Citizendia
Your Ad Here

Brooklyn Bridge
Brooklyn Bridge
Carries Motor vehicles (cars only), elevated trains (until 1944), streetcars (until 1950), pedestrians, and bicycles
Crosses East River
Locale New York City (Manhattan–Brooklyn)
Maintained by New York City Department of Transportation
Design Suspension/Cable-stay Hybrid
Longest span 1,595 feet 6 inches (486. A rapid transit, underground, subway, elevated railway or metro(politan system is an electric passenger railway A tram, tramcar, trolley, trolley car, or streetcar is a railborne vehicle, of lighter weight and construction than a Train The East River is a tidal Strait in New York City. It connects Upper New York Bay on its south end to Long Island Sound on its north end The City of New York Manhattan Island, in New York Harbor, is much the largest part of the Borough of Manhattan, one of the Five Boroughs which form the City of New York Brooklyn (named after the Dutch town Breukelen) is one of the five boroughs of New York City. The New York City Department of Transportation ( NYCDOT or DOT) is responsible for the management of much of New York City This article is concerned with a particular type of suspension bridge the suspended-deck type A 3 m)
Total length 5,989 feet (1825 m)
Width 85 feet (26 m)
Clearance below 135 feet (41 m) at mid-span
AADT 145,000
Opening date May 24, 1883
Toll Free both ways
Maps and aerial photos
For other uses, see Brooklyn Bridge (disambiguation). Annual average daily traffic, abbrevated AADT, is a measure used primarily in Transportation planning and transportation engineering. Events 1218 - The Fifth Crusade leaves Acre for Egypt. 1276 - Magnus Ladulås is crowned Year 1883 ( MDCCCLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common
East River Bridge redirects here. For a list of East River Bridges, see List of fixed crossings of the East River. This is a list of Road / Highway and rail crossings of the East River from the mouth at New York Harbor upstream to the Long Island Sound

The Brooklyn Bridge, one of the oldest suspension bridges in the United States, stretches 5,989 feet (1825 m)[1] over the East River connecting the New York City boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn. This article is concerned with a particular type of suspension bridge the suspended-deck type The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The East River is a tidal Strait in New York City. It connects Upper New York Bay on its south end to Long Island Sound on its north end The City of New York In New York City, a borough is a unique form of government which administers the five fundamental constituent parts that make up the consolidated city Manhattan Island, in New York Harbor, is much the largest part of the Borough of Manhattan, one of the Five Boroughs which form the City of New York Brooklyn (named after the Dutch town Breukelen) is one of the five boroughs of New York City. On completion, it was the largest suspension bridge in the world and the first steel-wire suspension bridge. Wikipedia_talkFeatured_lists#Proposed_change_to_all_featured_lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This list of suspension bridges Originally referred to as the New York and Brooklyn Bridge, it was dubbed the Brooklyn Bridge in an 1867 letter to the editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle,[2] and formally so named by the city government in 1915. Since its opening, it has become an iconic part of the New York skyline. A skyline is best described as the overall or partial view of a Silhouette of a city's tall buildings and structures consisting of many Skyscrapers In 1964 it was designated a National Historic Landmark. A National Historic Landmark (NHL is a Building, site, Structure, Object, or District, that is officially recognized by the [3][4][5]

Contents

History and events

Construction

Plan of one tower for the Brooklyn Bridge, 1867.
Plan of one tower for the Brooklyn Bridge, 1867.
Currier & Ives print (1877)
Currier & Ives print (1877)

Construction began January 3, 1870. Events 1431 - Joan of Arc is handed over to the Bishop Pierre Cauchon. Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Brooklyn Bridge was completed thirteen years later and was opened for use on May 24, 1883. Events 1218 - The Fifth Crusade leaves Acre for Egypt. 1276 - Magnus Ladulås is crowned Year 1883 ( MDCCCLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common On that first day, a total of 1,800 vehicles and 150,300 people crossed what was then the only land passage between Manhattan and Brooklyn. The bridge's main span over the East River is 1,595 feet 6 inches (486. 3 m). The bridge cost $15. 5 million to build and approximately 27 people died during its construction. [6]

One week after the opening, on May 30, a rumor that the Bridge was going to collapse caused a stampede which crushed and killed twelve people. Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following [7].

At the time it opened, it was the longest suspension bridge in the world — 50% longer than any previously built — and it has become a treasured landmark. Additionally, for several years the towers were the tallest structures in the Western Hemisphere. Since the 1980s, it has been floodlit at night to highlight its architectural features. The towers are built of limestone, granite, and Rosendale cement. Rosendale cement refers to a type of natural Cement produced in and around Rosendale New York. Their architectural style is Gothic, with characteristic pointed arches above the passageways through the stone towers. See also Gothic art Gothic architecture is a style of Architecture which flourished during the high and late medieval period.

The bridge was designed by German-born John Augustus Roebling in Trenton, New Jersey. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. John Augustus Roebling (born Johann August Röbling, June 12, 1806 in Mühlhausen - July 22, 1869) was a German-born Trenton is the Capital of the US state of New Jersey and the County seat of Mercer County. Roebling had earlier designed and constructed other suspension bridges, such as Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct in Lackawaxen, Pennsylvania, the John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge in Cincinnati, Ohio and the Waco Suspension Bridge in Waco, Texas, that served as the engineering prototypes for the final design. Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct is the oldest existing wire Suspension bridge in the United States; it runs 535 feet (175 m from Minisink Ford New York Lackawaxen Township is the largest and northernmost township in Pike County, Pennsylvania. The John A Roebling Suspension Bridge spans the Ohio River between Cincinnati Ohio and Covington Kentucky. The Waco Suspension Bridge crosses the Brazos River in Waco Texas. Waco (ˈweɪkoʊ is a city in and the County seat of McLennan County, Texas.

During surveying for the East River Bridge project, Roebling's foot was badly injured by a ferry, pinning it against a pylon; within a few weeks, he died of tetanus. Tetanus is a medical condition that is characterized by a prolonged contraction of Skeletal muscle fibres His son, Washington, succeeded him, but in 1872 was stricken with caisson disease (decompression sickness, commonly known as "the bends"), due to working in compressed air in caissons. Washington Augustus Roebling ( May 26, 1837 &ndash July 21, 1926) was an American Civil engineer best known for his work In Geotechnical engineering, a caisson is a retaining watertight structure used for example to work on the foundations of a Bridge pier, Decompression sickness (DCS, the diver’s disease, the bends, caisson disease is the name given to a variety of symptoms suffered by a person The occurrence of the disease in the caisson workers caused him to halt construction of the Manhattan side of the tower 30 feet (10 m) short of bedrock when soil tests underneath the caisson found bedrock to be even deeper than expected. Today, the Manhattan tower rests only on sand. [8] Washington's wife, Emily Warren Roebling, became his aide, learning engineering and communicating his wishes to the on-site assistants. Emily Warren Roebling (1843 &ndash 1903 was born to Phoebe Lickley and Sylvanus Warren in the village of Cold Spring New York, on the eastern shore of the Hudson River When the bridge opened, she was the first person to cross it. Washington Roebling rarely visited the site again.

At the time the bridge was built, the aerodynamics of bridge building had not been worked out. Bridges were not tested in wind tunnels until the 1950s — well after the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940. A wind tunnel is a research tool developed to assist with studying the effects of air moving over or around solid objects The Tacoma Narrows Bridge is a pair of mile-long Suspension bridges in the U It is therefore fortunate that the open truss structure supporting the deck is by its nature less subject to aerodynamic problems. Roebling designed a bridge and truss system that was six times as strong as he thought it needed to be. Because of this, the Brooklyn Bridge is still standing when many of the bridges built around the same time have vanished into history and been replaced. This is also in spite of the substitution of inferior quality wire in the cabling supplied by the contractor J. Lloyd Haigh — by the time it was discovered, it was too late to replace the cabling that had already been constructed. Roebling determined that the poorer wire would leave the bridge four rather than six times as strong as necessary, so it was eventually allowed to stand, with the addition of 250 cables. Diagonal cables were installed from the towers to the deck, intended to stiffen the bridge. They turned out to be unnecessary, but were kept for their distinctive beauty.

After the collapse of the I-35W highway bridge in the city of Minneapolis, increased public attention has been brought to bear on the condition of bridges across the US, and it has been reported that the Brooklyn Bridge approach ramps received a rating of "poor" at its last inspection [9]. The I-35W Mississippi River bridge (officially known simply as Bridge 9340) was an eight-lane steel Truss arch bridge that carried Interstate 35W across According to a NYC Department of Transportation spokesman, "The poor rating it received does not mean it is unsafe. Poor means there are some components that have to be rehabilitated. ” A $725 million project to replace the approaches and repaint the bridge is scheduled to begin in 2009. [10]

Brooklyn approach with elevated BMT and streetcar tracks and trains, ca. 1905
Brooklyn approach with elevated BMT and streetcar tracks and trains, ca. The Brooklyn-Manhattan Transit Corporation ( BMT) was an Urban transit Holding company, based in Brooklyn, New York City, United 1905

Later changes in use

At various times, the bridge has carried horse-drawn and trolley traffic; at present, it has six lanes for motor vehicles, with a separate walkway along the centerline for pedestrians and bicycles. A pedestrian is a person travelling on foot whether Walking or Running. The bicycle, cycle, or bike is a pedal-driven, human-powered vehicle with two wheels attached to a frame, one behind Due to the roadway's height (11 feet posted) and weight (6,000 lb posted) restrictions, commercial vehicles and buses are prohibited from using this bridge. The two inside traffic lanes once carried elevated trains of the BMT from Brooklyn points to a terminal at Park Row. A rapid transit, underground, subway, elevated railway or metro(politan system is an electric passenger railway The Brooklyn-Manhattan Transit Corporation ( BMT) was an Urban transit Holding company, based in Brooklyn, New York City, United Brooklyn (named after the Dutch town Breukelen) is one of the five boroughs of New York City. Park Row was a major Elevated railway terminal constructed over the New York end of the Brooklyn Bridge, across from New York City Hall in Manhattan Streetcars ran on what are now the two center lanes (shared with other traffic) until the elevated lines stopped using the bridge in 1944, when they moved to the protected center tracks. A tram, tramcar, trolley, trolley car, or streetcar is a railborne vehicle, of lighter weight and construction than a Train In 1950 the streetcars also stopped running, and the bridge was rebuilt to carry six lanes of automobile traffic.

1994 Brooklyn Bridge shooting

Main article: Brooklyn Bridge Shooting

On March 1, 1994, Lebanese-born Rashid Baz opened fire on a van carrying members of the Chabad-Lubavitch Orthodox Jewish Movement, striking 16 year old student Ari Halberstam and three others traveling on the bridge. Brooklyn Bridge Shooting occurred March 1 1994. A van carrying 15 members of Chabad-Lubavitch Orthodox Jewish students were traveling on the Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Rashid Baz (1966- is a Lebanese-born immigrant and convicted murderer who shot and killed 16-year old Ari Halberstam on March 1, 1994 while driving on Chabad-Lubavitch is one of the largest Hasidic movements in Orthodox Judaism, and is based in the Crown Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn Orthodox Judaism is the formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonized Ari Halberstam ( May 6, 1977 - March 6, 1994) was a yeshiva student from a distinguished family associated with the Chabad-Lubavitch Halberstam died five days later from his wounds. Baz was apparently acting out of revenge for the Hebron massacre of 29 Muslims by Baruch Goldstein that had taken place days earlier on February 25, 1994. See also Hebron massacre (disambiguation The Cave of the Patriarchs massacre was a terrorist attack on Muslim Arabs praying at the Baruch Kappel Goldstein ( ברוך גולדשטיין; December 9, 1956 &ndash February 25, 1994) was an American born Events 138 - The Emperor Hadrian adopts Antoninus Pius, effectively making him his successor Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Baz was convicted of murder and sentenced to a 141 year prison term. After initially classifying the murder as one committed out of road rage, the FBI reclassified the case in 2000 as a terrorist attack. Road rage is the behavior by a driver of an automobile or other motor vehicle which thus causes collisions or incidents on roadways The entrance ramp to the bridge on the Manhattan side was named the Ari Halberstam Memorial Ramp in memory of the victim[11].

The 2003 Plot

In 2003, truck driver Iyman Faris was sentenced to about 20 years in prison for providing material support to al-Qaeda, after an earlier plot to destroy the bridge by cutting through its support wires with blowtorches was cancelled. Iyman Faris aka Mohammad Rauf (b on 4 June 1969 in Kashmir) is a former Truck driver from Columbus Ohio who Al-Qaeda, alternatively spelled al-Qaida, al-Qa`ida or al-Qa`idah, ( Arabic:; ar-Latn ''al-qāʿidah'' Translation: The The meaning of " blowtorch " varies between Britain and the USA [12]

2006 bunker discovery

In 2006, a Cold War era bunker was found by city workers near the East River shoreline of Manhattan's Lower East Side. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The bunker, hidden within one of the masonry towers, still contains the emergency supplies that were being stored for a potential nuclear attack by the Soviet Union. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 [13]

125th Anniversary celebrations

On May 24, 2008, festivities were held over the entire Memorial Day week-end to celebrate the 125th anniversary of the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge. Memorial Day is a United States Federal holiday observed on the last Monday of May (on May in) [14]

Trivia

Brooklyn Bridge at night
Brooklyn Bridge at night
Cross section diagram
Cross section diagram

Pedestrian access

The Brooklyn Bridge is accessible from the Brooklyn entrances of Tillary/Adams Streets, Sands/Pearl Streets, and Exit 28B of the eastbound Brooklyn-Queens Expressway. The Brooklyn Queens Expressway ( BQE) is an Expressway which runs from southern Brooklyn, New York to the Grand Central Parkway In Manhattan, motor cars can enter from either direction of the FDR Drive, Park Row, Chambers/Centre Streets, and Pearl/Frankfort Streets. The Franklin D Roosevelt East River Drive (commonly referred to as the FDR Drive) is a Freeway -standard Parkway on the east side of the New York Pedestrian access to the bridge from the Brooklyn side is from either Tillary/Adams Streets (in between the auto entrance/exit), or a staircase on Prospect St between Cadman Plaza East and West. In Manhattan, the pedestrian walkway is accessible from the end of Centre Street, or through the unpaid south staircase of Brooklyn Bridge-City Hall IRT subway station. Brooklyn Bridge–City Hall is a station on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line of the New York City Subway. The Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT was the operator of the original underground New York City Subway line that opened in 1904 as well as earlier Elevated railways The Brooklyn Bridge has a wide pedestrian walkway open to walkers and cyclists, in the center of the bridge and higher than the automobile lanes. While the bridge has always permitted the passage of pedestrians across its span, its role in allowing thousands to cross takes on a special importance in times of difficulty when usual means of crossing the East River have become unavailable.

During transit strikes by the Transport Workers Union in 1980 and 2005 the bridge was used by people commuting to work, with Mayors Koch and Bloomberg crossing the bridge as a gesture to the affected public. Strike action, often simply called a strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal by Employees to perform work. Edward Irving Koch (born December 12, 1924;) was a United States Congressman from 1969 to 1977 and the Mayor of New York City from 1978 to 1989 Michael Rubens Bloomberg (born February 14, 1942) is an American businessman and the Mayor of New York City.

Following the 1965, 1977 and 2003 Blackouts and most famously after the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center, the bridge was used by people in Manhattan to leave the city after subway service was suspended. The Northeast Blackout of 1965 was a significant disruption in the supply of electricity on November 9, 1965, affecting Ontario, Canada The Northeast Blackout of 2003 was a massive widespread Power outage that occurred throughout parts of the Northeastern and Midwestern United States A power outage (also known as power cut, power failure, power loss, or blackout) is the loss of the Electricity supply to an The World Trade Center in New York City, United States (sometimes informally the WTC or Twin Towers) was a complex of seven buildings in Lower Manhattan The massive numbers of people on the bridge could not have been anticipated by the original designer, yet John Roebling designed it with three separate systems managing even unanticipated structural stresses. The bridge has a suspension system, a diagonal stay system, and a stiffening truss. "Roebling himself famously said if anything happens to one of [his] systems, 'The bridge may sag, but it will not fall. '"[16] The movement of large numbers of people on a bridge creates pedestrian oscillations or "sway" as the crowd lifts one foot after another, some falling inevitably in synchronized cadences. The natural sway motion of people walking causes small sideways oscillations in a bridge, which in turn cause people on the bridge to sway in step, increasing the amplitude of the bridge oscillations and continually reinforcing the effect. This high-density traffic causes a bridge to appear to move erratically or "to wobble" as happened at opening of the London Millennium Footbridge in 2000. The London Millennium Footbridge is a pedestrian-only steel Suspension bridge crossing the River Thames in London, England, linking [17]

Cultural significance

Contemporaries marveled at what technology was capable of and the bridge became a symbol of the optimism of the time. John Perry Barlow wrote in the late 20th century of the "literal and genuinely religious leap of faith" embodied in the Brooklyn Bridge … the Brooklyn Bridge required of its builders faith in their ability to control technology. John Perry Barlow (born October 3, 1947) is an American Poet, Essayist, retired Wyoming cattle rancher political "[18]

References to "selling the Brooklyn Bridge" abound in American culture, sometimes as examples of rural gullibility but more often in connection with an idea that strains credulity. For example, "If you believe that, I have a wonderful bargain for you…" References are often nowadays more oblique, such as "I could sell you some lovely riverside property in Brooklyn . . . ". George C. Parker and William McCloundy are two early 20th-century con-men who had (allegedly) successfully perpetrated this scam on unwitting tourists. George Parker (1870-1936 was one of the most audacious con men in American history William McCloundy was an early 20th-century Confidence trickster who served a two-and-a-half-year prison term in Sing Sing for selling the Brooklyn Bridge [1]

In his second book The Bridge, Hart Crane begins with a poem entitled "Poem: To Brooklyn Bridge. Harold Hart Crane ( July 21, 1899 – April 27, 1932) was an American Poet. " The bridge was a source of inspiration for Crane and he owned different apartments specifically to have different views of the bridge.

In the 1972 film, The Hot Rock, the Brooklyn Bridge was shown as a visual icon of New York City. The Hot Rock ( 1972) is a sly comic caper movie directed by Peter Yates, starring Robert Redford, George Segal, and Moses The partially-finished World Trade Center was also shown. The World Trade Center in New York City, United States (sometimes informally the WTC or Twin Towers) was a complex of seven buildings in Lower Manhattan In the years between 1972 and 2001, the WTC became the icon of choice for New York City, and use of the Brooklyn Bridge fell. Since 2001, the Brooklyn Bridge has been restored to its status of "If you see the Brooklyn Bridge, you know you're looking at New York City. "

Panoramas

1896 Panorama
1896 Panorama
A panorama of the bridge
A panorama of the bridge


Gallery

Brooklyn Bridge, also known as the East River Bridge, seen from Manhattan, as drawn (and woodcut) in a Swedish monthly magazine in August 1874.

On the promenade, Brooklyn Bridge, New York c. 1899

Newsboys selling on Brooklyn Bridge c. 1908

A World Trade Center view of the Manhattan Bridge, Brooklyn Bridge, and the East river. The Manhattan Bridge is a Suspension bridge that crosses the East River in New York City, connecting Lower Manhattan (at Canal Street with The East River is a tidal Strait in New York City. It connects Upper New York Bay on its south end to Long Island Sound on its north end

Mural of Brooklyn Bridge, New York City, with the real thing in background. (picture taken 1981).

Brooklyn Bridge and Ferrybank Restaurant

Brooklyn Bridge at Dusk

References

  1. ^ NYCDOT Bridges Information. New York City Department of Transportation. Retrieved on 2006-04-11. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 491 - Flavius Anastasius becomes Byzantine Emperor, with the name of Anastasius I.
  2. ^ E. P. D. (January 25, 1867), “Bridging the East River -- Another Project”, The Brooklyn Daily Eagle: 2, <http://www.brooklynpubliclibrary.org/eagle/>. Retrieved on 26 November 2007 
  3. ^ Brooklyn Bridge. National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service (2007-09-11). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 9 - The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest ends 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul
  4. ^ ["The Brooklyn Bridge", February 24, 1975, by James B. Armstrong and S. Sydney BradfordPDF (501 KiB) National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination]. A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International National Park Service (1975-02-24). Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 303 - Galerius, Roman Emperor, publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the
  5. ^ [The Brooklyn Bridge--Accompanying 3 photos, from 1975.PDF (476 KiB) National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination]. A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International National Park Service (1975-02-24). Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 303 - Galerius, Roman Emperor, publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the
  6. ^ Brooklyn Daily Eagle 1841-1902 Online. Retrieved on 2007-11-23. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 800 - Charlemagne arrives at Rome to investigate the alleged crimes of
  7. ^ Reported in NY Times, issue 1883-5-30
  8. ^ GlassSteelandStone: Brooklyn Bridge-tower rests on sand. Retrieved on 2007-02-20. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1472 - Orkney and Shetland are left by Norway to Scotland, due to a Dowry payment
  9. ^ Brooklyn Bridge Is One of 4 With Poor Rating. New York Times. Retrieved on 2007-09-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul meet in the Council of Agde.
  10. ^ Brooklyn Bridge called ‘safe’ - DOT says span is okay despite getting a ‘poor’ rating. Courier-Life Publications. Retrieved on 2007-08-12. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon - Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid
  11. ^ Ari Halberstam Memorial Ramp
  12. ^ Iyman Faris
  13. ^ Cold War "Time Capsule" Found in Brooklyn Bridge
  14. ^ NY Times archived reports in issue dated 2008-5-23
  15. ^ "Odlum's Leap to Death", The New York Times, May 20, 1885, p.  1. Retrieved on 2008-04-15. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1450 - Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English  
  16. ^ village voice > news > Point of Collapse by Robert Julavits
  17. ^ Strogatz, Steven. (2003). Sync: The Emerging Science of Spontaneous Order, pp. 174-175, 312, 320.
  18. ^ Cultural Significance

Further reading

External links

In its most general sense a panorama is any wide view of a physical space Structurae is an online Database containing works of structural and Civil engineering of all kinds such as Bridges High-rise buildings A geographic coordinate system enables every location on the Earth to be specified in three coordinates using mainly a spherical coordinate system.
© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
 Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic