India/Indian Empire British colony ← 1858 – 1947 →   →   → Flag Coat of arms Anthem God Save The King-Emperor The British Indian Empire, 1909 Capital Calcutta (1858 - 1912) New Delhi (1912 - 1947) Language(s) Hindustani, English, Tamil and many others Government Monarchy Emperor/Empress of India (1876-1947)  - 1858-1901 Victoria¹  - 1901-1910 Edward VII  - 1910-1936 George V  - 1936 Edward VIII  - 1936-1947 George VI Viceroy²  - 1858-1862 The Viscount Canning  - 1947 The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma Historical era New Imperialism  - Established August 2, 1858  - Disestablished August 15, 1947 Currency British Indian rupee ¹ Reigned as Empress of India from May 1, 1876, before that as Queen of the United Kingdom. This is a list of the various territories that have been under the political control of the United Kingdom and/or its predecessor states For usage see British rule in India Company rule in India (sometimes Company Raj, " raj," lit The Dominion of Pakistan was a federal entity that was established in 1947 as a result of the Partition of India into two sovereign dominions the Union Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. British India (officially known as the Indian Empire had various flags incorporating the Union Jack. The article is about the order of chivalry known as "Star of India" A national anthem is a generally patriotic musical composition that evokes and eulogizes the history traditions and struggles of its people recognized either by a nation's "God Save the Queen", or "God Save the King", is an anthem used in a number of Commonwealth realms It is the National Throughout the world there are many cities that were once national Capitals but no longer have that status because the country ceased to exist the capital was moved or the capital New Delhi (नई दिल्ली ਨਵੀਂ ਦਿੱਲੀ نئی دلی is the Capital city of India. Hindustani (हिन्दुस्तानी ہندوستانی Hindustānī, hɪn̪d̪ʊst̪aːniː also known as " Hindi-Urdu," is a term covering English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Tamil (ta தமிழ்; t̪əmɨɻ is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamil people of the Indian subcontinent. For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901 was from 20 June 1837 the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland The Governor-General of India (or from 1858 to 1947 the Viceroy and Governor-General of India) was the head of the British administration in India, and Charles John Canning 1st Earl Canning KG, GCB, GCSI, PC ( 14 December 1812 &ndash 17 June 1862) known Admiral of the Fleet Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas Mountbatten 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCB, OM, GCSI, New Imperialism refers to the colonial expansion adopted by Europe 's powers and later Japan and the United States, during the 19th The Government of India Act 1858, actually entitled An Act for the Better Government of India, is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (21 & Events 338 BC - A Macedonian army led by Philip II defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes in the The Indian Independence Act 1947 was the statute (10 and 11 Geo VI c Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is India has been one of the earliest issuers of coins in the world (circa 6th Century BC along with the Chinese wen and Lydian Staters The origin of the word Emperor/Empress of India ( Badishah -e-Hind in Hindustani) was used as a Title by the last Mughal emperor Bahadur ² Governor-General and Viceroy of India

History of South Asia (Indian Subcontinent)
Stone Age	70,000–3300 BCE
• Mehrgarh Culture	• 7000–3300 BCE
Indus Valley Civilization	3300–1700 BCE
Late Harappan Culture	1700–1300 BCE
Vedic period	1500–500 BCE
Iron Age	1200–300 BCE
• Maha Janapadas	• 700–300 BCE
• Magadha Empire	• 545 BCE - 550
• Maurya Empire	• 321–184 BCE
Middle Kingdoms	250 BCE–1279 CE
• Chola Empire	• 250 BCE–1070 CE
• Satavahana	• 230 BCE–220 CE
• Kushan Empire	• 60–240 CE
• Gupta Empire	• 280–550 CE
• Pala Empire	• 750–1174 CE
• Chalukya Dynasty	• 543–753 CE
• Rashtrakuta	• 753–982 CE
• Western Chalukya Empire	• 973–1189 CE
• Hoysala Empire	1040–1346
• Kakatiya Empire	1083–1323
Islamic Sultanates	1206–1596
• Delhi Sultanate	• 1206–1526
• Deccan Sultanates	• 1490–1596
Ahom Kingdom	1228–1826
Vijayanagara Empire	1336–1646
Mughal Empire	1526–1858
Maratha Empire	1674–1818
Sikh Confederacy	1716–1799
Sikh Empire	1801–1849
British East India Company	1757–1858
British Raj	1858–1947
Modern States	1947–present
Nation histories Bangladesh • Bhutan • Republic of India Maldives • Nepal • Pakistan • Sri Lanka
Regional histories Assam • Balochistan • Bengal Himachal Pradesh • Orissa • Pakistani Regions North India • South India • Tibet
Specialised histories Coinage • Dynasties • Economy Indology • Language • Literature • Maritime Military • Science and Technology • Timeline
This box: view • talk • edit

British Raj (rāj, lit. The term South Asia usually refers to the political entities of the Sub- Himalayan region - namely Republic of India, Pakistan, This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 The South Asian Stone Age covers the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods in the South Asia. Mehrgarh, ( Urdu: م‍ﮩ‍رگڑھ) one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC sites in Archaeology, lies on what The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BCE in and around the Punjab region which is located on the The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H culture also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition Mahajanapadas ( Sanskrit: महाजनपद Mahājanapadas) literally "Great Kingdoms" (from Maha, "great" and Janapada Magadha (मगध formed one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas ( Sanskrit, "great countries" or regions in ancient India. The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 2nd century BC since the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding The Sātavāhanas ( Marathi: सातवाहन Telugu:శాతవాహనులు were a Dynasty which ruled from Junnar ( The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C The Pala Empire was a dynasty in control of the northern and eastern Indian subcontinent, mainly the Bengal and Bihar regions from the 8th to The Chalukya dynasty ( Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು ʧaːɭukjə was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and Central The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ( Sanskrit: राष्ट्रकूट rāṣṭrakūṭa, Kannada: ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಕೂಟ was a royal The Western Chalukya Empire ( Kannada: ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ) ruled most of the western Deccan, South The Hoysala Empire ( Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ( pronunciation: in Kannada was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian Dynasty that ruled parts of what is now Andhra Pradesh, India from 1083CE to 1323CE During the late Middle Ages, several Islamic Empires were established in South Asia. The Delhi Sultanate ( Urdu: دلی سلطنت, दिल्ली सलतनत or Sultanat e Hind ( سلطنتِ هند; सलतनत ए The Deccan sultanates were five Muslim -ruled late medieval kingdoms–- Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar The Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826 called Kingdom of Assam in medieval times was a medieval kingdom in the Brahmaputra valley in Assam that maintained its The Vijayanagara Empire ( Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము was a South The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most The Maratha Empire ( Marathi: मराठा साम्राज्य Marāṭhā Sāmrājya; also transliterated Mahratta The Sikh Confederacy was a nation that existed from 1716 to 1799 The Sikh Confederacy was a nation that existed from 1716 to 1799 The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation on August 14, 1947 and August 15, History of Bengal Bangladesh became one of the last major nation states following its secession in 1971 from the nation of Pakistan which achieved its independence from the British Bhutan 's early history is steeped in Mythology and remains obscure The History of the Republic of India began on August 15, 1947 when India became an independent Dominion within the British Commonwealth The Maldives is a nation consisting of 26 natural Atolls, comprising 1192 islands Historical setting Since very ancient times the Maldives were ruled The History of Nepal (नेपालको इतिहास is characterized by its isolated position in the Himalayas and its two dominant neighbors India The history of Pakistan as a modern nation began with independence from British India on 14 August 1947, although Traditionally the recorded History of Sri Lanka boasts of 25 chronicled centuries The history of Assam is the history of a confluence of peoples from the east west and the north the confluence of the Indo-Aryan, Austro-Asiatic and The Baloch people are an Iranian ethnic group that are mainly settled in the Balochistan areas of Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan. See also History of Bangladesh The history of Bengal (including Bangladesh and West Bengal) dates back four millennia The history of Himachal Pradesh dates back to the time when the Indus valley civilisation flourished Orissa formed in 1926 was known as Kalinga in ancient times Kalinga was a prosperous nation whose merchants traded with the lands of Java and Sumatra The former subdivisions of Pakistan are states provinces and territories which mainly existed between 1947 and 1975 when the current provinces The first known use of the word Punjab is in the book Tarikh-e-Sher Shah Suri (1580 which mentions the construction of a fort by "Sher Khan of Punjab" The history of South India covers a span of over two thousand years during which the region saw the rise and fall of a number of dynasties and empires Tibetan history is characterized by a special dedication to the Buddhist religion both in the eyes of its own people as well as for the Mongol and Manchu Coinage of India, issued by Imperial dynasties and smaller Middle kingdoms of India began during the 1st millennium BCE, and consisted The following list of Indian monarchs is one of several Lists of incumbents. Economic history of India, in the sense of the meaning of the term economic in its current sense is at least 5000 years old Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies Originating over 5000 years ago the linguistic history of India describes the evolution and transformation of early human communications techniques - from pictures pictorial scripts Indian literature is generally acknowledged as one of the oldest in the world Indian maritime history begins during the 3rd millennium BCE when the inhabitants of the Indus Valley initiate trading with Mesopotamia. India has a long military history dating back several millennia This is a timeline of Indian history. It includes the history of South Asia ( Indian subcontinent) especially the history of the regions now known "reign" in Hindustani^[1]) primarily refers to the British rule in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947;^[2] it can also refer to the region of the rule, or the period of dominion. Hindustani (हिन्दुस्तानी ہندوستانی Hindustānī, hɪn̪d̪ʊst̪aːniː also known as " Hindi-Urdu," is a term covering This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. ^[3] The region, commonly called India in contemporary usage, included areas directly administered by the United Kingdom^[4] (contemporaneously, "British India") as well as the princely states ruled by individual rulers under the paramountcy of the British Crown. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a The doctrine of paramountcy is the legal principle that reconciles contradicting or conflicting laws in a federalist state TalkCommonewalth realm.--> The monarchy After 1876, the resulting political union was officially called the Indian Empire and issued passports under that name. Polity ( Greek: Πολιτεία or Πολίτευμα transliterated as Politeía or Políteuma) was originally a term used in Ancient Greece As India, it was a founding member of the League of Nations, and a member nation of the Summer Olympics in 1900, 1920, 1928, 1932, and 1936. Between 1920 and 1946 a total of 63 countries became members of the League of Nations. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 The Summer Olympic Games or the Games of the Olympiad are an International Multi-sport event, usually quadrennial organised by the International

The system of governance was instituted in 1858, when the rule of the British East India Company was transferred to the Crown in the person of Queen Victoria (and who, in 1876, was proclaimed Empress of India), and lasted until 1947, when the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two sovereign dominion states, the Union of India (later the Republic of India) and the Dominion of Pakistan (later the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh). The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901 was from 20 June 1837 the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Emperor/Empress of India ( Badishah -e-Hind in Hindustani) was used as a Title by the last Mughal emperor Bahadur The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation on August 14, 1947 and August 15, A dominion, often Dominion, refers to one of a group of autonomous polities under sovereign authority within the British Empire and India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Dominion of Pakistan was a federal entity that was established in 1947 as a result of the Partition of India into two sovereign dominions the Union Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially

Geographical extent of the Raj

The British Indian Empire included the regions of present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, and, in addition, at various times, Aden (from 1858 to 1937), Lower Burma (from 1858 to 1937), Upper Burma (from 1886 to 1937), British Somaliland (briefly from 1884 to 1898), and Singapore (briefly from 1858 to 1867). India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially The Colony of Aden (مستعمرة عدن Mustaʿmarat ʿAdan) was a British Crown colony from 1937 to 1963 and consisted of the port city Lower Burma is a historical region referring to the part of Burma annexed by the British Empire after the Second Anglo-Burmese War, which took place in Upper Burma was a term used by the British to refer to the central and northern area of what is now the country of Myanmar (Burma British Somaliland was a British Protectorate in the north part of the Horn of Africa. Singapore Burma was directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948. Among other countries in the region, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), which was ceded to the United Kingdom in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens, was a British Crown Colony, but not part of British India. Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 The Treaty of Amiens temporarily ended the hostilities between France and the United Kingdom during the French Revolutionary Wars. The British Overseas Territories are fourteen territories that are under the Sovereignty of the United Kingdom, but which do not form part of the United Kingdom The kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan, both having fought wars with the British and subsequently signed treaties with them, were recognized by the British as independent states. Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. The Kingdom of Bhutan (buːˈtɑːn is a Landlocked nation in South Asia. ^[5][6] The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a princely state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861, however, the issue of sovereignty was left undefined. Sikkim ( Nepali:, also Sikhim) is a Landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayas It is the least populous state in India For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a ^[7] The Maldive Islands were a British protectorate from 1867 to 1965, but not part of British India. The Maldives ( or, or Maldive Islands) officially the Republic of Maldives, is an Island nation consisting of a group of atolls stretching In International law, a protectorate is a autonomous territory that is "protected" by a stronger state or entity hense the protector which engages to protect

British India and the Native States

The British Indian Empire (contemporaneously India) consisted of two divisions: British India and the Native States or Princely States. For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a In its Interpretation Act of 1889, the British Parliament adopted the following definitions:^[8]

The expression British India shall mean all territories and places within Her Majesty's dominions which are for the time being governed by Her Majesty through the Governor-General of India, or through any Governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor-General of India. TalkCommonewalth realm.--> The monarchy The Governor-General of India (or from 1858 to 1947 the Viceroy and Governor-General of India) was the head of the British administration in India, and The expression India shall mean British India together with any territories of an Native Prince or Chief under the suzerainty of Her Majesty, exercised through the Governor-General of India, or through any Governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor-General of India. For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a Suzerainty (ˈsjuːzərənti RP or /ˈsjuːzəreɪnti/ RP) (/ˈsuːzərənti/ GA) is a situation in which a Region or people is a (52 & 53 Vict. cap. 63, sec. 18)

Suzerainty over 175 Princely States, including some of the largest and most important, was exercised (in the name of the British Crown) by central government of British India under the Viceroy; the remaining, approximately 500, states were dependents of the provincial governments of British India under a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, or Chief Commissioner (as the case might have been). TalkCommonewalth realm.--> The monarchy ^[9] A clear distinction between "dominion" and "suzerainty" was supplied by the jurisdiction of the courts of law: the law of British India rested upon the laws passed by the British Parliament and the legislative powers those laws vested in the various governments of British India, both central and local; in contrast, the courts of the Princely States existed under the authority of the respective rulers of those states. ^[9]

Administrative Divisions of British India

The British Indian Empire and surrounding countries in 1909.

Main article: Provinces of British India

Major Provinces

At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor. The Provinces of India (also Provinces of British India) were administrative units of British rule in India, the predecessors to the modern-day states. The following table lists their areas and populations (but does not include those of the dependent Native States):^[10]

During the partition of Bengal (1905–1911), a new province, Assam and East Bengal was created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became: Assam, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. ^[10]

Minor Provinces

In addition, there were a few minor provinces that were administered by a Chief Commissioner:^[11]

The Native States

The native states included five large states that were in "direct political relations" with the Government of India. The Andaman & Nicobar Islands is a Union territory of India. Informally the territory's name is often abbreviated to A & N Islands, or ANI Of these, Nepal, differed from others, in that it was independent in its internal administration, but was represented internationally by the Government of India. ^[12]

Under suzerainty of the Central Government

Five Large States

Central India Agency

Rajputana Agency

Baluchistan Agency

Under suzerainty of a Provincial Government

Burma (52 States)

Bengal (30 States)

Madras (5 States)

Bombay (354 States)

United Provinces (2 States)

Central Provinces (15 States)

Punjab (34 States)

Assam (26 States)

Organization of the British Raj

The proclamation to the "Princes, Chiefs, and People of India," issued by Queen Victoria on November 1, 1858. Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901 was from 20 June 1837 the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland "We hold ourselves bound to the natives of our Indian territories by the same obligation of duty which bind us to all our other subjects. " (p. 2)

An 1887 souvenir portrait of Queen Victoria as Empress of India, a full 30 years after the Great Uprising. Emperor/Empress of India ( Badishah -e-Hind in Hindustani) was used as a Title by the last Mughal emperor Bahadur

Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Act for the Better Government of India (1858) made changes in the governance of India at three levels: in the imperial government in London, in the central government in Calcutta, and in the provincial governments in the presidencies (and later in the provinces). The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Sepoys of British East India Company 's army on the 10th of May 1857 in the town of Meerut, The Government of India Act 1858, actually entitled An Act for the Better Government of India, is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (21 & London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. ^[23]

In London, it provided for a cabinet-level Secretary of State for India and a fifteen-member Council of India, whose members were required, as one prerequisite of membership, to have spent at least ten years in India and to have done so no more than ten years before. The office of Secretary of State for India or India Secretary was created in 1858 when Company rule in India ended and India was brought under direct British rule The Council of India was the advisory council to the Governor-General of India during the years of British administration ^[24] Although the Secretary of State formulated the policy instructions to be communicated to India, he was required in most instances to consult the Council, but especially so in matters relating to spending of Indian revenues. ^[23] The Act envisaged a system of "double government" in which the Council ideally served both as a check on excesses in imperial policy-making and as a body of up-to-date expertise on India. ^[23] However, the Secretary of State also had special emergency powers that allowed him to make unilateral decisions, and, in reality, the Council's expertise was sometimes outdated. ^[25] From 1858 until 1947, twenty seven individuals would serve as Secretary of State for India and direct the India Office; these included: Sir Charles Wood (1859 - 1866) , Marquess of Salisbury (1874 - 1878) (later three-time Prime Minister of Britain), John Morley (1905 - 1910) (initiator of the Minto-Morley Reforms), E. S. Montagu (1917 - 1922) (an architect of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms), and Frederick Pethick-Lawrence (1945 - 1947) (head of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India). The India Office was the British government department responsible for the direct administration of India during the British Raj. Charles Wood 1st Viscount Halifax ( December 20 1800 &ndash August 8 1885) known between 1846 and 1866 as Sir Charles Wood Bt Year 1859 ( MDCCCLIX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1866 ( MDCCCLXVI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common "Lord Salisbury" redirects here For other holders of the title see Marquess of Salisbury. Year 1874 ( MDCCCLXXIV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1878 ( MDCCCLXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common John Morley 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn, OM, PC (24 December 1838 – 23 September 1923 was a British Liberal Statesman Year 1905 ( MCMV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Year 1910 ( MCMX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Indian Councils Act of 1909, commonly known as the Morley-Minto Reforms, began when John Morley, the Liberal Secretary of State for India, and the Conservative Edwin Samuel Montagu ( February 6 1879 &ndash November 15 1924) was a British Liberal Jewish politician Year 1917 ( MCMXVII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms were reforms introduced by the British Government in India to introduce self-governing institutions gradually to India Frederick William Pethick-Lawrence 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence, PC ( 28 December 1871 &ndash 10 September 1961) was a British Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The British Cabinet Mission of 1946 to India aimed to discuss and finalize plans for the transfer of power from the British Raj to Indian leadership providing The size of the advisory Council would be reduced over the next half-century, but its powers would remain unchanged; in 1907, for the first time, two Indians would be appointed to the Council. ^[26]

In Calcutta, the Governor-General remained head of the Government of India and now was more commonly called the Viceroy on account of his secondary role as the Crown's representative to the nominally sovereign princely states; he was, however, now responsible to the Secretary of State in London and through him to British Parliament. The Governor-General of India (or from 1858 to 1947 the Viceroy and Governor-General of India) was the head of the British administration in India, and A viceroy is a royal official who governs a country or province in the name of and as representative of the Monarch. TalkCommonewalth realm.--> The monarchy For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom and British overseas territories A system of "double government" had already been in place in the East India Company rule in India from the time of Pitt's India Act of 1784. For usage see British rule in India Company rule in India (sometimes Company Raj, " raj," lit Pitt's India Act of 1784 was the enactment of the British Parliament to bring the administration of the British East India Company under the control of the British Government ^[26] The Governor-General in the capital, Calcutta, and the Governor in a subordinate presidency (Madras or Bombay) was each required to consult his advisory council; executive orders in Calcutta, for example, were issued in the name of "Governor-General-in-Council" (i. Madras Presidency, also known as Madras Province and known officially as Presidency of Fort St The Bombay Presidency was a former province of British India. e. the Governor-General with the advice of the Council). ^[26] The Company's system of "double government" had its critics, since, from the time of the system's inception, there had been been intermittent feuding between the Governor-General and his Council; still, the Act of 1858 made no major changes in governance^[26] However, in the years immediately thereafter, which were also the years of post-rebellion reconstruction, the Viceroy Lord Canning found the collective decision-making of the Council to be too time-consuming for the pressing tasks ahead. ^[26] He therefore requested the "portfolio system" of an Executive Council in which the business of each government department (the "portfolio") was assigned to and became the responsibility of a single Council member. ^[26] Routine departmental decisions were made exclusively by the member, however, important decisions required the consent of the Governor-General and, in the absence such consent, required discussion by the entire Executive Council. This innovation in Indian governance was promulgated in the Indian Councils Act of 1861. The Indian Councils Act was a piece of Legislation passed by the Parliament of Great Britain in 1861 that transformed the Viceroy of India 's executive council into

If the Government of India needed to enact new laws, the Councils Act allowed for a Legislative Council—an expansion of the Executive Council by up to twelve additional members, each appointed to a two-year term—with half the members consisting of British officials of the government (termed official) and allowed to vote, and the other half, comprising Indians and domiciled Britons in India (termed non-official) and serving only in an advisory capacity. ^[27] All laws enacted by Legislative Councils in India, whether by the Imperial Legislative Council in Calcutta or by the provincial ones in Madras and Bombay, required the final assent of the Secretary of State in London; this prompted Sir Charles Wood, the second Secretary of State, to describe the Government of India as "a despotism controlled from home. The Imperial Legislative Council was a Legislature for India during the British Raj. "^[28] Moreover, although the appointment of Indians to the Legislative Council was a response to calls after the 1857 rebellion, most notably by Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, for more consultation with Indians, the Indians so appointed were from the landed aristocracy, often chosen for their loyalty, and far from representative. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Sepoys of British East India Company 's army on the 10th of May 1857 in the town of Meerut, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Bahadur, GCSI (also Sayyid Ahmad Khan (سید احمد خان بہا در October 17 1817 – March 27 1898 commonly known as Sir Syed was an ^[29] Even so, the "tiny advances in the practise of representative government were intended to provide safety valves for the expression of public opinion which had been so badly misjudged before the rebellion. " (Bayly 1990, p.  195). Indian affairs now also came to be more closely examined in the British parliament and more widely discussed in the British press. ^[30]

Although the Great Uprising of 1857 had shaken the British enterprise in India, it had not derailed it. After the rebellion, the British became more circumspect. Much thought was devoted to the causes of the rebellion, and from it three main lessons were drawn. At a more practical level, it was felt that there needed to be more communication and camaraderie between the British and Indians; not just between British army officers and their Indian staff, but in civilian life as well. The Indian army was completely reorganised: units composed of the Muslims and Brahmins of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, who had formed the core of the rebellion, were disbanded. The United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, more commonly the United Provinces, was a Province of British India, which existed from 1902 to 1947 ^[31] New regiments, like the Sikhs and Baluchis, composed of Indians who, in British estimation, had demonstrated steadfastness, were formed. From then on, the Indian army was to remain unchanged in its organization until 1947. ^[32]

It was also felt that both the princes and the large land-holders, by not joining the rebellion, had proved to be, in Lord Canning's words, "breakwaters in a storm. Charles John Canning 1st Earl Canning KG, GCB, GCSI, PC ( 14 December 1812 &ndash 17 June 1862) known "^[31] They too were rewarded in the new British Raj, by being officially recognised in the treaties each state now signed with the Crown. TalkCommonewalth realm.--> The monarchy ^[32] At the same time, it was felt that the peasants, for whose benefit the large land-reforms of the United Provinces had been undertaken, had shown disloyalty, by, in many cases, fighting for their former landlords against the British. Consequently, no more land reforms were implemented for the next 90 years: Bengal and Bihar were to remain the realms of large land holdings (unlike the Punjab and Uttar Pradesh). Uttar Pradesh (उत्तर प्रदेश اتر پردیش pronounced, Translation: Northern Province) referred to as '''U ^[32]

Lastly, the British felt disenchanted with Indian reaction to social change. Until the rebellion, they had enthusiastically pushed through social reform, like the ban on suttee by Lord William Bentinck. Satī ( Devanagari: सती, the feminine of sat "true" (also suttee) is a Funeral practice among some Lord William Henry Cavendish-Bentinck (14 September 1774 &ndash 17 June 1839 was a British statesman who served as Governor-General of India from 1828 to 1835 ^[31] It was now felt that traditions and customs in India were too strong and too rigid to be changed easily; consequently, no more British social interventions were made, especially in matters dealing with religion, even when the British felt very strongly about the issue (as in the instance of the remarriage of Hindu child widows). ^[32]

Famines, Epidemics, and Public Health

Main articles: Famines, Epidemics, and Public Health in the British Raj, Timeline of major famines in India during British rule (1765 to 1947)‎, Chalisa famine, Doji bara famine, Orissa Famine of 1866, Rajputana famine of 1869, Bihar famine of 1873–74, Great Famine of 1876–78, and Indian famine of 1896–97

A timeline

History

Main article: History of the British Raj

Prelude: Company Rule in India

Main article: Company rule in India

Although the British East India Company had administered its factory areas in India—beginning with Surat early in the 17th century, and including by the century's end, Fort William near Calcutta, Fort St George in Madras and the Bombay Castle—its victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked the real beginning of the Company rule in India. Prelude Company Rule in India See also Company rule in India Although the British East India Company had administered its factory areas in For usage see British rule in India Company rule in India (sometimes Company Raj, " raj," lit The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or Fort William is a Fort built in Calcutta on the Eastern banks of the river Hooghly, the major distributary of river Ganges during the Fort St George (or historically White Town is the name of the first British fortress in India, founded in 1639 at the coastal city of Madras (modern Bombay Castle (also Casa da Orta) is one of the oldest defensive structures built in the city of Mumbai (formerly Bombay The Battle of Plassey (পলাশীর যুদ্ধ Pôlashir Juddho) was a decisive British East India Company victory over the Nawab of Bengal For usage see British rule in India Company rule in India (sometimes Company Raj, " raj," lit The victory was consolidated in 1764 at the Battle of Buxar (in Bihar), when the defeated Mughal emperor, Shah Alam II, granted the Company the Diwani ("right to collect land-revenue") in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The Battle of Buxar was fought in October 1764 between the forces under the command Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. Shah Alam II (1728&ndash1806 also known as Ali Gauhar was a Mughal emperor of India. Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. Orissa (ଓଡ଼ିଶା is a state located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras: the Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766–1799) and the Anglo-Maratha Wars (1772–1818) gave it control over most of India south of the Narmada River. The Anglo-Mysore Wars were a series of wars fought in India over the last three decades of the eighteenth-century between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British The Narmada नर्मदा Gujarati નર્મદા or Nerbudda (Narbada is a river in central India and the fifth largest river in the Indian subcontinent

Earlier, in 1773, the British Parliament granted regulatory control over East India Company to the British government and established the post of Governor-General of India, with Warren Hastings as the first incumbent. The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom and British overseas territories The Governor-General of India (or from 1858 to 1947 the Viceroy and Governor-General of India) was the head of the British administration in India, and Warren Hastings ( December 6 1732 - August 22 1818) was the first Governor-General of Bengal, from 1773 to 1785 ^[33] In 1784, the British Parliament passed Pitt's India Act which created a Board of Control for overseeing the administration of East India Company. Pitt's India Act of 1784 was the enactment of the British Parliament to bring the administration of the British East India Company under the control of the British Government Hastings was succeeded in 1784 by Cornwallis, who promulgated the 'Permanent Settlement of Bengal' with the zamindars. Charles Cornwallis 1st Marquess Cornwallis ( 31 December 1738 &ndash 5 October 1805) was a British military commander and colonial The Permanent Settlement — also known as the Cornwallis Code or Permanent Settlement of Bengal ( Bangla: চিরস্থায়ী বন্দোবস্ত Zamindar ( Devanagari: ज़मींदार zamīndār, Urdu: زمیندار zamīndār, Eastern Nagari: জমিদার

Map of India showing British Expansion between 1805 and 1910.

Lord Cornwallis, the Governor-General who established the Permanent Settlement in Bengal. Charles Cornwallis 1st Marquess Cornwallis ( 31 December 1738 &ndash 5 October 1805) was a British military commander and colonial The Permanent Settlement — also known as the Cornwallis Code or Permanent Settlement of Bengal ( Bangla: চিরস্থায়ী বন্দোবস্ত The Bengal Presidency originally comprising east and west Bengal was a colonial region of British India, which comprised undivided Bengal which is present day Bangladesh

Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley, who rapidly expanded the Company's territories with victories in the Anglo-Maratha Wars and Anglo-Mysore Wars

Paddy fields in the Madras Presidency, ca. Richard Colley Wesley, later Wellesley 1st Marquess Wellesley KG PC ( 20 June 1760 – 26 September 1842) was The Anglo-Mysore Wars were a series of wars fought in India over the last three decades of the eighteenth-century between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British Madras Presidency, also known as Madras Province and known officially as Presidency of Fort St 1880. Two-thirds of the presidency fell under the Ryotwari land revenue system. The ryotwari system, instituted in some parts of British India was one of the two main systems used to collect revenues from the cultivators of agricultural land

At the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories. Richard Colley Wesley, later Wellesley 1st Marquess Wellesley KG PC ( 20 June 1760 – 26 September 1842) was ^[34] This was achieved either by subsidiary alliances between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation. A subsidiary alliance is an alliance between a dominant nation and a nation that it dominates The subsidiary alliances created the Princely States (or Native States) of the Hindu Maharajas and the Muslim Nawabs, prominent among which were: Cochin (1791), Jaipur (1794), Travancore (1795), Hyderabad (1798), Mysore (1799), Cis-Sutlej Hill States (1815), Central India Agency (1819), Kutch and Gujarat Gaikwad territories (1819), Rajputana (1818), and Bahawalpur (1833). For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a The word Mahārāja (also spelled maharajah) is Sanskrit for "great king" or " High king " (a Karmadharaya from mahānt A Nawab or Nawaab ( Urdu: نواب Hindi: नवाब was originally the Subedar (provincial governor or viceroy of a The Kingdom of Cochin or Kochi (also known as Perumpadappu Swaroopam, Madarajyam, Gosree Rajyam, or Kuru Swaroopam; Geography In 1900 at the times of Jaipur Kingdom region had a total area of 15579 square miles (40349 km² Travancore or Thiruvithaamkoor ( Malayalam: തിരുവിതാങ്കൂര്‍ "Thiru" (respectful prefix which suggests either royal or Hyderābād and Berar (హైదరాబాదు حیدر آباد under the Nizams was the largest Princely state in the erstwhile Indian Empire The Kingdom of Mysore/State of Mysore (ಮೈಸೂರು ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ was both a Kingdom (1399-1799 CE and a Princely state (1799-1947 The Cis-Sutlej states were a group of Sikh states in modern Punjab and Haryana states of northwestern India, lying between the Sutlej River The Central India Agency was a political unit of British India, which covered the northern half of present-day Madhya Pradesh state Rājputāna, also called Rājwār was the name of present Rājasthān state the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area before its formation in 1949 CE Bahawalpur was a Princely state of the Punjab in what is now Pakistan, stretching along the southern bank of the Sutlej and Indus Rivers ^[34] The annexed regions included the North Western Provinces (comprising Rohilkhand, Gorakhpur, and the Doab) (1801), Delhi (1803), and Sindh (1843). Uttar Pradesh (उत्तर प्रदेश اتر پردیش pronounced, Translation: Northern Province) referred to as '''U Rohilkhand ( Hindi: रुहेलखण्ड Urdu: روہیل کھنڈ) is a region of northwestern Uttar Pradesh state of India Gorakhpur ( Hindi: गोरखपुर Urdu: گۋڙکھ پور is a city in the eastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh in India, near A Doab ( Persian, Urdu: dō, "two" + āb, "water" or "river" is a term used in India and Sindh ( Sindhī: سنڌ Urdu: سندھ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. Punjab, Northwest Frontier Province, and Kashmir, were annexed after the Anglo-Sikh Wars in 1849; however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the Treaty of Amritsar (1850) to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu, and thereby became a princely state. The North-West Frontier Province (NWFP ( Urdu: śimāl maġribī sarhadī sūba) is the smallest of the four main provinces of Pakistan. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir The Treaty of Amritsar was signed on March 16, 1846 to settle a dispute over territory in Kashmir after the First Sikh War with the United The Dogras are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group in South Asia. They live predominantly in the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir but also in adjoining History of Jammu Many historians and locals believe that Jammu was founded by Raja Jamboolochan in 14th century BC. In 1854 Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh two years later. For the Oudh tree see Agarwood. Awadh ( Hindi: अवध Urdu: اودھ) also known in various British historical texts as Oudh ^[34]

The East India Company also signed treaties with various Afghan rulers and with Ranjit Singh of Lahore to counterbalance the Russian support of Persia's plans in western Afghanistan. Maharaja Ranjit Singh (ਮਹਾਰਾਜਾ ਰਣਜੀਤ ਸਿੰਘ also called "Sher-e-Punjab" ("The Lion of the Punjab" (1780-1839 was a ( lahor is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and is the second largest city in Pakistan after Karachi. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, In 1839, the Company's effort to more actively support Shah Shuja as Amir in Afghanistan, led to the First Afghan War (1839-42) and resulted in a military disaster for it. Shuja Shah Durrani (also known as Shah Shujah, Shoja Shah, Shujah al-Mulk) (c Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, The First Anglo–Afghan War lasted from 1839 to 1842 It was one of the first major conflicts during The Great Game, the 19th century competition for power and influence in As the British expanded their territory in India, so did Russia in Central Asia with the taking of Bukhara and Samarkand in 1863 and 1868 respectively, and thereby setting the stage for the Great Game of Central Asia. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Bukhara (Buxoro Бухоро بُخارا Бухара also spelled as Bukhoro and Bokhara, from the Soghdian βuxārak ("lucky Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of For the film see The Great Game (film The Great Game was a term used for the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk ^[35]

In the Charter Act of 1813, the British parliament renewed the Company's charter but terminated its monopoly, opening India to both private investment and missionary work. The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or ^[34] With increased British power in India, supervision of Indian affairs by the British Crown and parliament increased as well; by the 1820s, British nationals could transact business under the protection of the Crown in the three Company presidencies. TalkCommonewalth realm.--> The monarchy The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom and British overseas territories British India, before and during the time of the British Raj, had three presidencies Bengal Presidency (Presidency of Fort William ^[34] In the Charter Act of 1833, the British parliament revoked the Company's trade license altogether, making the Company a part of British governance, although the administration of British India remained the province of Company officers. The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or ^[36]

Starting in 1772, the Company began a series of land revenue "settlements," which would create major changes in landed rights and rural economy in India. In 1793, the Governor-General Lord Cornwallis promulgated the permanent settlement in the Bengal Presidency, the first socio-economic regulation in colonial India. Charles Cornwallis 1st Marquess Cornwallis ( 31 December 1738 &ndash 5 October 1805) was a British military commander and colonial The Permanent Settlement — also known as the Cornwallis Code or Permanent Settlement of Bengal ( Bangla: চিরস্থায়ী বন্দোবস্ত The Bengal Presidency originally comprising east and west Bengal was a colonial region of British India, which comprised undivided Bengal which is present day Bangladesh ^[37] It was named permanent because it fixed the land tax in perpetuity in return for landed property rights for a class of intermediaries called zamindars, who thereafter became owners of the land. Zamindar ( Devanagari: ज़मींदार zamīndār, Urdu: زمیندار zamīndār, Eastern Nagari: জমিদার ^[37] It was hoped that knowledge of a fixed government demand would encourage the zamindars to increase both their average outcrop and the land under cultivation, since they would be able to retain the profits from the increased output; in addition, the land itself would become a marketable form of property that could be purchased, sold, or mortgaged. ^[38] However, the zamindars themselves were often unable to meet the increased demands that the Company had placed on them; consequently, many defaulted, and by one estimate, up to one-third of their lands were auctioned during the first three decades following the permanent settlement. ^[39] In southern India, Thomas Munro, who would later become Governor of Madras, promoted the ryotwari system, in which the government settled land-revenue directly with the peasant farmers, or ryots. Sir Thomas Munro 1st Baronet KCB ( 27 May, 1761 - 6 July, 1827) Scottish Soldier and Statesman, was Madras Presidency, also known as Madras Province and known officially as Presidency of Fort St The ryotwari system, instituted in some parts of British India was one of the two main systems used to collect revenues from the cultivators of agricultural land ^[38] Based on the utilitarian ideas of James Mill, who supervised the Company's land revenue policy during 1819-1830, and David Ricardo's Law of Rent, it was considered by its supporters to be both closer to traditional practice and more progressive, allowing the benefits of Company rule to reach the lowest levels of rural society. Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall Utility, that is its contribution to happiness James Mill (6 April 1773 &ndash 23 June 1836 was a Scottish Historian, Economist, Political theorist, and Philosopher. David Ricardo (18 April 1772 &ndash 11 September 1823 was an English political economist, often credited with systematizing economics and was one of the most influential The Law of Rent was formulated by David Ricardo around 1809 It was the first clear exposition of the source and magnitude of land rents and is among the most important and ^[38] However, in spite of the appeal of the ryotwari system's abstract principles, class hierarchies in southern Indian villages had not entirely disappeared—for example village headmen continued to hold sway—and peasant cultivators came to experience revenue demands they could not meet. ^[40]

Land revenue settlements constituted a major administrative activity of the various governments in India under Company rule. ^[41] In all areas other than the Bengal Presidency, land settlement work involved a continually repetitive process of surveying and measuring plots, assessing their quality, and recording landed rights, and constituted a large proportion of the work of Indian Civil Service officers working for the government. The Bengal Presidency originally comprising east and west Bengal was a colonial region of British India, which comprised undivided Bengal which is present day Bangladesh The Indian Civil Service, popularly known by its acronym ICS, originated as the elite Civil service of the Indian Government under British colonial ^[41] After the Company lost its trading rights, it became the single most important source of government revenue, roughly half of overall revenue in the middle of the 19th century. ^[41] Since, in many regions, the land tax assessment could be revised, and since it was generally computed at a high level, it created lasting resentment which would later come to a head in the rebellion which rocked much of North India in 1857. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Sepoys of British East India Company 's army on the 10th of May 1857 in the town of Meerut, ^[42]

Indian Rebellion of 1857

Main article: Indian Rebellion of 1857

The rebellion began with mutinies by sepoys of the Bengal Presidency army; in 1857 the presidency consisted of present-day Bangladesh, and the Indian states of West Bengal, Bihar and UP. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Sepoys of British East India Company 's army on the 10th of May 1857 in the town of Meerut, A sepoy (ˈsipɔɪ (from Persian سپاهی Sipâhi meaning "soldier" was a native of India, a soldier allied to a European power usually the The Bengal Presidency originally comprising east and west Bengal was a colonial region of British India, which comprised undivided Bengal which is present day Bangladesh ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country West Bengal ( Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Poshchim Bônggo poʃtʃim bɔŋgo is a state in eastern India. Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. Uttar Pradesh (उत्तर प्रदेश اتر پردیش pronounced, Translation: Northern Province) referred to as '''U However, most rebel soldiers were from the UP region, and, in particular, from Northwest Provinces (especially, Ganga-Jumna Doab) and Oudh, and many came from landowning families. Uttar Pradesh (उत्तर प्रदेश اتر پردیش pronounced, Translation: Northern Province) referred to as '''U A Doab ( Persian, Urdu: dō, "two" + āb, "water" or "river" is a term used in India and The United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, more commonly the United Provinces, was a Province of British India, which existed from 1902 to 1947 ^[43] Within weeks of the initial mutinies—as the rebel soldiers wrested control of many urban garrisons from the British—the rebellion was joined by various discontented groups in the hinterlands, in both farmed areas and the backwoods. The latter group, forming the civilian rebellion, consisted of feudal nobility, landlords, peasants, rural merchants, and some tribal groups. ^[44]

Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856, who devised the Doctrine of Lapse. James Andrew Broun-Ramsay 1st Marquess of Dalhousie, KT, PC ( April 22 1812 &ndash December 19 1860) was a British The Doctrine of Lapse was an Annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General of India between 1848 and

A 1912 map of the Great Uprising of 1857 showing the centres of rebellion including: Meerut, Delhi, Cawnpore (Kanpur), Lucknow, Jhansi, and Gwalior. Meerut ( Hindi: मेरठ Urdu: میرٹھ is a city and a Municipal corporation in Meerut district in the Indian Delhi (दिल्ली ਦਿੱਲੀ دلی d̪ɪlːiː sometimes referred to as Dilli) is the second largest metropolis of India, with a population Kanpur ( Hindi: कानपुर Urdu: کان پور spelled as Cawnpore before 1948 is one of the most populous cities in the north India Kanpur ( Hindi: कानपुर Urdu: کان پور spelled as Cawnpore before 1948 is one of the most populous cities in the north India Lucknow is also a mansion in New Hampshire Lucknow ( लखनऊ لکھنؤ Lakhnaū) is the capital city of Uttar Pradesh Jhansi ( Urdu: جھانسی Hindi: झांसी Marathi:झाशी is a city of Uttar Pradesh state of northern India. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Gwalior ( Hindi: ग्वालियर) is a city in Madhya Pradesh in India

Lakshmibai, The Rani of Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the Doctrine of Lapse. Lakshmibai The Rani of Jhansi (c 1828 – 17 June 1858) ( Hindi - झाँसी की रानी Marathi The Doctrine of Lapse was an Annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General of India between 1848 and

Mortar damage to Kashmiri Gate, Delhi, 1858

After the annexation of Oudh by the East India Company in 1856, many sepoys were disquieted both from losing their perquisites as landed gentry in the Oudh courts and from the anticipation of any increased land-revenue payments that the annexation might augur. ^[45] Some Indian soldiers, misreading the presence of missionaries as a sign of official intent, were persuaded that the East India Company was masterminding mass conversions of Hindus and Muslims to Christianity. ^[46] Changes in the terms of their professional service may also have created resentment. As the extent of British jurisdiction expanded with British victories in wars and with annexation of territory, the soldiers were now not only expected to serve in less familiar regions (such as Lower Burma after the Second Burmese War in 1852-53), but also make do without the "foreign service," remuneration that had previously been their due. Lower Burma is a historical region referring to the part of Burma annexed by the British Empire after the Second Anglo-Burmese War, which took place in The Second Anglo-Burmese War took place in 1852 and ended in 1853 ^[47]

The civilian rebellion was more multifarious in origin. The rebels consisted of three groups: feudal nobility, rural landlords called taluqdars, and the peasants. A taluqdar or talukdar (from Hindi taluk (fr Arabic ta'al-luk) "district" + dor "holding" is a The nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the Doctrine of Lapse, which derecognised adopted children of princes as legal heirs, felt that the British had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. The Doctrine of Lapse was an Annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General of India between 1848 and Rebel leaders such as Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi belonged to this group; the latter, for example, was prepared to accept British paramountcy if her adopted son was recognized as the heir. The doctrine of paramountcy is the legal principle that reconciles contradicting or conflicting laws in a federalist state ^[48] The second group, the taluqdars had lost half their landed estates to peasant farmers as a result of the land reforms that came in the wake of annexation of Oudh. As the rebellion gained ground, the taluqdars quickly reoccupied the lands they had lost, and paradoxically, in part due to ties of kinship and feudal loyalty, did not experience significant opposition from the peasant farmers, many of whom too now joined the rebellion to the great dismay of the British. ^[49] Heavy land-revenue assessment in some areas by the British may have resulted in many landowning families either losing their land or going into great debt with money lenders, and providing ultimately a reason to rebel; money lenders, in addition to the British, were particular objects of the rebels' animosity. ^[50] The civilian rebellion was also highly uneven in its geographic distribution, even in areas of north-central India that were no longer under British control. For example, the relatively prosperous Muzaffarnagar district, a beneficiary of a British irrigation scheme, and next door to Meerut where the upheaval began, stayed mostly calm throughout. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Muzaffarnagar ( Hindi: मुज़फ़्फ़रनगर Urdu: مظفر نگر Meerut ( Hindi: मेरठ Urdu: میرٹھ is a city and a Municipal corporation in Meerut district in the Indian ^[51]

Effects on economy

In the second half of the 19th century, both the direct administration of India by the British crown and the technological change ushered in by the industrial revolution, had the effect of closely intertwining the economies of India and Great Britain. Jawaharlal Nehru (जवाहरलाल नेहरू ʤəʋäɦəɾläl nɛɦɾu (14 November 1889 27 May 1964 was a major political leader of the Congress Party The Discovery of India ( Hindi: भारत एक खोज was written by India 's first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru during For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British TalkCommonewalth realm.--> The monarchy ^[53] In fact many of the major changes in transport and communications (that are typically associated with Crown Rule of India) had already begun before the Mutiny. Since Dalhousie had embraced the technological change then rampant in Great Britain, India too saw rapid development of all those technologies. Railways, roads, canals, and bridges were rapidly built in India and telegraph links equally rapidly established in order that raw materials, such as cotton, from India's hinterland could be transported more efficiently to ports, such as Bombay, for subsequent export to England. Mumbai ( Marathi:,, IPA: formerly Bombay, is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra and the financial ^[54] Likewise, finished goods from England were transported back just as efficiently, for sale in the burgeoning Indian markets. ^[55] However, unlike Britain itself, where the market risks for the infrastructure development were borne by private investors, in India, it was the taxpayers—primarily farmers and farm-labourers—who endured the risks, which, in the end, amounted to £50 million. Infrastructure typically refers to the technical structures that support a society such as Roads Water supply, Wastewater, Power grids ^[56] In spite of these costs, very little skilled employment was created for Indians. By 1920, with the fourth largest railway network in the world and a history of 60 years of its construction, only ten per cent of the "superior posts" in the Indian Railways were held by Indians. ^[57]

The rush of technology was also changing the agricultural economy in India: by the last decade of the 19th century, a large fraction of some raw materials—not only cotton, but also some food-grains—were being exported to faraway markets. ^[58] Consequently, many small farmers, dependent on the whims of those markets, lost land, animals, and equipment to money-lenders. ^[58]. More tellingly, the latter half of the 19th century also saw an increase in the number of large-scale famines in India. Owing to its almost entire dependence upon the Monsoon rains India is more liable Although famines were not new to the subcontinent, these were particularly severe, with tens of millions dying,^[59] and with many critics, both British and Indian, laying the blame at the doorsteps of the lumbering colonial administrations. ^[58]

The 1909 Map of Indian Railways, when India had the fourth largest railway network in the world. Indian Railways (भारतीय रेल Bhāratīya Rail) abbreviated as IR (hi भारे is a Department of the Government of India under the Ministry Railway construction in India began in 1853.

"The most magnificent railway station in the world. " Stereographic image of Victoria Terminus, Bombay, which was completed in 1888. Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (छत्रपती शिवाजी टरमीनस formerly Victoria Terminus, and better known by its abbreviation CST or Bombay Mumbai ( Marathi:,, IPA: formerly Bombay, is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra and the financial

The Agra canal (c. The Agra Canal is an important Indian Irrigation work which starts from Gurgaon in Haryana. 1873), a year away from completion. The canal was closed to navigation in 1904 in order to increase irrigation and aid in famine-prevention.

Lord Ripon, the Liberal Viceroy of India, who instituted the Famine Code

Beginnings of self-government

The first steps were taken toward self-government in British India in the late 19th century with the appointment of Indian counsellors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils with the Indian Councils Act of 1892. George Frederick Samuel Robinson 1st Marquess of Ripon KG, GCSI, CIE, PC ( 24 October 1827 &ndash 9 July Municipal Corporations and District Boards were created for local administration; they included elected Indian members. A municipal corporation is the legal term for a local governing body, including (but not necessarily limited to cities, counties, Towns

The Government of India Act of 1909 — also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms (John Morley was the secretary of state for India, and Gilbert Elliot, fourth earl of Minto, was viceroy) — gave Indians limited roles in the central and provincial legislatures, known as legislative councils. Indian Councils Act of 1909, commonly known as the Morley-Minto Reforms, began when John Morley, the Liberal Secretary of State for India, and the Conservative John Morley 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn, OM, PC (24 December 1838 – 23 September 1923 was a British Liberal Statesman Gilbert John Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound 4th Earl of Minto, KG, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, PC ( London July 9, 1845 Indians had previously been appointed to legislative councils, but after the reforms some were elected to them. At the centre, the majority of council members continued to be government-appointed officials, and the viceroy was in no way responsible to the legislature. At the provincial level, the elected members, together with unofficial appointees, outnumbered the appointed officials, but responsibility of the governor to the legislature was not contemplated. Morley made it clear in introducing the legislation to the British Parliament that parliamentary self-government was not the goal of the British government. The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom and British overseas territories

The Morley-Minto Reforms were a milestone. Step by step, the elective principle was introduced for membership in Indian legislative councils. The "electorate" was limited, however, to a small group of upper-class Indians. These elected members increasingly became an "opposition" to the "official government". The Communal electorates were later extended to other communities and made a political factor of the Indian tendency toward group identification through religion.

John Morley, the Secretary of State for India from 1905 to 1910, and Gladstonian Liberal. John Morley 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn, OM, PC (24 December 1838 – 23 September 1923 was a British Liberal Statesman The office of Secretary of State for India or India Secretary was created in 1858 when Company rule in India ended and India was brought under direct British rule The Government of India Act of 1909, also known as the Minto-Morley Reforms allowed Indians to be elected to the Legislative Council. Indian Councils Act of 1909, commonly known as the Morley-Minto Reforms, began when John Morley, the Liberal Secretary of State for India, and the Conservative

Picture post card of the Gordon Highlanders marching past King George V and Queen Mary at the Delhi Durbar on December 12, 1911, when the King was crowned Emperor of India. The Delhi Durbar, meaning " Court of Delhi " was a mass assembly at Delhi India to commemorate the Coronation of a King Emperor/Empress of India ( Badishah -e-Hind in Hindustani) was used as a Title by the last Mughal emperor Bahadur

Indian medical orderlies attending to wounded soldiers with the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force in Mesopotamia during World War I. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All

Sepoy Khudadad Khan, the first Indian to be awarded the Victoria Cross, the British Empire's highest war-time medal for gallantry. Khudadad Khan VC ( 20 October 1888 - 8 March 1971) was the first Indian recipient of the Victoria Cross, See below the section "Separate Commonwealth awards" Note that since Khan, who hailed from Chakwal District, Punjab, in present-day Pakistan, died in 1971. Chakwal (چکوال is a district in the Punjab province of Pakistan. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and

World War I and its aftermath

World War I would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All 1. 4 million Indian and British soldiers of the British Indian Army would take part in the war and their participation would have a wider cultural fallout: news of Indian soldiers fighting and dying with British soldiers, as well as soldiers from dominions like Canada and Australia, would travel to distant corners of the world both in newsprint and by the new medium of the radio. See Indian Army for the post-independence (and post- partition) army of the Republic of India. A dominion, often Dominion, refers to one of a group of autonomous polities under sovereign authority within the British Empire and ^[60] India’s international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s. ^[60] It was to lead, among other things, to India, under its own name, becoming a founding member of the League of Nations in 1920 and participating, under the name, "Les Indes Anglaises" (The British Indies), in the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. Between 1920 and 1946 a total of 63 countries became members of the League of Nations. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 The 1920 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the VII Olympiad, were an International Multi-sport event which was celebrated in 1920 ||-||-||-||} Antwerp ( Dutch:, French: Anvers) is a City and Municipality in Belgium and the capital of the ^[61] Back in India, especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress, it would lead to calls for greater self-government for Indians. Indian National Congress-I (also known as the Congress Party and abbreviated INC) is a major Political party in India. ^[60]

In 1916, in the face of new strength demonstrated by the nationalists with the signing of the Lucknow Pact and the founding of the Home Rule leagues, and the realization, after the disaster in the Mesopotamian campaign, that the war would likely last longer, the new Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, cautioned that the Government of India needed to be more responsive to Indian opinion. Lucknow Pact refers to an agreement between Indian National Congress and Muslim League. The All India Home Rule League was a national political organization founded in 1916 to lead the national demand for self-government termed Home Rule, and to obtain The Mesopotamian campaign was a campaign in the Middle Eastern theatre of the Great War fought between Allied Powers represented by the British Empire Frederic John Napier Thesiger 1st Viscount Chelmsford, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, GBE, PC (12 August 1868 - 1 April 1933 was a British ^[62] Towards the end of the year, after discussions with the government in London, he suggested that the British demonstrate their good faith – in light of the Indian war role – through a number of public actions, including awards of titles and honors to princes, granting of commissions in the army to Indians, and removal of the much-reviled cotton excise duty, but most importantly, an announcement of Britain's future plans for India and an indication of some concrete steps. ^[62] After more discussion, in August 1917, the new Liberal Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, announced the British aim of “increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration, and the gradual development of self-governing institutions, with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire. The office of Secretary of State for India or India Secretary was created in 1858 when Company rule in India ended and India was brought under direct British rule Edwin Samuel Montagu ( February 6 1879 &ndash November 15 1924) was a British Liberal Jewish politician ”^[62] Although the plan envisioned limited self-government at first only in the provinces – with India emphatically within the British Empire – it represented the first British proposal for any form of representative government in a non-white colony. ^[62]

Earlier, at the onset of World War I, the reassignment of most of the British army in India to Europe and Mesopotamia had led the previous Viceroy, Lord Harding, to worry about the “risks involved in denuding India of troops. The Mesopotamian campaign was a campaign in the Middle Eastern theatre of the Great War fought between Allied Powers represented by the British Empire Charles Hardinge 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst KG GCB GCSI GCMG GCIE GCVO ISO PC ( 20 June ”^[60] Revolutionary violence had already been a concern in British India; consequently in 1915, to strengthen its powers during what it saw was a time of increased vulnerability, the Government of India passed the Defence of India Act, which allowed it to intern politically dangerous dissidents without due process and added to the power it already had – under the 1910 Press Act – both to imprison journalists without trial and to censor the press. The Revolutionary movement for Indian independence is often a less-highlighted aspect of the Indian independence movement -- the underground revolutionary factions Year 1915 ( MCMXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The Defence of India act 1915, also referred to as the Defence of India Regulations Act, was an Emergency Criminal Law enacted by the British Raj in ^[63] Now, as constitutional reform began to be discussed in earnest, the British began to consider how new moderate Indians could be brought into the fold of constitutional politics and simultaneously, how the hand of established constitutionalists could be strengthened. ^[63] However, since the Government of India wanted to ensure against any sabotage of the reform process by extremists, and since its reform plan was devised during a time when extremist violence had ebbed as a result of increased governmental control, it also began to consider how some of its war-time powers could be extended into peace time. ^[63]

Edwin Montagu, left, the Secretary of State for India, whose report led to the Government of India Act of 1919, also known as the Montford Reforms or the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms. Edwin Samuel Montagu ( February 6 1879 &ndash November 15 1924) was a British Liberal Jewish politician The office of Secretary of State for India or India Secretary was created in 1858 when Company rule in India ended and India was brought under direct British rule The Government of India Act 1919 (9 & 10 Geo V c 101 was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom to expand participation of the natives in the government of India

Consequently in 1917, even as Edwin Montagu announced the new constitutional reforms, a sedition committee chaired by a British judge, Mr. The Rowlatt committee was a Sedition Committee appointed in 1918 by the British Indian Government with Mr Justice Rowlatt, an English judge as its president S. A. T. Rowlatt, was tasked with investigating revolutionary conspiracies and the German and Bolshevik links to the violence in India,^[64][65][66] with the unstated goal of extending the government's war-time powers. The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction ^[62] The Rowlatt committee presented its report in July 1918 and identified three regions of conspiratorial insurgency: Bengal, the Bombay presidency, and the Punjab. Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang The Bombay Presidency was a former province of British India. ^[62] To combat subversive acts in these regions, the committee recommended that the government use emergency powers akin to its war-time authority, which included the ability to try cases of sedition by a panel of three judges and without juries, exaction of securities from suspects, governmental overseeing of residences of suspects,^[62] and the power for provincial governments to arrest and detain suspects in short-term detention facilities and without trial. ^[67]

With the end of World War I, there was also a change in the economic climate. By year’s end 1919, 1. 5 million Indians had served in the armed services in either combatant or non-combatant roles, and India had provided £146 million in revenue for the war. ^[68] The increased taxes coupled with disruptions in both domestic and international trade had the effect of approximately doubling the index of overall prices in India between 1914 and 1920. ^[68] Returning war veterans, especially in the Punjab, created a growing unemployment crisis^[69] and post-war inflation led to food riots in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal provinces,^[69] a situation that was made only worse by the failure of the 1918-19 monsoon and by profiteering and speculation. ^[68] The global influenza epidemic and the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 added to the general jitters; the former among the population already experiencing economic woes,^[69] and the latter among government officials, fearing a similar revolution in India. The 1918 flu pandemic (commonly referred to as the Spanish flu) was an Influenza Pandemic that spread to nearly every part of the world The October Revolution (Октябрьская революция Oktyabrskaya revolyutsiya) also known as the Soviet Revolution ^[70]

To combat what it saw as a coming crisis, the government now drafted the Rowlatt committee's recommendations into two Rowlatt Bills. The Rowlatt Act was a law passed by the British Raj in India in March 1919 indefinitely extending "emergency measures" (of the Defence of India Regulations ^[67] Although the bills were authorised for legislative consideration by Edwin Montagu, they were done so unwillingly, with the accompanying declaration, “I loathe the suggestion at first sight of preserving the Defence of India Act in peace time to such an extent as Rowlatt and his friends think necessary. ”^[62] In the ensuing discussion and vote in the Imperial Legislative Council, all Indian members voiced opposition to the bills. The Government of India was nevertheless able to use of its "official majority" to ensure passage of the bills early in 1919. ^[62] However, what it passed, in deference to the Indian opposition, was a lesser version of the first bill, which now allowed extra-judicial powers, but for a period of exactly three years and for the prosecution solely of “anarchical and revolutionary movements,” dropping entirely the second bill involving modification of the Indian Penal Code. Indian Penal Code (IPC Hindi: भारतीय दण्ड संहिता provides a Penal code for all of India including Jammu and Kashmir ^[62] Even so, when it was passed the new Rowlatt Act aroused widespread indignation throughout India and brought Mohandas Gandhi to the forefront of the nationalist movement. The Rowlatt Act was a law passed by the British Raj in India in March 1919 indefinitely extending "emergency measures" (of the Defence of India Regulations Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January ^[67]

Meanwhile, Montagu and Chelmsford themselves finally presented their report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter. ^[71] After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee for the purpose of identifying who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, the Government of India Act of 1919 (also known as the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) was passed in December 1919. The Government of India Act 1919 (9 & 10 Geo V c 101 was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom to expand participation of the natives in the government of India The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms were reforms introduced by the British Government in India to introduce self-governing institutions gradually to India ^[71] The new Act enlarged both the provincial and Imperial legislative councils and repealed the Government of India’s recourse to the “official majority” in unfavorable votes. The Imperial Legislative Council was a Legislature for India during the British Raj. ^[71] Although departments like defense, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications and income-tax were retained by the Viceroy and the central government in New Delhi, other departments like public health, education, land-revenue and local self-government were transferred to the provinces. The Governor-General of India (or from 1858 to 1947 the Viceroy and Governor-General of India) was the head of the British administration in India, and New Delhi (नई दिल्ली ਨਵੀਂ ਦਿੱਲੀ نئی دلی is the Capital city of India. ^[71] The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new dyarchical system, whereby some areas like education, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self-government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land-revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council. Diarchy (or dyarchy) from the Greek "δύο" and αρχειν "to rule" is a form of government in which two diarchs are the heads of state ^[71] The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil service and the army officer corps.

A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10% of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate. ^[71] In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts. ^[71] Seats were also reserved for non-Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principal of “communal representation,” an integral part of the Minto-Morley reforms, and more recently of the Congress-Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and Imperial legislative councils. Indian Councils Act of 1909, commonly known as the Morley-Minto Reforms, began when John Morley, the Liberal Secretary of State for India, and the Conservative A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Sikh (English or; ਸਿੱਖ sikkh, IPA) is the title and name given to an adherent of Sikhism. Christianity is India's third-largest religion, with approximately 24 million followers constituting 2 Anglo-Indians are people who have mixed Indian and British ancestry and the term is sometimes used in the West. ^[71] The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at the provincial level; however, that opportunity was also restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control. ^[71]

1930s: Government of India Act (1935)

British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald to the right of Mahatma Gandhi at the Second Round Table Conference in London, October 1931. James Ramsay MacDonald ( 12 October 1866 &ndash 9 November 1937) was a British politician and twice Prime Minister of the United Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January

In 1935, after the Round Table Conferences, the British Parliament approved the Government of India Act of 1935, which authorised the establishment of independent legislative assemblies in all provinces of British India, the creation of a central government incorporating both the British provinces and the princely states, and the protection of Muslim minorities. The Government of India Act 1935 ( 26 Geo 5 & 1 Edw 8 c 2) was the last pre-independence constitution of the British Raj. ^[55] The future Constitution of independent India would owe a great deal to the text of this act. The Constitution of India ( Hindi: भारतीय़ संविधान see names in other Indian languages) is the supreme law of India. ^[72] The act also provided for a bicameral national parliament and an executive branch under the purview of the British government. In Government, bicameralism (bi + Latin la ''camera'' chamber is the practice of having two legislative or Parliamentary chambers Thus a bicameral Although the national federation was never realised, nationwide elections for provincial assemblies were held in 1937. Despite initial hesitation, the Congress took part in the elections and won victories in seven of the eleven provinces of British India,^[73] and Congress governments, with wide powers, were formed in these provinces. In Great Britain, these victories were to later turn the tide for the idea of Indian independence. ^[73]

World War II

With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, declared war on India’s behalf without consulting Indian leaders, leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest. Victor Alexander John Hope 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow KG, KT, GCSI, GCIE, OBE, PC ( 24 September 1887 The Muslim League, in contrast, supported Britain in the war effort; however, it now took the view that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress. The British government—through its Cripps' mission—attempted to secure Indian nationalists' cooperation in the war effort in exchange for independence afterwards; however, the negotiations between them and the Congress broke down. The Cripps mission was an attempt in late March of 1942 by the British government to secure Indian cooperation and support for their efforts in World War II. The Cripps mission was an attempt in late March of 1942 by the British government to secure Indian cooperation and support for their efforts in World War II. Gandhi, subsequently, launched the “Quit India” movement in August 1942, demanding the immediate withdrawal of the British from India or face nationwide civil disobedience. The Quit India Movement (Bharat Chhodo Andolan or the August Movement) was a Civil disobedience movement launched in India in August 1942 in Along with all other Congress leaders, Gandhi was immediately imprisoned, and the country erupted in violent demonstrations led by students and later by peasant political groups, especially in Eastern United Provinces, Bihar, and western Bengal. The United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, more commonly the United Provinces, was a Province of British India, which existed from 1902 to 1947 Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. The large war-time British Army presence in India led to most of the movement being crushed in a little more than six weeks;^[74] nonetheless, a portion of the movement formed for a time an underground provisional government on the border with Nepal. ^[74] In other parts of India, the movement was less spontaneous and the protest less intensive, however it lasted sporadically into the summer of 1943. ^[75]

With Congress leaders in jail, attention also turned to Subhas Bose, who had been ousted from the Congress in 1939 following differences with the more conservative high command;^[76] Bose now turned to the Axis powers for help with liberating India by force. Subhas Chandra Bose (সুভাষ চন্দ্র বসু (born January 23, 1897; presumed to have died August 18, 1945 The Axis powers also known as the Axis alliance Axis nations Axis countries or sometimes just the Axis were those Countries ^[77] With Japanese support, he organised the Indian National Army, composed largely of Indian soldiers of the British Indian army who had been captured at Singapore by the Japanese. The Indian National Army ( INA) or Azad Hind Fauj ( Hindi: आज़ाद हिन्द फ़ौज was an armed force formed by Indian nationalists The Battle of Singapore was fought in the South-East Asian theatre of World War II when the Empire of Japan invaded the Allied stronghold From the onset of the war, the Japanese secret service had promoted unrest in South east Asia to destabilise the British War effort,^[78] and came to support a number of puppet and provisional governments in the captured regions, including those in Burma, the Philippines and Vietnam, the Provisional Government of Azad Hind (Free India), presided by Bose. was a Military intelligence operation established by the Imperial Japanese Army in the early stages of the Pacific War. The Japanese occupation of Burma refers to the period between 1942 and 1945 during World War II, when Burma was a part of the Empire of Japan. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially This article describes the organisation formed during World War II in Singapore ^[79] Bose's effort, however, was short lived; after the reverses of 1944, the reinforced British Indian Army in 1945 first halted and then reversed the Japanese U Go offensive, beginning the successful part of the Burma Campaign. The U Go offensive, or Operation C (ウ号作戦 was the Japanese offensive in March 1944 launched against Empire forces in the North-East Indian The Burma Campaign in the South-East Asian Theatre of World War II was fought primarily between British Commonwealth, Chinese and United Bose's Indian National Army surrendered with the recapture of Singapore, and Bose died in a plane crash soon thereafter. Singapore The trials of the INA soldiers at Red Fort in late 1945 however caused widespread public unrest and nationalist violence in India. The INA trials or the Red Fort Trials refer to the Courts martial of a number of officers of the Indian National Army between November 1945 and May 1946 This article is about the Red Fort in Delhi India The Agra Fort is also known as the "Red Fort" ^[80]

Post-war developments: Transfer of Power

1909 Prevailing Religions, Map of British Indian Empire, 1909, showing the prevailing majority religions of the population for different districts.

Map of India and Pakistan as envisaged in the Partition Plan

Viceroy Louis Mountbatten eleven days before the Transfer of Power. Admiral of the Fleet Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas Mountbatten 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCB, OM, GCSI,

In January 1946, a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain. The Royal Air Force Mutiny of 1946 was a mutiny on approximately Royal Air Force stations in India and South Asia in January 1946 over conditions of slow demobilization and conditions ^[81] The mutinies came to a head with mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. Although the mutinies were rapidly suppressed, they found much public support in India and had the effect of spurring the new Labour government in Britain to action, and leading to the Cabinet Mission to India led by the Secretary of State for India, Lord Pethick Lawrence, and including Sir Stafford Cripps, who had visited four years before. Frederick William Pethick-Lawrence 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence, PC ( 28 December 1871 &ndash 10 September 1961) was a British Sir Richard Stafford Cripps ( 24 April 1889 &ndash 21 April 1952) was a British Labour politician and Chancellor ^[81]

Also in early 1946, new elections were called in India in which the Congress won electoral victories in eight of the eleven provinces. ^[82] The negotiations between the Congress and the Muslim League, however, stumbled over the issue of the partition. Jinnah proclaimed August 16, 1946, Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India. Direct Action Day, also known as the Great Calcutta Riot, was on 16 August 1946 —a day of widespread riot and manslaughter in the city of Calcutta For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British The following day Hindu-Muslim riots broke out in Calcutta and quickly spread throughout India. Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events, in September, a Congress-led interim government was installed, with Jawaharlal Nehru as united India’s prime minister.

Later that year, the Labour government in Britain decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948. The Labour Party is a Political party in the United Kingdom. Founded at the start of the 20th century it has been since the 1920s the principal party of the

As independence approached, the violence between Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of Punjab and Bengal continued unabated. With the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, advanced the date for the transfer of power, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence. Admiral of the Fleet Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas Mountbatten 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCB, OM, GCSI, In June 1947, the nationalist leaders, including Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad on behalf of the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, B. R. Ambedkar representing the Untouchable community, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs, agreed to a partition of the country along religious lines. Maulana Abul Kalam Muhiyuddin Ahmed (11 November 1888 &ndash 22 February 1958 was a Muslim scholar and a senior political leader of the Indian independence Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar ( Marathi:डॊभीमराव रामजी आंबेडकर ( April 14, 1891 — December 6, 1956 Dalit is a self designation for group of people of South Asian descent who were traditionally regarded as untouchables or low Caste. Master Tara Singh Malhotra ( 24 June, 1885, Rawalpindi, Punjab - 22 November, Sikh (English or; ਸਿੱਖ sikkh, IPA) is the title and name given to an adherent of Sikhism. The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation on August 14, 1947 and August 15, The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to the new India and predominantly Muslim areas to the new nation of Pakistan; the plan included a partition of the Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and

Many millions of Muslim, Sikh, and Hindu refugees trekked across the newly drawn borders. The Radcliffe Line became the border between India and Pakistan on 17 August 1947 after the Partition of India. In Punjab, where the new border lines divided the Sikh regions in half, massive bloodshed followed; in Bengal and Bihar, where Gandhi's presence assuaged communal tempers, the violence was more limited. In all, anywhere between 250,000 and 500,000 people on both sides of the new borders died in the violence. ^[83] On August 14, 1947, the new Dominion of Pakistan came into being, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah sworn in as its first Governor General in Karachi. The Dominion of Pakistan was a federal entity that was established in 1947 as a result of the Partition of India into two sovereign dominions the Union (ڪراچي) is the largest city in Pakistan. It is the world's second largest city proper behind Mumbai in terms of population which exceeds 10 million The following day, August 15, 1947, India, now a smaller Union of India, became an independent country with official ceremonies taking place in New Delhi, and with Jawaharlal Nehru assuming the office of the prime minister, and the viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, staying on as its first Governor General. New Delhi (नई दिल्ली ਨਵੀਂ ਦਿੱਲੀ نئی دلی is the Capital city of India. The Prime Minister of India is head of the Council of Ministers, appointed by the President to assist the latter in the administration of the affairs of the executive The Governor-General of India (or from 1858 to 1947 the Viceroy and Governor-General of India) was the head of the British administration in India, and

See also

• British rule in India for other periods when parts of India were under British rule. British rule in India, may refer to Company rule in India, also Company Raj ("raj" lit
• Colonial India
• Indian independence movement
• Anglo-Indian
• Anglo-Burmese people
• British Empire
• Imperialism in Asia
• India Office
• List of Indian Princely States
• Governor-General of India
• Commander-in-Chief of India
• Indian Civil Service

Notes

References

Contemporary General Histories

• Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar (2004), From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India, New Delhi and London: Orient Longmans. Pp. xx, 548. , ISBN 8125025960, <https://www.orientlongman.com/display.asp?isbn=978-81-250-2596-2>.
• Bose, Sugata & Ayesha Jalal (2003), Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy, London and New York: Routledge, 2nd edition. Sugata Bose is the Gardiner Professor of History at Harvard University. Ayesha Jalal (عائشہ جلال is a Pakistani-American historian Pp. xiii, 304, ISBN 0-415-30787-2, <http://www.amazon.com/Modern-South-Asia-Sugata-Bose/dp/0415307872/>.
• Brown, Judith M. (1994), Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiii, 474, ISBN 0198731132, <http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780198731139>.
• Copland, Ian (2001), India 1885-1947: The Unmaking of an Empire (Seminar Studies in History Series), Harlow and London: Pearson Longmans. Pp. 160, ISBN 0582381738.
• Judd, Dennis (2004), The Lion and the Tiger: The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600-1947, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiii, 280, ISBN 0192803581, <http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryWorld/India/?view=usa&ci=9780192803580>.
• Kulke, Hermann & Dietmar Rothermund (2004), A History of India, 4th edition. Routledge, Pp. xii, 448, ISBN 0415329205, <http://www.amazon.com/History-India-Hermann-Kulke/dp/0415329205/>.
• Ludden, David (2002), India And South Asia: A Short History, Oxford: Oneworld Publications. Pp. xii, 306, ISBN 1851682376, <http://www.oneworld-publications.com/cgi-bin/cart/commerce.cgi?pid=145&log_pid=yes>
• Markovits, Claude (ed) (2005), A History of Modern India 1480-1950 (Anthem South Asian Studies), Anthem Press. Pp. 607, ISBN 1843311526, <http://www.amazon.com/History-Modern-1480-1950-Anthem-Studies/dp/1843311526/>.
• Metcalf, Barbara & Thomas R. Metcalf (2006), A Concise History of Modern India (Cambridge Concise Histories), Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 Pp. xxxiii, 372, ISBN 0521682258, <http://www.amazon.com/Concise-History-Modern-Cambridge-Histories/dp/0521682258/>.
• Peers, Douglas M. (2006), India under Colonial Rule 1700-1885, Harlow and London: Pearson Longmans. Pp. xvi, 163, ISBN 058231738.
• Robb, Peter (2004), A History of India (Palgrave Essential Histories), Houndmills, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Pp. xiv, 344, ISBN 0333691296, <http://www.amazon.com/History-India-Palgrave-Essential-Histories/dp/0333691296/>.
• Sarkar, Sumit (1983), Modern India: 1885-1947, Delhi: Macmillan India Ltd. Pp. xiv, 486, ISBN 0333904257.
• Spear, Percival (1990), A History of India, Volume 2, New Delhi and London: Penguin Books. Pp. 298, ISBN 0140138366, <http://www.amazon.com/History-India-Vol-2/dp/0140138366/ref=pd_ybh_a_6/104-7029728-9591925>.
• Stein, Burton (2001), A History of India, New Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiv, 432, ISBN 0195654463, <http://www.amazon.com/History-India-World/dp/0631205462/ref=pd_ybh_a_7/104-7029728-9591925>.
• Wolpert, Stanley (2003), A New History of India, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Stanley Wolpert (b 1927 is an American historian who specializes in the history of India and Pakistan. Pp. 544, ISBN 0195166787, <http://www.amazon.com/New-History-India-Stanley-Wolpert/dp/0195166787/>.

Monographs and Collections

• Anderson, Clare (2007), Indian Uprising of 1857–8: Prisons, Prisoners and Rebellion, New York: Anthem Press, Pp. 217, ISBN 9781843312499, <http://atlantis.terrassl.net/anthempress.com/product_info.php?cPath=52&products_id=293&osCsid=9a2s9o8mdu8066m551rr407123>
• Ansari, Sarah (2005), Life after Partition: Migration, Community and Strife in Sindh: 1947–1962, Oxford and London: Oxford University Press, Pp. 256, ISBN ISBN 019597834X
• Baker, David, Colonialism in an Indian Hinterland: The Central Provinces, 1820–1920, Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiii, 374, ISBN 0195630491, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/2059781?origin=JSTOR-pdf>
• Bayly, C. A. (1990), Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire (The New Cambridge History of India), Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Sir Christopher Alan Bayly, FBA (born 1945 is a British historian specializing in Indian British Imperial and Global History Pp. 248, ISBN 0521386500.
• Bayly, C. A. (2000), Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780-1870 (Cambridge Studies in Indian History and Society), Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Sir Christopher Alan Bayly, FBA (born 1945 is a British historian specializing in Indian British Imperial and Global History Pp. 426, ISBN 0521663601
• Brown, Judith M. (ed. ) & Wm. Roger Louis (ed. ) (2001), Oxford History of the British Empire: The Twentieth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 800, ISBN 0199246793, <http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-British-Empire-Twentieth/dp/0199246793>
• Butalia, Urvashi (1998), The Other Side of Silence: Voices from the Partition of India, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, Pp. 308, ISBN 0822324946
• Chandavarkar, Rajnarayan (1998), Imperial Power and Popular Politics: Class, Resistance and the State in India, 1850-1950, (Cambridge Studies in Indian History & Society). Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 Pp. 400, ISBN 0521596920, <http://www.amazon.com/Imperial-Power-Popular-Politics-Resistance/dp/0521596920/>.
• Chatterji, Joya (1993), Bengal Divided: Hindu Communalism and Partition, 1932–1947, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 Pp. 323, ISBN 0521523281.
• Copland, Ian (2002), Princes of India in the Endgame of Empire, 1917-1947, (Cambridge Studies in Indian History & Society). Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 Pp. 316, ISBN 0521894360, <http://www.amazon.com/Princes-Endgame-19171947-Cambridge-Studies/dp/0521894360/>.
• Fay, Peter W. (1993), The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942-1945. , Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press. , ISBN 0472083422.
• Gilmartin, David. 1988. Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan. Berkeley: University of California Press. 258 pages. ISBN 0520062493.
• Gould, William (2004), Hindu Nationalism and the Language of Politics in Late Colonial India, (Cambridge Studies in Indian History and Society). Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 Pp. 320, ISBN 0521830613, <http://www.amazon.com/Nationalism-Language-Politics-Colonial-Cambridge/dp/0521830613/>.
• Hyam, Ronald (2007), Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation 1918-1968. , Cambridge University Press. , ISBN 0521866499. .
• Jalal, Ayesha (1993), The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 334 pages, ISBN 0521458501.
• Khan, Yasmin (September 18, 2007), The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 250 pages (published 2007), ISBN 0300120788
• Khosla, G. Events 96 - Nerva is proclaimed Roman Emperor after Domitian is assassinated Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. D. (2001), "Stern Reckoning", in Page, David; Anita Inder Singh & Penderal Moon et al. Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. , The Partition Omnibus: Prelude to Partition/the Origins of the Partition of India 1936-1947/Divide and Quit/Stern Reckoning, Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195658507, <http://www.amazon.com/Partition-Omnibus-comprising-Imperial-Contribution/dp/0195671767/>
• Low, D. A. (1993), Eclipse of Empire, Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 Pp. xvi, 366, ISBN 0521457548, <http://www.amazon.com/Eclipse-Empire-D-Low/dp/0521457548/>.
• Low, D. A. (2002), Britain and Indian Nationalism: The Imprint of Amibiguity 1929-1942, Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 Pp. 374, ISBN 0521892619, <http://www.amazon.com/Britain-Indian-Nationalism-Amibiguity-19291942/dp/0521892619/>.
• Low, D. A. (ed. ) (1977, 2004), Congress & the Raj: Facets of the Indian Struggle 1917-47, New Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. xviii, 513, ISBN 0195683676.
• Metcalf, Thomas R. (1991), The Aftermath of Revolt: India, 1857-1870, Riverdale Co. Pub. Pp. 352, ISBN 8185054991
• Metcalf, Thomas R. (1997), Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press, Pp. 256, ISBN 0521589371
• Pandey, Gyanendra (2002), Remembering Partition: Violence, Nationalism and History in India, ISBN 0521002508
• Porter, Andrew (ed. ) (2001), Oxford History of the British Empire: Nineteenth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 800, ISBN 0199246785, <http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-British-Empire-Nineteenth/dp/0199246785>
• Ramusack, Barbara (2004), The Indian Princes and their States (The New Cambridge History of India), Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 324, ISBN 0521039894, <http://www.amazon.com/Indian-Princes-States-Cambridge-History/dp/0521267277>
• Shaikh, Farzana. 1989. Community and Consensus in Islam: Muslim Representation in Colonial India, 1860—1947. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 272 pages. ISBN 0521363284.
• Talbot, Ian and Gurharpal Singh (eds). 1999. Region and Partition: Bengal, Punjab and the Partition of the Subcontinent. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 420 pages. ISBN 0195790510.
• Talbot, Ian. 2002. Khizr Tiwana: The Punjab Unionist Party and the Partition of India. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 216 pages. ISBN 0195795512.
• Wainwright, A. Martin (1993), Inheritance of Empire: Britain, India, and the Balance of Power in Asia, 1938-55, Praeger Publishers. Pp. xvi, 256, ISBN 0275947335, <http://www.amazon.com/Inheritance-Empire-Britain-Balance-1938-55/dp/0275947335/>.
• Wolpert, Stanley (2006), Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 272, ISBN 0195151984.

Articles in Journals or Collections

• Banthia, Jayant & Tim Dyson (1999), "Smallpox in Nineteenth-Century India", Population and Development Review 25 (4): 649-689, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0098-7921%28199912%2925%3A4%3C649%3ASINI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K>
• Brown, Judith M. , "India", in Brown, Judith M. & Wm. Roger Louis, Oxford History of the British Empire: The Twentieth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, 421-446, ISBN 0199246793
• Caldwell, John C. (1998), "Malthus and the Less Developed World: The Pivotal Role of India", Population and Development Review 24 (4): 675-696, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0098-7921%28199812%2924%3A4%3C675%3AMATLDW%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23>
• Derbyshire, I. D. (1987), "Economic Change and the Railways in North India, 1860-1914", Population Studies 21 (3): 521-545, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X%281987%2921%3A3%3C521%3AECATRI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O>
• Drayton, Richard, "Science, Medicine, and the British Empire", in Winks, Robin, Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, 264-276, ISBN 0199246807
• Dyson, Tim (1991), "On the Demography of South Asian Famines: Part I", Population Studies 45 (1): 5-25, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0032-4728%28199103%2945%3A1%3C5%3AOTDOSA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V>
• Dyson, Tim (1991), "On the Demography of South Asian Famines: Part II", Population Studies 45 (2): 279-297, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0032-4728%28199107%2945%3A2%3C279%3AOTDOSA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S>
• Frykenberg, Robert E. , "India to 1858", in Winks, Robin, Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, 194-213, ISBN 0199246807
• Gilmartin, David (1994), "Scientific Empire and Imperial Science: Colonialism and Irrigation Technology in the Indus Basin", The Journal of Asian Studies 53 (4): 1127-1149, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-9118%28199411%2953%3A4%3C1127%3ASEAISC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S>
• Goswami, Manu (1998), "From Swadeshi to Swaraj: Nation, Economy, Territory in Colonial South Asia, 1870 to 1907", Comparative Studies in Society and History 40 (4): 609-636, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0010-4175%28199810%2940%3A4%3C609%3AFSTSNE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q>
• Harnetty, Peter (1991), "'Deindustrialization' Revisited: The Handloom Weavers of the Central Provinces of India, c. 1800-1947", Modern Asian Studies 25 (3): 455-510, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X%28199107%2925%3A3%3C455%3A%27RTHWO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5>
• Heuman, Gad, "Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Abolition", in Winks, Robin, Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, 315-326, ISBN 0199246807
• Klein, Ira (1988), "Plague, Policy and Popular Unrest in British India", Modern Asian Studies 22 (4): 723-755, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X%281988%2922%3A4%3C723%3APPAPUI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B>
• Klein, Ira (2000), "Materialism, Mutiny and Modernization in British India", Modern Asian Studies 34 (3): 545-580, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X%28200007%2934%3A3%3C545%3AMMAMIB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I>
• Kubicek, Robert, "British Expansion, Empire, and Technological Change", in Porter, Andrew, Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, 247-269, ISBN 0199246785
• Moore, Robin J. , "Imperial India, 1858-1914", in Porter, Andrew, Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001a, 422-446, ISBN 0199246785
• Moore, Robin J. , "India in the 1940s", in Winks, Robin, Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001b, 231-242, ISBN 0199246807
• Raj, Kapil (2000), "Colonial Encounters and the Forging of New Knowledge and National Identities: Great Britain and India, 1760-1850", Osiris, 2nd Series 15 (Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise): 119-134, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0369-7827%282000%292%3A15%3C119%3ACEATFO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9>
• Ray, Rajat Kanta (1995), "Asian Capital in the Age of European Domination: The Rise of the Bazaar, 1800-1914", Modern Asian Studies 29 (3): 449-554, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X%28199507%2929%3A3%3C449%3AACITAO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J>
• Raychaudhuri, Tapan, "India, 1858 to the 1930s", in Winks, Robin, Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, 214-230, ISBN 0199246807
• Robb, Peter (1997), "The Colonial State and Constructions of Indian Identity: An Example on the Northeast Frontier in the 1880s", Modern Asian Studies 31 (2): 245-283, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X%28199705%2931%3A2%3C245%3ATCSACO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K>
• Roy, Tirthankar (2002), "Economic History and Modern India: Redefining the Link", The Journal of Economic Perspectives 16 (3): 109-130, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0895-3309%28200222%2916%3A3%3C109%3AEHAMIR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-F>
• Simmons, Colin (1985), "'De-Industrialization', Industrialization and the Indian Economy, c. 1850-1947", Modern Asian Studies 19 (3): 593-622, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X%281985%2919%3A3%3C593%3A%27IATIE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K>
• Talbot, Ian, "Pakistan's Emergence", in Winks, Robin, Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, 253-263, ISBN 0199246807
• Tinker, Hugh (1968), India in the First World War and after. Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 3, No. 4, 1918-19: From War to Peace. (Oct. , 1968), pp. 89-107, Sage Publications, ISSN: 00220094.
• Tomlinson, B. R. , "Economics and Empire: The Periphery and the Imperial Economy", in Porter, Andrew, Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, 53-74, ISBN 0199246785
• Washbrook, D. A. , "India, 1818-1860: The Two Faces of Colonialism", in Porter, Andrew, Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, 395-421, ISBN 0199246785
• Watts, Sheldon (1999), "British Development Policies and Malaria in India 1897-c. 1929", Past and Present (no. 165): 141-181, <http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0031-2746%28199911%290%3A165%3C141%3ABDPAMI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1>
• Wylie, Diana, "Disease, Diet, and Gender: Late Twentieth Century Perspectives on Empire", in Winks, Robin, Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, 277-289, ISBN 0199246807

Classic Histories and Gazetteers

• Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. III (1907), The Indian Empire, Economic (Chapter X: Famine, pp. 475–502, Published under the authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press. Pp. xxx, 1 map, 552.
• Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV (1907), The Indian Empire, Administrative, Published under the authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press. Pp. xxx, 1 map, 552.
• Lovett, Sir Verney (1920), A History of the Indian Nationalist Movement, New York, Frederick A. Stokes Company, ISBN 81-7536-249-9
• Majumdar, R. C. ; H. C. Raychaudhuri & Kalikinkar Datta (1950), An Advanced History of India, London: Macmillan and Company Limited. 2nd edition. Pp. xiii, 1122, 7 maps, 5 coloured maps. .
• Smith, Vincent A. (1921), India in the British Period: Being Part III of the Oxford History of India, Oxford: At the Clarendon Press. 2nd edition. Pp. xxiv, 316 (469-784).

Tertiary Sources

• Oldenburg, Philip (2007), ""India: Movement for Freedom"", Encarta Encyclopedia. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
• Wolpert, Stanley (2007), "India: British Imperial Power 1858-1947 (Indian nationalism and the British response, 1885-1920; Prelude to Independence, 1920-1947)", Encyclopædia Britannica. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.

Related Reading

• Bairoch, Paul, Economics and World History, University of Chicago Press, 1995
• Bhatia, B. The University of Chicago Press is the largest University press in the United States M. , Famines in India: A study in Some Aspects of the Economic History of India with Special Reference to Food Problem, Delhi: Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1985
• Bowle, John, The Imperial Achievement, Secker & Warburg, London, 1974, ISBN-13: 978-0316104098
• Coates, Tim, (series editor), The Amritsar Massacre 1919 - General Dyer in the Punjab (Official Reports, including Dyer's Testimonies), Her Majesty's Stationary Office (HMSO) 1925, abridged edition, 2000, ISBN 0-11-702412-0
• Davis, Mike, Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World 2001, ISBN 1-85984-739-0
• Dutt, Romesh C. John Edward Bowle (1905-1988 was an English historian and writer Secker & Warburg is a British publishing company formed in 1936 from a takeover of Martin Secker, which was in receivership by Fredric Warburg and Roger Senhouse The Office of Public Sector Information ( OPSI) is the body responsible for the operation of Her Majesty's Stationery Office (usually abbreviated as HMSO Late Victorian Holocausts El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World is a Book by Mike Davis concerning the connection between global climate patterns Open Letters to Lord Curzon on Famines and Land Assessments in India, first published 1900, 2005 edition by Adamant Media Corporation, Elibron Classics Series, ISBN 1-4021-5115-2
• Dutt, Romesh C. The Economic History of India under early British Rule, first published 1902, 2001 edition by Routledge, ISBN 0-415-24493-5
• Forbes, Rosita, India of the Princes', London, 1939
• Forrest, G. Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals W. , CIE, (editor), Selections from The State Papers of the Governors-General of India - Warren Hastings (2 vols), Blackwell's, Oxford, 1910
• James, Lawrence, Raj - The Making and Unmaking of British India, London, 1997, ISBN 0-316-64072-7
• Keay, John, The Honourable Company - A History of the English East India Company, HarperCollins, London, 1991, ISBN 0-00-217515-0
• Moorhouse, Geoffrey, India Britannica, Book Club Associates, UK, 1983
• Morris, Jan, with Simon Winchester, Stones of Empire - The Buildings of the Raj, Oxford University Press, 1st edition 1983 (paperback edition 1986, ISBN 0-19-282036-2
• Sen, Amartya, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlements and Deprivation, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1982
• Srivastava, H. Blackwell UK is a national chain of bookshops, online retail mail order and library services which has an annual turnover of £ 74 million HarperCollins is a Publishing company owned by News Corporation. Amartya Kumar Sen CH (Hon (অমর্ত্য কুমার সেন Ômorto Kumar Shen) (born 3 November 1933) is an Indian C. , The History of Indian Famines from 1858-1918, Sri Ram Mehra and Co. , Agra, 1968
• Voelcker, John Augustus, Report on the Improvement of Indian Agriculture, Indian Government publication, Calcutta, 2nd edition, 1897.
• Woodroffe, Sir John, Is India Civilized - Essays on Indian Culture, Madras, 1919.

Fiction

• Forster, E.M., A Passage to India
• Kipling, Rudyard:
  • Plain Tales from the Hills (1888, short stories)
  • The Phantom Rickshaw and other Eerie Tales (1888, short stories, containing Man Who Would Be King)
  • Departmental Ditties and Barrackroom Ballads (1890, poetry, containing Mandalay and Gunga Din)
  • The Jungle Book (1894, short stories)
  • The Second Jungle Book (1895, short stories)
  • Kim (1901, novel)
• Masters, John
  • The Deceivers (A novel about Thuggee). Edward Morgan Forster OM, CH (1 January 1879–7 June 1970 was an English novelist Short story writer Essayist, and Librettist A Passage to India (1924 is a novel by E M Forster set against the backdrop of the British Raj and the Indian independence movement Joseph Rudyard Kipling (30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936 was an English Author and poet Plain Tales from the Hills (published 1888 is the first collection of short stories by Rudyard Kipling. The Man Who Would Be King ( 1888) is a Short story by Rudyard Kipling. Mandalay is a famous poem by Rudyard Kipling that was first published in the collection Barrack Room Ballads, published in 1892 Gunga Din ( 1892) is one of Rudyard Kipling 's most famous Poems perhaps best known for its often-quoted last stanza "Tho' I've belted you The Jungle Book (1894 is a collection of stories written by Rudyard Kipling. The Second Jungle Book is a sequel to The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling. Kim is a novel by Rudyard Kipling. It was first published serially in ''McClure's Magazine'' from December 1900 to October 1901 as well as in Lieutenant Colonel John Masters, DSO (1914&ndash1983 was an English officer in the British Indian Army and Novelist. This page is about a 1952 novel For pages with a similar name see the disambiguation page Deceiver. Thuggee (or tuggee, ठग्गी) (from Hindi thag ‘thief’ from Sanskrit sthaga ‘scoundrel’ from sthagati
  • Nightrunners of Bengal (The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857). Nightrunners of Bengal is the title of the first novel by John Masters. Click here for Indian Rebellion of 1857 Year 1857 ( MDCCCLVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the
  • The Lotus and the Wind (The Great Game of British and Russian spies on the Northwest Frontier). The Lotus and the Wind is a Spy Novel by John Masters. It continues his saga of the Savage family who are part of the British Raj For the film see The Great Game (film The Great Game was a term used for the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Northwest Frontier (retitled Flame Over India in the US is a 1959 British adventure Film starring Kenneth More
  • Bhowani Junction (Britain's exodus and the Partition of India). Bhowani Junction is a 1952 novel by John Masters, which was the basis of a successful 1956 film The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation on August 14, 1947 and August 15,
• Orwell, George, Burmese Days
• Scott, Paul
  • Raj Quartet comprising of:
    • The Jewel in the Crown – (1966)
    • The Day of the Scorpion – (1968)
    • The Towers of Silence – (1971)
    • A Division of the Spoils – (1975)
  • Staying On – (1977)

External links

• British India Website
• The New Student's Reference Work/India (1914)
• Images of Empire Library, Bristol, UK
• October Offer regarding India’s constitution, of His Majesty's Government 18 October 1939
• August Offer regarding India’s constitution, of His Majesty's Government 8 August 1940
• British Ruled India (1757-1947) Bibliography of Books Articles and Dissertations Concentrating on 1914-1947