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The grounds of Korea's Buryeongsa Temple.
The grounds of Korea's Buryeongsa Temple.

Korean Buddhism is distinguished from other forms of Buddhism by its attempt to resolve what it sees as inconsistencies in Mahayana Buddhism. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Mahayana ( Sanskrit: mahāyāna, Devanagari: महायान 'Great Vehicle' is one of the two main existing schools of Buddhism and a term for Early Korean monks believed that the traditions they received from China were internally inconsistent. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. MONK is a Monte Carlo software package for simulating nuclear processes particularly for the purpose of determining the neutron multiplication factor or k-effective To address this, they developed a new holistic approach to Buddhism. Distinguish from the suffix -holism, which describes addictions This approach is characteristic of virtually all major Korean thinkers, and has resulted in a distinct variation of Buddhism, which Wonhyo (617–686) called the Tongbulgyo ("interpenetrated Buddhism"). Tongbulgyo is a school of "interpenetrated Buddhism " which was taught by the Korean monk Wonhyo. Korean Buddhist thinkers refined their predecessors' ideas into a distinct form.

As it now stands, Korean Buddhism consists mostly of the Seon lineage. Seon has a strong relationship with other Mahayana traditions that bear the imprint of Chinese Ch'an teachings, as well as the closely related Japanese Zen. Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, referred to in Chinese as Chan. Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, referred to in Chinese as Chan. Other sects, such as the Taego, the modern revival of the Cheontae lineage, the "Jingak" order (a modern esoteric sect), and the newly formed Won, have also attracted sizable followings numbering from 800,000 up to 5,000,000 adherents. Taego Order or Taegojong (태고종 is the second largest order in the Korean Buddhism. Cheontae is the Korean descendant of the Chinese Buddhist sect Tiantai.

Contents

Historical overview of the development of Korean Buddhism

An image of Shakyamuni Buddha at a Seokguram Temple in South Korea
An image of Shakyamuni Buddha at a Seokguram Temple in South Korea

When Buddhism was originally introduced to Korea from China in 372, or about 800 years after the death of the historical Buddha, Shamanism was the indigenous religion. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Events By Place Roman Empire Valentinian I defeats the Quadi and the Sarmates. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder As it was not seen to conflict with the rites of nature worship, it was allowed to blend in with Shamanism. Thus, the mountains that were believed to be the residence of spirits in pre-Buddhist times became the sites of Buddhist temples.

Korean Shamanism held three spirits in especially high regard: Sanshin (the Mountain Spirit), Toksong (the Recluse) and Chilsong (the Spirit of the Seven Stars, the Big Dipper). Korean shamanism encompasses a variety of indigenous beliefs and practices that have been influenced by Buddhism and Taoism. The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath Korean Buddhism accepted and absorbed these three spirits and, even today, special shrines are set aside for them in many temples. A shrine, from the Latin scrinium (‘box’ also used as a desk like the French bureau) was originally a container usually made of precious materials used The Mountain Spirit receives particular recognition in an attempt to appease the local mountain spirits, on whose land the temple stands. A temple (from the Latin word Templum) is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual activities such as prayer and sacrifice or analogous rites This blend of Buddhism and Shamanism became known as Korean Buddhism, although the fundamental teachings of the Buddha remained.

Though it initially enjoyed wide acceptance, even being supported as the state ideology during the Goryeo period, Buddhism in Korea suffered extreme repression during the Joseon dynasty, which lasted for several hundred years. The Goryeo Dynasty ( 918 - 1392) (also spelled Koryŏ was a Sovereign state established in 918 by Taejo Wang Kon. During this period, Neo-Confucian ideology overcame the prior dominance of Buddhism. Neo-Confucianism (/( is a form of Confucianism that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li

Only after Buddhist monks helped repel a Japanese invasion at the end of the 16th century (see Seven-Year War) did the persecution of Buddhism and Buddhist practitioners stop. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Two Japanese invasions of Korea and subsequent battles on the Korean peninsula took place during the years 1592-1598 Buddhism in Korea remained subdued until the end of the Joseon period, when its position was strengthened somewhat by the Japanese occupation, which lasted from 1910 to 1945. Year 1910 ( MCMX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar After World War II, the Seon school of Korean Buddhism once again gained acceptance. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including

As Christianity has become increasingly influential in Korea, it is estimated that the declining proportion of the religious population among self-professed Buddhist community in South Korea now accounts for about 23% of the country's population. The practice of Christianity in Korea has a relatively short history but after a difficult beginning it has seen significant growth and success In officially atheist North Korea, Buddhists make up 2% of the population. North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia,

Buddhism in the Three Kingdoms

When Buddhism was introduced to Korea in the 4th century CE, the Korean peninsula was politically subdivided into three kingdoms: Goguryeo in the north, Baekje in the southwest, and Silla in the southeast. As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 4th century (per the Julian calendar and Anno Domini / Common era) was that Century Goguryeo or Koguryo was an ancient Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean peninsula, southern Manchuria, and Baekje (18 BCE – 660 CE or Paekche, was a kingdom located in southwest Korea Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.

Goguryeo

In 372 the Chinese monk Sundo (順道, or Shundao in Chinese) was sent by the Former Qin ruler Fujian (福建) to the court of the King Sosurim (小獸林) of Goguryeo. Events By Place Roman Empire Valentinian I defeats the Quadi and the Sarmates. The Former Qin ( 351 - 394) was a State of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. This article is about the People's Republic of China province He brought Chinese texts and statues with him and the Goguryeo royalty and their subjects quickly accepted his teachings. The Buddhism in China was in a rudimentary form, consisting of the law of cause and effect and the search for happiness. Causality (but not causation) denotes a necessary relationship between one event (called cause and another event (called effect) which is the direct consequence This had much in common with the predominant Shamanism, which likely led to the quick assimilation of Buddhism by the people of Goguryeo.

Baekje

In 384, the Serindian monk Marananta arrived in Baekje and the royal family received the similar strain of Buddhism he brought. Events By Place Roman Empire The Forum of Theodosius I is built in Constantinople. Serindian art is the art that developed from the 2nd through the 11th century A Malananta (fl late 4th century was an Indian Buddhist monk that brought Buddhism to the sothern Korean peninsula in the 4th century King Asin proclaimed, "people should believe in Buddhism and seek happiness. Asin of Baekje (?-405 r 392-405 was the 17th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. "

Gaya

A small, separate federation called Gaya emerged for a short time on the southern coast between Baekje and the fast growing Shilla. Gaya was a confederacy of territorial polities in the Nakdong River basin of southern Korea, growing out of the Byeonhan confederacy of the Samhan It fell to an invasion in the mid sixth century before reaching maturity, however, and was annexed by the Silla.

Silla

reliquary
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Buddhism did not enter the kingdom of Silla until the 5th century. The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in Anno Domini / Common Era. The common people were first attracted to Buddhism here, but there was resistance among the aristocrats. In 527, however, a prominent court official named Ichadon presented himself to King Pophung and announced he had become Buddhist. For the political lobbying groups see 527 groups Events By Place Byzantine Empire April 1 — Byzantine Ichadon (501-527 also known as Geochadon (거차돈 or by his Courtesy name Yeomchok (염촉 or Yeomdo, was a Buddhist monk and advisor King Beopheung (r 514-540 was the 23rd monarch of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The king had him beheaded, but when the executioner cut off his head, it is said that milk poured out instead of blood. Paintings of this are in the temple at Haein-sa and a stone monument honoring his martyrdom is in the National Museum of Kyongju. During the reign of the next king, King Chinhung, the growth of Buddhism was encouraged - eventually being recognized as the national religion of Silla. King Jinheung (540-576 was the 24th Monarch of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Additionally, selected young men were physically and spiritually trained at Hwarangdo according to Buddhist principles to be able to defend the kingdom. King Chinhung later became a monk himself.

Many Korean Buddhist monks traveled to China in order to study Buddhism in the late Three Kingdoms Period, especially in the late 6th century. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices The 6th century is the period from 501 to 600 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The monk Banya (波若; 562-613?) is said to have studied under the Tiantai master Zhiyi, and Gyeomik of Baekje (謙益;) and travelled to India to learn Sanskrit and study Vinaya. Tiantai (天台宗 Wade-Giles: T'ien T'ai) is one of the important sects of Buddhism in China, Korea and Japan, also called Zhiyi (智顗 Wade-Giles: Chih-i Jp Chigi (538–597 is traditionally listed as the fourth patriarch but actually is the founder of the Tiantai tradition of India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical The Vinaya (a word in Pāli as well as in Sanskrit, with literal meaning 'leading out' 'education' 'discipline' is the regulatory framework for the Buddhist Monks of the period brought back numerous scriptures from abroad and conducted missionary activity throughout Korea and Japan. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The date of the first mission to Japan is unclear, but it is reported that a second detachment of scholars was sent to Japan upon invitation by the Japanese rulers in 577. Events By Place Europe Battle of Deorham: The Anglo-Saxons under Ceawlin of Wessex defeat the British Celts The strong Korean influence on the development of Buddhism in Japan continued through the Unified Silla period; only in the 8th or 9th century did independent study by Japanese monks begin in significant numbers. Unified Silla ( 668 CE - 935 CE or Later Silla is the name often applied to the kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of The 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era.

Several schools of thought developed in Korea during these early times:

Toward the end of the Three Kingdoms Period, the Wonyung (圓融宗, or Yuanrong in Chinese) school was formed. Sanlun ( or literally Three Treatise School (sanlunzong 三论宗was a Chinese school of Buddhism based upon the Indian Madhyamaka Gyeyul is the Korean name applied to a branch of Buddhism that specializes in the study of monastic discipline or Vinaya. The Vinaya (a word in Pāli as well as in Sanskrit, with literal meaning 'leading out' 'education' 'discipline' is the regulatory framework for the Buddhist In sramanic philosophy Nirvana (निर्वाण| Nirvāṇa; निब्बान Nibbāna; Prakrit: णिव्वाण It would lead the actualization of the metaphysics of interpenetration as found in the Huayan jing(華嚴經) and soon was considered the premier school, especially among the educated aristocracy. The Avataṃsaka Sūtra ( Japanese: Kegon Kyō) is one of the most influential Mahayana Sutras of East Asian Buddhism. This school was later known as Hwaeom (華嚴宗, or Huayan in Chinese) and was the longest lasting of these "imported" schools. Hwaeom is the name of the Korean transmission of the Huayan school of Chinese Buddhism. It had strong ties with the Beopseong (法性宗), the indigenous Korean school of thought.

The monk Jajang (慈藏) is credited with having been a major force in the adoption of Buddhism as a national religion. Jajang (慈藏 (590 - 658 was a monk born in the kingdom of Silla, which occupied the entire Korean peninsula Jajang is also known for his participation in the founding of the Korean sangha, a type of monastic community. This article concerns the concept of Sangha in Buddhism. For information on other senses see Sangha (disambiguation. Monasticism (from Greek μοναχός, monachos, derived from Greek monos, alone is the religious practice in which one

Another great scholar to emerge from the Silla Period was Won-hyo. He renounced his religious life to better serve the people and even married a princess for a short time and had a son. He wrote many treatises and his philosophy centered on the unity and interrelatedness of all things. He set off to China to study Buddhism with a close friend, Ui-sang, but only made it part of the way there. Uisang (625–702 was one of the most eminent early Silla Korean scholar-monks a close friend of Wonhyo (元曉 The legend is that Won-hyo awoke one night very thirsty, found a container with cool water, drank, and returned to sleep. The next morning he saw the container from which he had drunk was a human skull and he realized all enlightenment depended on the mind. He saw no reason to continue to China, so he returned home. His companion, Ui-sang, continued to China and after studying ten years, offered a poem to his master in the shape of a seal that geometrically represents infinity. The poem contained the essence of the Avatamsaka Sutra. The Avataṃsaka Sūtra ( Japanese: Kegon Kyō) is one of the most influential Mahayana Sutras of East Asian Buddhism.

Buddhism was so successful during this period that many kings converted and cities/places were even renamed after famous places during the time of Buddha.

Buddhism in the Unified Silla period (668-918)

A stone image of a Buddha, near Gyeongju, South Korea. 7th century Silla.
A stone image of a Buddha, near Gyeongju, South Korea. 7th century Silla.

In 668, the kingdom of Silla succeeded in unifying the whole Korean peninsula, giving rise to a period of political stability that lasted for about one hundred years. This led to a high point in the scholarly studies of Buddhism in Korea. In general, the most popular areas of study were Wonyung, Yusik (Ch. 唯識; Weishi; "consciousness-only"; the East Asian form of Yogācāra), Jeongto (Pure Land), and the indigenous Korean Beopseong ("dharma-nature school"). In Buddhism, consciousness-only or mind-only ( Sanskrit: vijñapti-mātratā, vijñapti-mātra, citta-mātra; Chinese Yogācāra (Sanskrit "yoga practice" "one whose practice is yoga" Chinese Yüjiazong "Yoga School" 瑜珈宗 is an influential school of Eastern Philosophy Pure Land Buddhism ( Jìngtǔzōng; 浄土教 Jōdokyō; Korean: ko-Hang 정토종 jeongtojong; Vietnamese: 浄土宗 vi The monk Wonhyo taught the "Pure Land"-practice of yeombul, which would become very popular amongst both scholars and laypeople, and has had a lasting influence on Buddhist thought in Korea. Nianfo ( Chinese: 念[[wikt 佛|佛]] Pinyin: nianfo; Japanese: 念佛 nembutsu; Korean: 염불 yeombul His work, which attempts a synthesis of the seemingly divergent strands of Indian and Chinese Buddhist doctrine, makes use of the essence-function (體用, or che-yong) framework, which was popular in native East Asian philosophical schools. His work was instrumental in the development of the dominant school of Korean Buddhist thought, known variously as Beopseong, Haedong (海東, "Korean") and later as Jungdo (中道, "Middle way")

Wonhyo's friend Uisang (義湘) went to Changan, where he studied under Huayan patriarchs Zhiyan (智儼; 600-668) and Fazang (法藏; 643-712). In general the Middle Way or Middle Path ( madhyamā-pratipad; ṭṭipadā) is the Buddhist practice of non-extremism Uisang (625–702 was one of the most eminent early Silla Korean scholar-monks a close friend of Wonhyo (元曉 Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. When he returned after twenty years, his work contributed to Hwaeom and became the predominant doctrinal influence on Korean Buddhism, together with Wonhyo's tong bulgyo thought. Tongbulgyo is a school of "interpenetrated Buddhism " which was taught by the Korean monk Wonhyo. Hwaeom principles were deeply assimilated into the Korean meditational school, the Seon school, where they made a profound effect on its basic attitudes.

Influences from Silla Buddhism in general, and from these two philosophers in particular, even crept "backwards" into Chinese Buddhism. Chinese Buddhism ( Pinyin fójiào refers collectively to the various schools of Buddhism that have flourished in China proper since ancient times Wonhyo's commentaries were very important in shaping the thought of the preeminent Chinese Buddhist philosopher Fazang, and Woncheuk's commentary on the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra-sūtra had a strong influence in Tibetan Buddhism.

As was the case in Tang China, as well as the Nara and early Heian period in Japan, which are roughly contemporary to the Silla period, the intellectual developments of Silla Buddhism also brought with them significant cultural achievements in many areas, including painting, literature, sculpture, and architecture. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by is the capital city of Nara Prefecture in the Kansai region of Japan. The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. Painting (pān'tīng in Art, is the practice of applying Color to a Surface (support base such as e Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation During this period, many large and beautiful temples were built. Two crowning achievements were the temple Bulguksa and the cave-retreat of Seokguram (石窟庵). Bulguksa is a Buddhist temple in the North Gyeongsang province in South Korea. The Seokguram Grotto is a hermitage and part of the Bulguksa temple complex Bulguksa was especially famous for its jeweled pagodas, while Seokguram was known for the beauty of its stone sculpture.

A new epoch in Korean Buddhism began during the latter Silla period with the birth of schools of Seon in Korea. Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, referred to in Chinese as Chan. In China, the movement toward a meditation-based view of practice, which came to be known as chan, had begun during the sixth and seventh centuries, and it was not long before the influence of the new meditational school reached Korea, where it was known as Seon. Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, referred to in Chinese as Chan. Meaning "meditation," the term is more widely known in the West in its Japanese variant zen. Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, referred to in Chinese as Chan. Tension developed between the new meditational schools and the previously existing academically oriented schools, which were described by the term gyo, meaning "learning" or "study. "

Beomnang (法朗; fl. 632-646), said to be a student of the Chinese master Daoxin (道信; 580-651), is generally credited with the initial transmission of Seon into Korea. Seon was popularized by Sinhaeng (神行; 704-779) in the latter part of the eighth century and by Doui (道義; d. 825) at the beginning of the ninth century. From then on, many Koreans studied Chan in China, and upon their return established their own schools at various mountain monasteries with their leading disciples. Initially, the number of these schools was fixed at nine, and Korean Seon was termed the "nine mountains" (九山 or gusan) school at the time. The nine mountain schools (九山 or gusan) were the initial monasteries of the Korean branch of Buddhism called Seon, founded in The nine mountain schools (九山 or gusan) were the initial monasteries of the Korean branch of Buddhism called Seon, founded in Eight of these were of the lineage of Mazu Daoyi (馬祖道一; 709-788), as they were established through connection with either him or one of his eminent disciples. The one exception was the Sumi-san school founded by Ieom (利嚴; 869-936), which had developed from the Caotong (曹洞) lineage.

Buddhism as state religion in the Goryeo period (918-1392)

Amitabha and Eight Great Bodhisattvas (Amita Gujon), 1300s
Amitabha and Eight Great Bodhisattvas (Amita Gujon), 1300s

Initially, the new Seon schools were regarded by the established doctrinal schools as radical and dangerous upstarts. Thus, the early founders of the various "nine mountain" monasteries met with considerable resistance, repressed by the long influence in court of the Gyo schools. The struggles which ensued continued for most of the Goryeo period, but gradually the Seon argument for the possession of the true transmission of enlightenment would gain the upper hand. The position that was generally adopted in the later Seon schools, due in large part to the efforts of Jinul, did not claim clear superiority of Seon meditational methods, but rather declared the intrinsic unity and similarities of the Seon and Gyo viewpoints. Jinul (1158 – 1210 was a Korean monk of the Goryeo period who is considered to be the most influential figure in the formation of Korean Seon Buddhism Although all these schools are mentioned in historical records, toward the end of the dynasty, Seon became dominant in its effect on the government and society, and the production of noteworthy scholars and adepts. During the Goryeo period, Seon thoroughly became a "religion of the state," receiving extensive support and privileges through connections with the ruling family and powerful members of the court.

Although most of the scholastic schools waned in activity and influence during this period of the growth of Seon, the Hwaeom school continued to be a lively source of scholarship well into the Goryeo, much of it continuing the legacy of Uisang and Wonhyo. In particular the work of Gyunyeo (均如; 923-973) prepared for the reconciliation of Hwaeom and Seon, with Hwaeom's accommodating attitude toward the latter. Gyunyeo's works are an important source for modern scholarship in identifying the distinctive nature of Korean Hwaeom.

Another important advocate of Seon/Gyo unity was Uicheon. Like most other early Goryeo monks, he began his studies in Buddhism with Hwaeom. He later traveled to China, and upon his return, actively promulgated the Cheontae (天台宗, or Tiantai in Chinese) teaching, which became recognized as another Seon school. Cheontae is the Korean descendant of the Chinese Buddhist sect Tiantai. Tiantai (天台宗 Wade-Giles: T'ien T'ai) is one of the important sects of Buddhism in China, Korea and Japan, also called This period thus came to be described as "five doctrinal and two meditational schools" (ogyo yangjong). Uicheon himself, however, alienated too many Seon adherents, and he died at a relatively young age without seeing a Seon-Gyo unity accomplished.

Avalokiteshvara painting from the Korean Goryeo Dynasty, 1310 CE.
Avalokiteshvara painting from the Korean Goryeo Dynasty, 1310 CE. Avalokiteśvara ( Nepali: अवलोकितेश्वर, lit

The most important figure of Seon in the Goryeo was Jinul (知訥; 1158-1210). Jinul (1158 – 1210 was a Korean monk of the Goryeo period who is considered to be the most influential figure in the formation of Korean Seon Buddhism In his time, the sangha was in a crisis of external appearance and internal issues of doctrine. Buddhism had gradually become infected by secular tendencies and involvements, such as fortune-telling and the offering of prayers and rituals for success in secular endeavors. This kind of corruption resulted in the profusion of increasingly larger numbers of monks and nuns with questionable motivations. Therefore, the correction, revival, and improvement of the quality of Buddhism were prominent issues for Buddhist leaders of the period.

Jinul sought to establish a new movement within Korean Seon, which he called the "samādhi and prajñā society", whose goal was to establish a new community of disciplined, pure-minded practitioners deep in the mountains. Samadhi ( Sanskrit: sa समाधि is a Hindu and Buddhist technical term that usually denotes higher levels of concentrated meditation or In the Pali Canon In the Pali Canon, paññā is defined in a variety of overlapping ways frequently centering on concentrated insight He eventually accomplished this mission with the founding of the Seonggwangsa monastery at Mt. Jogye (曹溪山). Jinul's works are characterized by a thorough analysis and reformulation of the methodologies of Seon study and practice. One major issue that had long fermented in Chinese Chan, and which received special focus from Jinul, was the relationship between "gradual" and "sudden" methods in practice and enlightenment. Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, referred to in Chinese as Chan. Drawing upon various Chinese treatments of this topic, most importantly those by Zongmi (780-841) and Dahui (大慧; 1089-1163), Jinul created a "sudden enlightenment followed by gradual practice" dictum, which he outlined in a few relatively concise and accessible texts. Guifeng Zongmi (宗密 圭峰 (780 - 841 ( Wade-Giles: Kuei-feng Tsung-mi Japanese Keiho Shumitsu was a Tang dynasty Buddhist scholar-monk installed From Dahui, Jinul also incorporated the gwanhwa (觀話) method into his practice. This form of meditation is the main method taught in Korean Seon today. Jinul's philosophical resolution of the Seon-Gyo conflict brought a deep and lasting effect on Korean Buddhism.

The general trend of Buddhism in the latter half of the Goryeo was a decline due to corruption, and the rise of strong anti-Buddhist political and philosophical sentiment. However, this period of relative decadence would nevertheless produce some of Korea's most renowned Seon masters. Three important monks of this period who figured prominently in charting the future course of Korean Seon were contemporaries and friends: Gyeonghan Baeg'un (景閑白雲; 1298-1374), Taego Bou (太古普愚; 1301-1382) and Naong Hyegeun (懶翁慧勤; 1320-1376). All three went to Yuan China to learn the Linji (臨濟 or Imje in Korean) gwanhwa teaching that had been popularized by Jinul. The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Línjì Yìxuán (臨済義玄 Wade-Giles: Lin-chi I-hsüan; Japanese: Rinzai Gigen) (?–866 was the founder of the Linji school This article is mainly about the spoken Korean language See Hangul for details on the native Korean writing system All three returned, and established the sharp, confrontational methods of the Imje school in their own teaching. Each of the three was also said to have had hundreds of disciples, such that this new infusion into Korean Seon brought about considerable effect. Despite the Imje influence, which was generally considered to be anti-scholarly in nature, Gyeonghan and Naong, under the influence of Jinul and the traditional tong bulgyo tendency, showed an unusual interest in scriptural study, as well as a strong understanding of Confucianism and Taoism, due to the increasing influence of Chinese philosophy as the foundation of official education. Tongbulgyo is a school of "interpenetrated Buddhism " which was taught by the Korean monk Wonhyo. Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions From this time, a marked tendency for Korean Buddhist monks to be "three teachings" exponents appeared.

A significant historical event of the Goryeo period is the production of the first woodblock edition of the Tripitaka, called the Tripitaka Koreana. The Tripiṭaka ( Sanskrit; Devanagari: त्रिपिटक lit The Tripitaka Koreana (lit Goryeo Tripitaka) or Palman Daejanggyeong ("Eighty-Thousand Tripitaka " Two editions were made, the first one completed from 1210 to 1231, and the second one from 1214 to 1259. The first edition was destroyed in a fire, during an attack by Mongol invaders in 1232, but the second edition is still in existence at Haeinsa in Gyeongsang province. Haeinsa (Temple of Reflection on a Smooth Sea is one of the foremost Chogye Buddhist temples in South Korea. Gyeongsang ( Gyeongsang-do) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. This edition of the Tripitaka was of high quality, and served as the standard version of the Tripitaka in East Asia for almost 700 years.

Suppression under the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910)

Dalmado by Kim Myeong-guk, 17th century
Dalmado by Kim Myeong-guk, 17th century

The Buddhist establishment at the end of the Goryeo period had become ridden with excesses. There were too many monks and nuns, a large percentage of whom were only in the sangha as a means of escaping taxation and/or government service. There were also far too many temples being supported, and too many elaborate rituals being carried out. The support of Buddhism had become a serious drain on the national economy. The government itself was suffering from rampant corruption, while also struggling with wars on its northern and eastern borders. Moreover, a new and rapidly growing Neo-Confucian ideological movement of stridently anti-Buddhist inclination gained political power. Neo-Confucianism (/( is a form of Confucianism that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li

In 1388, an influential general named Yi Seonggye (1380-1400) carried out a coup d'etat, and established himself as the first ruler of the Joseon Dynasty under the reign title of Taejo in 1392 with the support of this Neo-Confucian movement. Taejo of Joseon ( October 11, 1335 &ndash May 24, 1408; r 1392-1398 born Yi Seong-gye, whose changed name is Yi Dan, was Taejo, meaning "great ancestor" is a name often applied to the founders of Korean dynasties Subsequently, Buddhism was gradually suppressed for the next 500 years. The number of temples was reduced, restrictions on membership in the sangha were installed, and Buddhist monks and nuns were literally chased into the mountains, forbidden to mix with society. Joseon Buddhism, which had started off under the so-called "five doctrinal and two meditational" schools system of the Goryeo, was first condensed to two schools:Seon and Gyo. Eventually, these were further reduced to the single school of Seon.

Despite this strong suppression from the government, and vehement ideological opposition from Korean Neo-Confucianism, Seon Buddhism continued to thrive intellectually. An outstanding thinker was Giwha (己和; (Hamheo Deuktong 涵虚得通) 1376-1433), who had first studied at a Confucian academy, but then changed his focus to Buddhism, where he was initiated to the gwanhwa tradition by Muhak Jacho (無學自超; 1327-1405). Gihwa, also known as Hamheo Teuktong (1376 - 1433 was a late Goryeo -early Joseon Buddhist monk of the Seon order who was the leading Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B He wrote many scholarly commentaries, as well as essays and a large body of poetry. Being well-versed in Confucian and Daoist philosophies, Giwha also wrote an important treatise in defense of Buddhism, from the standpoint of the intrinsic unity of the three teachings, entitled the Hyeon jeong non. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Hyeonjeong non (English Exposition of the Correct) was an essay written at the beginning of the Joseon period defending Buddhism against the attacks of In the tradition of earlier philosophers, he applied che-yong ("essence-function") and Hwaeom (sa-sa mu-ae, "mutual interpenetration of phenomena").

Common in the works of Joseon scholar-monks are writings on Hwaeom-related texts, as well as the Awakening of Faith, Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment, Śūrangama-sūtra, Diamond Sutra and the Heart Sutra. The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana (or Awakening of Mahayana Faith, Mahayana-sraddhotpada-sastra 大乘起信論 is a text of the Mahayana branch The Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment Buddhist Sūtra, original Chinese title is Yuanjue jing, Japanese Engaku-kyo The Diamond Sutra is a short Mahayana Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom genre which teaches the practice of the avoidance of abiding in extremes The Heart of Perfect Wisdom Sutra or Heart Sutra or Essence of Wisdom Sutra ( Sanskrit: प्रज्ञापारमिताहृदयसूत्र The Jogye order instituted a set curriculum of scriptural study, including the above-mentioned works, along with other shorter selections from eminent Korean monks, such as Jinul.

During the Joseon period, the number of Buddhist monasteries dropped from several hundred to a mere thirty-six. Limits were placed on the number of clergy, land area, and ages for entering the sangha. This article concerns the concept of Sangha in Buddhism. For information on other senses see Sangha (disambiguation. When the final restrictions were in place, monks and nuns were prohibited from entering the cities. Buddhist funerals, and even begging, were outlawed. However, some rulers occasionally appeared who looked favorably upon Buddhism and did away with some of the more suppressive regulations. The most noteworthy of these was the Queen Munjeong, who, as a devout Buddhist, took control of the government in the stead of her young son Myeongjong (r. Queen Munjeong (문정왕후 文定王后 (1502-1565 was the wife of King Jungjong of Joseon. Myeongjong (ko 명종/明宗 is the Temple name of two Korean kings 1545-67), and immediately repealed many anti-Buddhist measures. The queen had deep respect for the brilliant monk Bou (보우, 普雨; 1515-1565), and installed him as the head of the Seon school.

One of the most important reasons for the restoration of Buddhism to a position of minimal acceptance was the role of Buddhist monks in repelling the Japanese invasions of Korea, which occurred between 1592 and 1598. Two Japanese invasions of Korea and subsequent battles on the Korean peninsula took place during the years 1592-1598 At that time, the government was weak from internal squabbles, and was not initially able to muster strong resistance to the incursion. The plight of the country encouraged some leaders of the sangha to organize monks into guerrilla units, which enjoyed some instrumental successes. The "righteous monk" (義士; uisa) movement spread during this eight-year war, finally including several thousand monks, led by the aging Seosan Hyujeong (서산대사, 西山休靜; 1520-1604), a first-rate Seon master and the author of a number of important religious texts. Little is known of the early life of Seosan ( Korean: 서산대사 Hanja: 西山大師 other than that he was born in 1520 and that he became a monk The presence of the monks' army was a critical factor in the eventual expulsion of the Japanese invaders.

Seosan is also known for continuing efforts toward the unification of Buddhist doctrinal study and practice. His efforts were strongly influenced by Wonhyo, Jinul, and Giwha. He is considered the central figure in the revival of Joseon Buddhism, and most major streams of modern Korean Seon trace their lineages back to him through one of his four main disciples: Yu Jeong (1544-1610); Eongi (1581-1644), Taeneung (1562-1649) and Ilseon (1533-1608), all four of whom were lieutenants to Seosan during the war with Japan. Yu Jeong (1544 - 1610 also often known by his pen names Songun and Samyeongdang, was a Korean Buddhist monk during the Joseon Dynasty.

Statue of one of the Four Heavenly Kings
Statue of one of the Four Heavenly Kings

The biographies of Seosan and his four major disciples are similar in many respects, and these similarities are emblematic of the typical lifestyle of Seon monks of the late Goryeo and Joseon periods. In the Buddhist faith, the Four Heavenly Kings are four guardian gods each of whom watches over one Cardinal direction of the world Most of them began by engaging in Confucian and Daoist studies. Turning to Seon, they pursued a markedly itinerant lifestyle, wandering through the mountain monasteries. At this stage, they were initiated to the central component of Seon practice, the gong'an, or gwanhwa meditation. This gwanhwa meditation, unlike some Japanese Zen traditions, did not consist of contemplation on a lengthy, graduated series of deeper kōans. Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, referred to in Chinese as Chan. By contrast, the typical Korean approach was that "all gong'an are contained in one" and therefore it was, and still is, quite common for the practitioner to remain with one hwadu during his whole meditational career, most often Zhaozhou's "mu. Zhàozhōu Cōngshěn (趙州從諗 Wade-Giles: Chao-chou Ts'ung-shen; Japanese: Jōshū Jūshin) (778–897 was a Chán ( Mu ( Japanese / Korean) and Wu ( Chinese traditional 無, simplified 无 Pinyin: wú Jyutping "

Buddhism during the three centuries, from the time of Seosan down to the next Japanese incursion into Korea in the late nineteenth century, remained fairly consistent with the above-described model. A number of eminent teachers appeared during the centuries after Seosan, but the Buddhism of the late Joseon, while keeping most of the common earlier characteristics, was especially marked by a revival of Hwaeom studies, and occasionally by new interpretations of methodology in Seon study. There was also a revival, during the final two centuries, of the Pure Land (Amitābha) faith. Amitābha ( Sanskrit: अमिताभ Amitābha (wordstem pronunciation; Chinese: 阿彌陀佛 Ēmítuó Fó; Tibetan: འོད་དཔག་མེད་ Although the government maintained fairly tight control of the sangha, there was never again the extreme suppression of the early Joseon.

Buddhism during the Japanese occupation (1910-1945)

The Japanese occupation from 1910 to 1945 brought great suffering on the Korean people as a whole, and to the Korean sangha in particular, as it had to comply with an extensive set of Japanese regulations. Korea under Japanese rule refers to the period between 1910 and 1945 when Korea was forcibly annexed by the Japanese Empire. Year 1910 ( MCMX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar This article concerns the concept of Sangha in Buddhism. For information on other senses see Sangha (disambiguation. Japanese Buddhists demanded the right to proselytize in the cities, lifting the five-hundred year ban on monks and nuns entering cities. The history of Buddhism in Japan can be roughly divided into three periods namely the Nara period (up to 784 the Heian period (794–1185 and the post-Heian period The formation of new Buddhist sects, such as Won Buddhism, and the presence of Christian missionaries during this period led to further turbulence in traditional Korean Buddhism. The Japanese Buddhist custom of allowing Buddhist priests to marry contradicted the lifestyle of Korean Buddhist monks and nuns, who traditionally lived in celibacy. Celibacy refers to the lack of participation in Sexual intercourse. The Japanese occupational authorities encouraged this practice, appointed their own heads of temples, and had many works of art shipped to Japan. Negotiations for the repatriation of Korean Buddhist artworks are still ongoing.

See also: Yongseong

Buddhism and Westernization (1945-present)

Typical interior of a Buddhist temple
Typical interior of a Buddhist temple

When Korea was liberated from Japanese occupation in 1945, the celibate ordained members of the main sect of Korean Buddhism, Chogye, began to take over for the married monks who ran the temples during the occupation. Baek Yongseong Jinjong ( Korean: 용성 진종 Hanja: 龍城 震鍾 1864—1940 was an important Korean Buddhist master who helped propagate Buddhism The Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism (JOKB Korean:

Starting in the 1950s, Syngman Rhee and others worked to further divide and weaken the Buddhist Sangha in the country. Syngman Rhee or Yi Seungman ( March 26, 1875 – July 19, 1965) was the first president of South Korea. Rhee campaigned in 1954 against the so-called "Japanized Buddhists". Western education and scholarship, and the empowerment of women and the poor, caused divisions among Koreans. Specifically, a deep rift opened between married and celibate monks. The differences were so great that fistfights over the control of temples became frequent. Monks, mostly belonging to the Jogye order, threatened to kill themselves. The Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism (JOKB Korean: Many of them were against the Japanized Buddhists. As the Buddhist riots continued, the influence of Buddhism lessened. Buddhism continued to lose followers to Christian missionaries, who were able to capitalize on these weaknesses.

President Park Chung Hee unsuccessfully attempted during his rule (1961-1979) to settle the dispute by building a pan-national Buddhist organization. Park Chung-hee ( November 14, 1917 – October 26, 1979) was a former ROK Army general and the autocratic dictator of the Republic However, he did succeed in allying himself with the celibate faction of the sangha. In the 1980s, President Chun Doo-hwan also used politics and intrigue to attack Buddhism. Chun Doo-hwan (born 18 January, 1931) was former ROK Army general and the President of South Korea from 1980 to 1988 He sent troops to raid temples, and had hundreds of monks arrested and tortured.

Lotus Lantern Festival
Lotus Lantern Festival

During the 1990s, conflicts between the South Korean government and Buddhist leaders, and Christian denominations continued. The government accused Buddhist monks of immorality and some Christians used this to forward their missionary work. Some religious gatherings have even turned violent, with statues of Buddha and Dangun, the founder of Korea, being vandalized. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder Dangun Wanggeom was the legendary founder of Gojoseon, the first Korean kingdom around present-day Liaoning, Manchuria, and the Korean

There was also a rash of temple burnings in the 1980s and 1990s, and attacks on Buddhist artwork have continued. In one instance, a Christian minister used a microphone on a cord as a bolo weapon and smashed temple paintings and a statue. In other instances, red crosses have been painted on temple walls, murals, and statues. Buddha statues have also been decapitated. See Frank Tedesco's "Questions for Buddhist and Christian Cooperation in Korea," Buddhist-Christian Studies 17 (1997).

Furthermore, students at Buddhist universities report aggressive attempts to convert them to Christianity on campus, especially near campus temples.

Current situation

Main articles: History of poetry and Literary theory

The Seon school, which is led by the dominant Jogye order, practices disciplined traditional Seon practice at a number of major mountain monasteries in Korea, often under the direction of highly regarded masters. Poetry as an art form that may have predated Literacy. Some of the earliest Poetry is believed to have been orally recited or sung Literary theory in a strict sense is the systematic study of the nature of Literature and of the methods for analyzing literature The Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism (JOKB Korean:

Modern Seon practice is not far removed in content from the original practice of Jinul, who introduced the integrated combination of the practice of Gwanhwa meditation with the study of selected Buddhist texts. Jinul (1158 – 1210 was a Korean monk of the Goryeo period who is considered to be the most influential figure in the formation of Korean Seon Buddhism The Korean sangha life is markedly itinerant: while each monk has a "home" monastery, he will regularly travel throughout the mountains, staying as long as he wishes, studying and teaching in the style of whatever monastery is housing him. The Korean monastic training system has seen a steadily increasing influx of Western practitioner-aspirants in the second half of the twentieth century.

Currently, Korean Buddhism is in a state of slow transition. While the reigning theory behind Korean Buddhism was based on Jinul's "sudden enlightenment, gradual cultivation," the modern Korean Seon master, Seongcheol's revival of Hui Neng's "sudden enlightenment, sudden cultivation" has taken Korean Buddhism by storm. Jinul (1158 – 1210 was a Korean monk of the Goryeo period who is considered to be the most influential figure in the formation of Korean Seon Buddhism Seongcheol ( April 10, 1912 &ndash November 4, 1993) is the Dharma name of a Korean Seon ( Hangul Dajian Huineng (慧能 or 惠能 Pinyin: Huìnéng 638–713 was a Chinese Chán Monastic who is one of the most important figures in Although there is resistance to change within the ranks of the Jogye order, with the last three Supreme Patriarchs' stance that is in accordance with Seongcheol, there has been a gradual change in the atmosphere of Korean Buddhism. The Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism (JOKB Korean: Seongcheol ( April 10, 1912 &ndash November 4, 1993) is the Dharma name of a Korean Seon ( Hangul

See also

References

External links

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