meters in length and require that scantlings' calculations take into account items such as the effect of corrosion, the harsh conditions often found in the North Atlantic, and dynamic stresses during loading. The rules also establish margins for corrosion, from 0. 5 to 0. 9 mm. ^[75]

Safety

The 1980s and 1990s were a very unsafe time for bulk carriers. Many bulkers sank during this time, 99 were lost between 1990 and 1997 alone. ^[10] Most of these sinkings were sudden and quick, making it impossible for the crew to escape: more than 650 sailors were lost during this same period. ^[10] Due partly to the sinking of the MV Derbyshire, a series of international safety resolutions regarding bulkers were adopted during the 1990s. 2001 RINA Analysis In 2001 Prof Douglas Faulkner Emeritus Professor of Naval architecture, University of Glasgow published a lengthy and highly analytical paper ^[23]

Stability problems

Cargo shifting poses a great danger for bulkers. The problem is even more pronounced with grain cargoes, since grain settles during a voyage and creates extra space between the top of the cargo and the top of the hold. ^[6] Cargo is then free to move from one side of the ship to the other as the ship rolls. This can cause the ship to list, which, in turn, causes more cargo to shift. This kind of chain reaction can capsize a bulker very quickly. ^[6]

The 1960 SOLAS Convention sought to control this sort of problem. ^[76] These regulations required the upper ballast tanks designed in a manner to prevent shifting. They also required cargoes to be leveled, or trimmed, using excavators in the holds. ^[77] The practice of trimming reduces the amount of the cargo's surface area in contact with air^[78] which has a useful side-effect: reducing the chances of spontaneous combustion in cargoes such as coal, iron, and metal shavings. ^[78]

Another sort of risk that can effect dry cargoes, is absorption of ambient moisture. ^[79] When very fine concretes and aggregates mix with water, the mud created at the bottom of the hold shifts easily and can produce a free surface effect. The free surface effect is one of several mechanisms where a craft can become unstable and roll-over ( Capsize) ^[79] The only way to control these risks is by good ventilation practices and careful monitoring for the presence of water. ^[79]

Structural problems

Diagram showing the wreck of the Seledang Ayu, and the double-bottom tank leaks.

In 1990 alone, 20 bulk carriers sank, taking with them 94 crewmen. In 1991, 24 bulkers sank, killing 154. ^[80] This level of loss focused attention on the safety aspects of bulk carriers, and a great deal was learned. The American Bureau of Shipping concluded that the losses were "directly traceable to failure of the cargo hold structure"^[24] and Lloyd's Register of Shipping added that the hull sides could not withstand "the combination of local corrosion, fatigue cracking and operational damage. The American Bureau of Shipping (ABS is a Classification society, with a mission to promote the security of life property and the natural environment primarily through The Lloyd's Register Group is a maritime Classification society and independent risk management organisation providing risk assessment and mitigation services "^[80]

The accident studies showed a clear pattern:^[60]

1. Sea water enters the forward hatch, due to a large wave, a poor seal, corrosion, etc. ^[60]
2. The extra water weight in hold number one compromises the partition to hold number two,^[60]
3. Water enters hold number two and alters the trim so much that more water enters the holds^[60]
4. With two holds rapidly filling with water, the bow submerges and the ship quickly sinks, leaving little time for the crew to react. ^[60]

Previous practices had required ships to withstand the flooding of a single forward hold, but did not guard against situations where two holds would flood. The case where two after (rear) holds are flooded is no better, because the engine room is quickly flooded, leaving the ship without propulsion. If two holds in the middle of the ship are flooded, the stress on the hull can become so great that the ship snaps in two.

Seledang Ayu suffered a catastrophic fracture in number 4 hold in December 2004.

Other contributing factors were identified:

• Most shipwrecks involved ships over 20 years in age. A glut of ships of this age occurred in the 1980s, caused by an overestimate of the growth of international trade. ^[6]
• Corrosion, due to a lack of maintenance, affected the seals of the hatch covers and the strength of the bulkheads which separate holds. The corrosion is difficult to detect due do the immense size of the surfaces involved. ^[81][82]
• Advanced methods of loading were not foreseen when the ships were designed. These unexpected shocks, over time, can damage the hull's structural integrity. ^[52]
• Recent use of high-tensile steel in construction has negative side-effects. This material is prone to corrosion and can develop metal fatigue in choppy seas. ^[74]
• According to Lloyd's Register, a principal cause was the attitude of ship-owners, who sent ships with known problems to sea. ^[83]

The new rules adopted in the 1997 annexes to the SOLAS convention focused on problems such as reinforcing bulkheads and the longitudinal frame, more stringent inspections (with a particular focus on corrosion) and routine in-port inspections. The Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS is the most important treaty protecting the safety of merchant ships ^[6] The 1997 additions also required bulkers with restrictions (for instance, forbidden from carrying certain types of cargoes) to mark their hulls with large, easy-to-see triangles. ^[84]

Crew safety

Launch of a free-fall lifeboat.

Since December 2004, Panamax and Capesize bulkers have been required to carry free-fall lifeboats located on the stern, behind the house. A lifeboat is a small craft carried on a ship to provide a means of emergency evacuation in the event of a disaster aboard the ship ^[6] This arrangement allows the crew to abandon ship quickly in case of a catastrophic emergency. ^[85] One argument against the use of free-fall lifeboats is that the evacuees require "some degree of physical mobility, even fitness" to enter and launch the boat. ^[86] Also, injuries have occurred during launches, for example, in the case of incorrectly secured safety belts. ^[86]

In December 2002, Chapter XII of the SOLAS convention was amended to require the installation of high-level water alarms and monitoring systems on all bulkers. This safety measure quickly alerts watch standers on the bridge and in the engine room in case of flooding in the holds. ^[6] In cases of catastrophic flooding, these detectors could speed the process of abandoning ship.

See also

• MV Bright Field
• MV Lake Illawarra
• MV Flare
• Sygna (shipwreck)
• SS Edmund Fitzgerald

Notes

References

• Autoridad del Canal de Panamá (2005). The Panama Canal Authority ( Spanish: Autoridad del Canal de Panamá, or ACP) is the agency of the government of Panama responsible for the operation MR Notice to Shipping Number N-1-2005., Notices to Shipping. Balboa-Ancon: Autoridad del Canal de Panamá, pp. 11-12. Retrieved on 2008-04-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne  
• Frankel, Ernst G. (1985). Bulk Shipping and Terminal Logistics. ISBN 082130531X.  
• George, William (2005). Stability and Trim for the Ship's Officer. Centreville, MD: Cornell Maritime Press. ISBN 978-0-87033-564-8.  
• Hayler, William B. (2003). American Merchant Seaman's Manual. Cornell Maritime Pr. ISBN 0-87033-549-9.  
• International Maritime Organization (September 1999). The International Maritime Organization ( IMO) formerly known as the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization ( IMCO) is a late 20th century IMO and the safety of bulk carriers (PDF). Focus on IMO. Retrieved on 2007-04-09. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 193 - Septimius Severus is proclaimed Roman Emperor by the army in Illyricum (in the Balkans)
• Isbester, Jack (1993). Bulk Carrier Practice. ISBN 1870077164.  
• Lamb, Thomas (2003). Ship Design and Construction Vol. I. Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers. ISBN 0-939773-40-6.  
• MAN Diesel Group (2005). Propulsion Trends in Bulk Carriers (PDF). MAN Diesel Group p. 4. Retrieved on 2007-04-12. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 467 - Anthemius is elevated to Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
• International Association of Classification Societies (2007). The International Association of Classification Societies (IACS is a gathering of ten classification socities. "21: Evaluation of Scantlings of Hatch Covers and Hatch Coamings of Cargo Holds of Bulk Carriers, Ore Carriers and Combination Carriers (Rev. 4)", Requirements Concerning Strength of Ships, Unified Requirements. International Association of Classification Societies, p. 21-1.  
• Office of Data and Economic Analysis (July 2006). World Merchant Fleet 2001–2005 (PDF). United States Maritime Administration. Retrieved on March 13, 2007. Events 1138 - Cardinal Gregorio Conti is elected Antipope as Victor IV, succeeding Anacletus II. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
• Thompson, Mark L. (1994). Queen of the Lakes. ISBN 0814323936.  
• United Nations Council on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2005). Review of Maritime Transport, 2005. New York and Geneva: United Nations.  
• United Nations Council on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2006). Review of Maritime Transport, 2006. New York and Geneva: United Nations.  
• Zera, Thomas F. (1996). Ore-Oil Bulk: Pictorial History of Bulk Shipping Losses of the 1980s. ISBN 0964393778.  

External links

• Bulk Carriers @ United Nations Atlas of the Oceans
• categorized ship photographs
• Super Cargo Ships book
• Google Maps Satellite Image of bulk carrier in Sunda Strait, Indonesia
• Bulk Carriers at MRI Netherlands
• Histories of WWII Bulkers
• shipphoto