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The British Mandate for Palestine, sometimes referred to as the Mandate of Palestine, was a League of Nations Mandate created after the First World War when the Ottoman Empire was split up by the Treaty of Sèvres. Throughout the world there are many cities that were once national Capitals but no longer have that status because the country ceased to exist the capital was moved or the capital Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. A League of Nations mandate refers to a legal status for certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following World War I. High Commissioner is the title of various high-ranking special executive positions held by a commission of appointment Herbert Louis Samuel 1st Viscount Samuel GCB OM GBE PC ( November 6, 1870 - February 2, 1963 General Sir Alan Gordon Cunningham GCMG, KCB, DSO, MC (1 May 1887 - 30 January 1983 was a British Army officer Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire. Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors. Year 1946 ( MCMXLVI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full 1946 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1264 - Battle of Lewes: Henry III of England is captured in France making Simon de Montfort the A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is The pound ( Arabic: جنيه ( junyah) Hebrew: פונט was the currency of the British Mandate of Palestine between 1927 and 1948 A League of Nations mandate refers to a legal status for certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following World War I. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Treaty of Sèvres ( 10 August 1920) was the Peace treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Allies at the end of World War
At the 1920 San Remo conference of the Allied Supreme Council, at which the Mandates were granted, the precise boundaries of all territories, including that of the British Mandate of Palestine, were left unspecified, to "be determined by the Principal Allied Powers"[1] and were not completely finalized until four years later. The San Remo Conference was an international meeting of the post- Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. However, it was clear that the boundary of Britain's mandate for Palestine was to extend eastward to the western boundary of its mandate for Mesopotamia. The British Mandate of Mesopotamia ( الانتداب البريطاني على العراق) was a League of Nations Class A mandate [2] In 1921, following Churchill's negotiations with Emir Abdullah, Transjordan (later Jordan) was accepted into the Mandate,[3] but it was separated from the area on which a Jewish National Home could be established,[4] a move formalized by the addition of a September 1922 clause to the charter governing the Mandate for Palestine which allowed for postponement of all mandatory provisions which related to the 'Jewish National Home' on lands which lay to the east of the Jordan River. The Emirate of Transjordan ( Arabic: ar إمارة شرق الأردن) was a former Ottoman territory incorporated into the British Mandate of Palestine [5]
The objective of the League of Nations Mandate system was to administer parts of the recently defunct Ottoman Empire, which had been in control of the Middle East since the 16th century, "until such time as they are able to stand alone. A League of Nations mandate refers to a legal status for certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following World War I. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. "[6]
The borders of the Mandate for Palestine extended from the Mediterranean Sea to the west, the British Mandate of Mesopotamia to the east, the French Mandate of Lebanon to the north, the French Mandate of Syria to the northeast, and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Kingdom of Egypt to the southeast and southwest respectively. The British Mandate of Mesopotamia ( الانتداب البريطاني على العراق) was a League of Nations Class A mandate The French Mandate of Lebanon was a League of Nations Mandate created at the end of World War I. The French Mandate of Syria was a League of Nations Mandate created after the First World War and the Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi The Kingdom of Egypt ( المملكة المصرية) was the first modern Egyptian state, lasting from 1922 to 1953 [2]
The British Mandate over Palestine came to an end on 15 May 1948, heralding the start of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and the establishment of Israel in 1948. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics.
Early History
Ancient to modern history
This territory was inhabited by the Canaanites, then the Israelites, and then it became part of the Babylonian, Persian, Greek and Roman Empires with periods of independence or autonomy for the Jews. The History of Palestine is the account of events in the greater geographic area in the Southern Levant known as Palestine, which includes not just the West Bank The history of Ancient Israel and Judah is known to us from classical sources including Judaism 's Tanakh or Hebrew Bible (known Canaanites redirects here For the 1940s social and political movement in Israel, see Canaanites (movement. See also History of ancient Israel and Judah According to the Bible, the Israelites were the dominant group living in the Land of Israel. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Hellenistic period of European history was the period between the death of Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon in 323 BC and the annexation The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Autonomy ( Greek: Auto- Nomos - nomos meaning "law" one who gives oneself his/her own Law) is the right to Self-government When the Roman Empire split, the region was ruled by the Eastern Roman Empire, also called the Byzantine Empire. After that, it was a specific region demarcated by its people, and it was ruled by the Sassanians, Omayyads, Crusaders and Mamelukes, and then by the Ottoman Empire from 1517 to 1922. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish
The Ottomans gained control of the Middle East under Selim I (1465–1520), and incorporated the region into an administrative unit, the eyalet of Syria. Selim I ( Ottoman: سليم الأول, Turkish: ISelim; also known as "the Grim" or "the Brave" Yavuz in The subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire were Administrative divisions of the State organisation of the Ottoman Empire based on military administration but The subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire were Administrative divisions of the State organisation of the Ottoman Empire based on military administration but The name "Palestine" disappeared as the official name of an administrative unit, and much of the region became part of the vilayet (province) of Damascus-Syria until 1660, then the vilayet of Saida (Sidon), briefly interrupted by the 7 March 1799–July 1799 French occupation of Jaffa, Haifa, and Caesarea. A wilāyah (ولاية or vilâyet (in Persian and Ottoman Turkish) is an administrative division usually The subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire were Administrative divisions of the State organisation of the Ottoman Empire based on military administration but Sidon,or Saïda, ( Arabic ar صيدا; Phoenician phoenician yodh Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. On 10 May 1832 it was one of the Turkish provinces annexed by Muhammad Ali's briefly imperialistic Egypt (nominally still Ottoman), but in November 1840 direct Ottoman rule was restored. Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England. Year 1832 ( MDCCCXXXII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian This article is about the leader of Egypt For other people named Muhammad Ali or Mehmet Ali see Muhammad Ali (disambiguation and Mehemet Ali (disambiguation
World War I
During World War I, the British waged the Sinai and Palestine Campaign under General Allenby. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Ottoman advance towards the Suez Canal The Ottoman Empire at the urging of their German ally chose to attack British and Egyptian forces in Egypt and shut the Suez Canal Field Marshal Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby 1st Viscount Allenby GCB GCMG GCVO ( April 23 1861 - May 14 1936 At the same time, the intelligence officer T. E. Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia") was stirring up the Arab Revolt in the region. The Arab Revolt (1916&ndash1918 ( الثورة العربية Al-Thawra al-`Arabīya) was initiated by the Sherif Hussein ibn Ali with the aim of securing The British defeated Ottoman Turkish forces in 1917 and occupied Palestine and Syria. The land was under British military administration for the remainder of the war.
The British military administration ended starvation with the aid of food supplies from Egypt, successfully fought typhus and cholera epidemics and significantly improved the water supply to Jerusalem. Typhus is any of several similar diseases caused by Louse -borne bacteria Cholera, sometimes known as Asiatic cholera or epidemic cholera, is an infectious Gastroenteritis caused by the Bacterium In Epidemiology, an epidemic (from Greek epi- upon + demos people is a classification of a disease that appears as new cases in a Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the They reduced corruption by paying the Arab and Jewish judges higher salaries. Communications were improved by new railway and telegraph lines.
In the Sykes-Picot agreement of 1916, Britain and France had proposed to divide the Middle East between them into spheres of influence, with "Palestine" as an international enclave. [7]
After the Sykes-Picot agreement of 1916, the British had made two promises regarding the territory in the Middle East it was expecting to acquire. Britain had promised the local Arabs, through Lawrence, independence for a united Arab country covering most of the Arab Middle East, in exchange for their support of the British; and in the Balfour Declaration of 1917 had promised to create and foster a Jewish national home in Palestine. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Balfour Declaration of 1917 (dated November 2 1917) was a Classified formal statement of Policy by the British government stating PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The British had, in the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence, previously promised the Hashemite family lordship over most land in the region in return for their support. The McMahon-Hussein Correspondence was a protracted exchange of letters (July 14 1915 to January 30 1916 during World War I, between the Hashemite is the Latinate version of the Arabic: هاشمي ( Transliteration: Hāšimī and traditionally refers to those belonging to the Banu Hashim
In October 1919, British forces in Syria and the last British soldiers stationed east of the Jordan were withdrawn and the region came under exclusive control of Faisal bin Hussein from Damascus. Faisal bin Al Hussein Bin Ali El-Hashemi, GCB, GCMG ( فيصل بن حسين Fayṣal ibn Ḥusayn; 20 May 1883 &ndash September 8 [8]
On November 23, 1918, a military edict was issued dividing Ottoman territories into occupied enemy territories (OET). Events 800 - Charlemagne arrives at Rome to investigate the alleged crimes of Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Middle East would be divided into three OETs, and OET-South extended from the Egyptian border of Sinai into Palestine and Lebanon as far north as Acre and Nablus and as far east as the River Jordan. Nablus ( sometimes Nābulus; Arabic:; næːblʊs is a Palestinian city in the northern West Bank, approximately north of Jerusalem A temporary British military governor (General Moony) would administer this sector. [9][10][11] At that time General Allenby assured Amir Faisal "that the Allies were in honour bound to endeavour to reach a settlement in accordance with the wishes of the peoples concerned and urged him to place his trust whole-heartedly in their good faith. "[12]
Establishment of the Mandate
Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire
As early as 1915, France, Italy and Great Britain secretly began the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. The Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was a political event that occurred after World War I. In 1916 the British and the French reached an agreement on their spheres of influence in the Middle East after the downfall of the Ottoman Empire, the Sykes-Picot Agreement. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish In a meeting at Deauville in 1919, David Lloyd George and Georges Clemenceau revised it, with Palestine and the Vilayet of Mosul falling into the British sphere in exchange for British support of French influence in Syria and Lebanon. For the motorcycle of the same name see Honda Deauville. Deauville is a commune in the Calvados département David Lloyd George 1st Earl Lloyd George of Dwyfor OM, PC (17 January 1863 &ndash 26 March 1945 was a British Statesman and the only Georges Benjamin Clemenceau ( Mouilleron-en-Pareds ( Vendée) 28 September 1841 24 November 1929 was a French statesman physician and Journalist In 1879 Mosul Vilayet (province was separated from Baghdad Vilayet. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية [13] The open negotiations began at the Paris Peace Conference, continued at the Conference of London and took definite shape only after the San Remo conference in April 1920. In the Conference of London, ( 12 February - 24 February 1920) following World War I, leaders of Britain France and Italy met to discuss the The San Remo Conference was an international meeting of the post- There the Allied Supreme Council granted the mandates for Palestine and Mesopotamia to Britain[14], and those for Syria and Lebanon to France. In August 1920 this was officially acknowledged in the Treaty of Sèvres. The Treaty of Sèvres ( 10 August 1920) was the Peace treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Allies at the end of World War
Transjordan
The land east of the Jordan, the future TransJordan, had been part of the Syrian administrative unit under the Ottomans. At the San Remo conference it was assigned to the British, "on the grounds that it was part of Palestine. "[15]
At the Battle of Maysalun on 23 July 1920 the French removed the newly-proclaimed nationalist government of Hashim al-Atassi and expelled King Faisal from Syria. The Battle of Maysalun, also called The Battle of Maysalun Pass, took place between Syrian and French forces about 12 miles west of Damascus Hashim Bay Khalid al- Atassi ( 1875 - December 5, 1960) ( هاشم الأتاسي was a Syrian nationalist, statesman and its President Faisal bin Al Hussein Bin Ali El-Hashemi, GCB, GCMG ( فيصل بن حسين Fayṣal ibn Ḥusayn; 20 May 1883 &ndash September 8 British Foreign Secretary Earl Curzon wrote to Samuel in August 1920, stating, "I suggest that you should let it be known forthwith that in the area south of the Sykes-Picot line, we will not admit French authority and that our policy for this area to be independent but in closest relations with Palestine. Viscount Scarsdale, of Scarsdale in the County of Derby is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. "[16] Samuel replied to Curzon, "After the fall of Damascus a fortnight ago. . . Sheiks and tribes east of Jordan utterly dissatisfied with Shareefian Government most unlikely would accept revival"[17] and subsequently announced that Transjordan was under British Mandate. [18] Without authority from London Samuel then visited Transjordan and at a meeting with 600 leaders in Salt announced the independence of the area from Damascus and its absorption into the mandate, quadrupling the area under his control. Samuel assured his audience that Transjordan would not be merged with Palestine. [19] The foreign secretary, Lord Curzon, repudiated Samuel's action. George Nathaniel Curzon 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston, KG, GCSI, GCIE, PC ( 11 January 1859 &ndash 20 March [20]
In March 1921, Colonial secretary, Winston Churchill, visited Jerusalem and after discussion with Abdullah accepted Transjordan into the mandatory area with the proviso that it would be, initially for six months, under the nominal rule of the emir Abdullah and would not form part of the Jewish national home to be established west of the River Jordan. [20] Article 25 of the Mandate specified that this part of Palestine was not subject to most of the terms of the mandate, notably those concerning the "Jewish National Home". In September 1922, the British government presented a memorandum to the League of Nations stating that Transjordan would be excluded from all the provisions dealing with Jewish settlement, and this memorandum was approved on 23 September. From that point onwards, Britain administered the part west of the Jordan, 23% of the entire territory, as "Palestine", and the part east of the Jordan, 77% of the entire territory, as "Transjordan. " Technically they remained one mandate but most official documents referred to them as if they were two separate mandates. Transfer of authority to an Arab government took place gradually in Transjordan, starting with the recognition of a local administration in 1923 and transfer of most administrative functions in 1928. Britain retained mandatory authority over the region until it became fully independent as the Hashemite Kingdom of Trans-Jordan in 1946. Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (الأردنّ al-Urdunn) is an Arab country in Southwest Asia spanning the southern
Borders
The precise geographical boundaries of the Mandate have historically been disputed, with conflicting and shifting British promises to Jewish and Arab interests made in the Balfour Declaration of 1917, the Sykes-Picot Agreement, the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence, and the Churchill White Paper of 1922. Balfour Declaration of 1917 (dated November 2 1917) was a Classified formal statement of Policy by the British government stating The McMahon-Hussein Correspondence was a protracted exchange of letters (July 14 1915 to January 30 1916 during World War I, between the The Churchill White Paper (also known as The British White Paper of 1922) of 3 June 1922 clarified how Britain viewed the Balfour Declaration 1917 The San Remo conference did not precisely define the boundaries of the mandated territories. The San Remo Conference was an international meeting of the post- [21][22] The boundary between the British and French mandates was defined in broad terms by the Franco-British Boundary Agreement of December 1920 [23]. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. That agreement placed the bulk of the Golan Heights in the French sphere. The treaty also established a joint commission to settle the precise border and mark it on the ground. [23] The commission submitted its final report on 3 February 1922, and it was approved with some caveats by the British and French governments on 7 March 1923, several months before Britain and France assumed their Mandatory responsibilities on 29 September 1923. [24][25] In accordance with the same process, a nearby parcel of land that included the ancient site of Dan was transferred from Syria to Palestine early in 1924. Tel Dan ("Mound of Dan" תל דן in Hebrew) also known as Tel el-Qadi ( Mound of the Judge in Arabic, literal translation of the Hebrew The Golan Heights thus became part of the French Mandate of Syria. The French Mandate of Syria was a League of Nations Mandate created after the First World War and the Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. American President Woodrow Wilson protested British concessions in a cable to the British Cabinet. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28 1856—February 3 1924 was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. [26] When the French Mandate of Syria ended in 1944, the Golan Heights became part of the newly independent state of Syria.
League of Nations ratification
The San Remo Resolution adopted on 25 April 1920 incorporated the Balfour Declaration of 1917, and Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. Balfour Declaration of 1917 (dated November 2 1917) was a Classified formal statement of Policy by the British government stating The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 It was the basic document upon which the Mandate for Palestine was constructed. In June 1922, the League of Nations approved the Palestine Mandate, to come into effect when a dispute between France and Italy over the Syria Mandate was settled. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 The French Mandate of Syria was a League of Nations Mandate created after the First World War and the Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. That occurred in September 1923.
The Palestine Mandate was an explicit document regarding Britain's responsibilities and powers of administration in Palestine. It included the Balfour Declaration:
Whereas the Principal Allied Powers have also agreed that the Mandatory should be responsible for putting into effect the declaration originally made on November 2nd, 1917, by the Government of His Britannic Majesty, and adopted by the said Powers,in favor of the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, it being clearly understood that nothing should be done which might prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country
Many articles of the document specified actions in support of Jewish immigration and political status. Although Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, which referred to the rights of the indigenous population, was mentioned in the preamble, the document further ignored the political rights of the Arabs. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 [27]
Interwar period
Administration
Following its occupation by British troops in 1917–1918, Palestine had been controlled by the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration of the United Kingdom Government. Anticipating the establishment of the Mandate, in July 1920, the military administration was replaced by a civilian one, headed by a High Commissioner. [28][29] The first High Commissioner, Herbert Samuel arrived in Palestine on 20 June 1920, and complied with a demand from the head of the military administration, General Sir Louis Bols, that he sign a receipt for ‘one Palestine, complete’: Samuel famously added the common commercial escape clause, ‘E&OE’ (errors and omissions excepted). Herbert Louis Samuel 1st Viscount Samuel GCB OM GBE PC ( November 6, 1870 - February 2, 1963 Lieutenant-General Sir Louis Jean Bols KCB, KCMG, DSO ( Cape Town November 23, 1867 &ndash September 13 E&OE is an initialism standing for errors and omissions excepted. [20]
In October 1923, Britain provided the League with two reports on the administration of Palestine and Iraq for the period 1920–1922. The Secretary General's statement accepting the reports says: "The mandate for Palestine only came into force on 29 September 1923. The two reports cover periods previous to the application of the mandates. "[30]
The Arab political status in the Mandate
The Arab leadership repeatedly pressed the British to grant them national and political rights like representative government over Jewish national and political rights in the remaining 23% of the mandate of Palestine which the British had set aside for a Jewish homeland. The Arabs reminded the British of president Wilson's Fourteen Points, the Covenant of the League of Nations, and British promises during World War I. The Fourteen Points were listed in a speech delivered by President Woodrow Wilson of the United States to a joint session of the United The British however made acceptance of the terms of the Mandate a precondition for any change in the constitutional position of the Arabs. For the Arabs this was unacceptable, as they felt that this would be "self murder". [31] During the whole interwar period the British, appealing to the terms of the Mandate, which they had designed themselves, rejected the principle of majority rule or any other measure that would give an Arab majority control over the government of Palestine. [32]
The Yishuv
- See also: History of the State of Israel
During the Mandate the Yishuv, the Jewish community in Palestine, grew from one sixth to almost one third of the populations. Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization Although the Zionist movement was created by Theodor Herzl in 1897 the history of Zionism can be seen as beginning The State of Israel (מדינת ישראל Medinat Yisrael) was established in 1948 after nearly two thousand
Immigration
According to official records, 367,845 Jews and 33,304 non-Jews immigrated legally between 1920 and 1945. [33] It was estimated that another 50–60,000 Jews and a small number of non-Jews immigrated illegally during this period. [34] Immigration accounts for most of the increase of Jewish population, while the non-Jewish population increase was largely natural. These figures have been supported by later studies[35], though estimates of Arab immigration have been disputed. [36]
Initially, Jewish immigration to Palestine met little opposition from the Palestinian Arabs. Palestinian people or Palestinians ( الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha`b al-filasTīni; الفلسطينيون, al-filasTīnīyyūn However, as anti-Semitism grew in Europe during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Jewish immigration (mostly from Europe) to Palestine began to increase markedly, creating much Arab resentment. Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility
The British government placed limitations on Jewish immigration to Palestine. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located These quotas were controversial, particularly in the latter years of British rule, and both Arabs and Jews disliked the policy, each side for its own reasons. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ In response to numerous Arab attacks on Jewish communities, the Haganah, a Jewish paramilitary organization, was formed on June 15, 1920 to defend Jewish residents. Haganah ( Hebrew: "The Defense" ההגנה was a Jewish Paramilitary organization in what was then the British Mandate of Palestine Events 763 BC - Assyrians record a Solar eclipse that will be used to fix the Chronology of Mesopotamian history Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Tensions led to widespread violent disturbances on several occasions, notably in 1921, 1929 (primarily violent attacks by Arabs on Jews — see 1929 Hebron massacre) and 1936–1939. The Hebron Massacre refers to the Mass murder of sixty-seven Jews on 23 and 24 August, 1929 in Hebron, then part of the British Beginning in 1936, several Jewish groups such as Etzel (Irgun) and Lehi (Stern Gang) conducted their own campaigns of violence against British military and Arab targets. Irgun (ארגון shorthand for HaIrgun HaTzva'i HaLe'umi BeEretz Yisra'el, he הארגון הצבאי הלאומי בארץ ישראל "National Military Organization Lehi ('lɛxi Hebrew acronym for Lohamei Herut Israel, "Fighters for the Freedom of Israel" לח"י - לוחמי חירות This prompted the British government to label them both as terrorist organizations. Terrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion
Infrastructure and development
Rashid Khalidi made a comparison between the Yishuv, the Jewish community in Palestine, and the Palestinain Arabs on the one hand, and between the Palestinian Arabs and other Arabs on the other hand. Between 1922 and 1947 the annual growth rate of the Jewish sector of the economy was 13. 2%, mainly due to immigration and foreign capital, while that of the Arab was 6. 5%. Per capita these figures were 4. 8% and 3. 6% respectively. By 1936 the Jewish sector had eclipsed the Arab one, and Jewish individuals earned 2. 6 times as much as Arabs. [37] Compared to other Arab countries the Palestinian Arab individuials earned slightly better. [38] In terms of human capital there was a huge difference. For instance the literacy rates in 1932 were 86% for the Jews against 22% for the Palestinian Arabs, but Arab literacy was steadily increasing. In this respect the Palestinian Arabs compared favorably to Egypt and Turkey, but unfavorably to Lebanon. [39] On the scale of the UN Human Development Index determined for around 1939, of 36 countries, Palestinian Jews were placed 15th, Palestinian Arabs 30th, Egypt 33rd and Turkey 35th. [40] The Jews in Palestine were mainly urban, 76. 2% in 1942, while the Arabs were mainly rural, 68,3% in 1942. [41] Overall Khalidi concludes that the Palestinian Arab society, while being overmatched by the Yishuv, was as advanced as any other Arab society in the region and considerably more as several. [42]
From the 1920s to the start of the Second World War, the Mandate territory underwent enormous economic and cultural development. The institutions founded in this period included an elected assembly, the Asefat Hanivharim, the National Council for welfare, education, and religious service Vaad Leumi in 1920, a centralized Hebrew school system in 1919, the Histadrut labor federation in 1920, the Technion university in 1924, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1925. Template talkInfobox Union for usage -->The Histadrut ("Federation" labour or HaHistadrut HaKlalit shel The Technion &ndash Israel Institute of Technology (הטכניון &ndash מכון טכנולוגי לישראל is an internationally-acclaimed Institute of technology in The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (האוניברסיטה העברית בירושלים الجامعة العبرية في القدس abbreviated HUJI) is [43]
Palestinian Arab leadership
The British granted the Palestinian Arabs a religious leadership, but they always kept it dependent. [44] The office of “Mufti of Jerusalem”, traditionally limited in authority and geographical scope, was refashioned into that of “Grand Mufti of Palestine”. Furthermore a Supreme Muslim Council (SMC) was established and given various duties like the administration of religious endowments and the appointment of religious judges and local muftis. A waqf ( plural, awqāf; vakıf wæqəf is an inalienable religious endowment in Islam, typically devoting a building or plot of land for Muslim Qadi (also known as Qazi or Kazi or Kadi) (قاضي is a judge ruling in accordance with the Sharia, Islamic religious law In Ottoman times these duties had been fulfilled by the bureaucracy in Istanbul. [45]
In ruling the Palestinian Arabs the British preferred to deal with elites, rather than with political formations rooted in the middle or lower classes. [46] For instance they ignored the Palestine Arab Congress. The British also tried to create divisions among these elites. For instance they chose Hajj Amin al-Husayni to become Grand Mufti, although he was young and had received the fewest votes from Jerusalem’s Islamic leaders. Mohammad Amin al-Husayni (محمد أمين الحسيني properly transliterated al-Husseini, 1895 / 1897 - July 4, 1974) a member [47] Hajj Amin was a distant cousin of Musa Kazim al-Husainy, the leader of the Palestine Arab Congress. According to Khalidi, by appointing a younger relative, the British hoped to undermine the position of Musa Kazim. [48] Indeed they stayed rivals until the death of Musa Kazim in 1934. Another of the mufti's rivals, Raghib Bey al-Nashashibi, had already been appointed mayor of Jerusalem in 1920, replacing Musa Kazim whom the British removed after the Nabi Musa riots of 1920,[49][50] during which he exhorted the crowd to give their blood for Palestine. Raghib al-Nashashibi ( راغب النشاشيبي,) (1881-1951 was a wealthy landowner and public figure during the Ottoman Empire, the British Mandate The 1920 Palestine riots, or Nabi Musa riots, were violent Arab disturbances against the Jews in Jerusalem. [51] During the entire Mandate period, but especially during the latter half the rivalry between the mufti and al-Nashashibi dominated Palestinian politics.
Many notables were dependent on the British for their income. In return for their support of the notables the British required them to appease the population. According to Khalidi this worked admirably well until the mid-1930s, when the mufti was pushed into serious opposition by a popular explosion. [52] After that the mufti became the deadly foe of the British and the Zionists.
According to Khalidid before the mid-1930s the notables from both the al-Husayni and the al-Nashashibi factions acted as though by simply continuing to negotiate with the British they could convince them to grant the Palestinians their political rights. [53] The Arab population considered both factions as ineffective in their national struggle, and linked to and dependent on the British administration. Khalidi ascribes the failure of the Palestinian leaders to enroll mass support to their experience during the Ottoman period, when they were part of the ruling elite and were accustomed to command. The idea of mobilising the masses was thoroughly alien to them. [54]
There had already been rioting and attacks on and massacres of Jews in 1921 and 1929. The Jaffa riots refers to the riots and killings that took place in the British Mandate of Palestine between 1 and 7 May 1921 In the summer of 1929 a long-running dispute between Muslims and Jews over access to the Western Wall in Jerusalem escalated and erupted into a series of During the 1930s Palestinian Arab popular discontent with Jewish immigration and increasing Arab landlessness grew. In the late 1920s and early 1930s several factions of Palestinian society, especially from the younger generation, became impatient with the internecine divisions and ineffectiveness of the Palestinian elite and engaged in grass-roots anti-British and anti-Zionist activism organized by groups such as the Young Men's Muslim Association. The Young Men's Muslim Association (جمعية الشبان المسلمين ( Jam'iyyat al-Shubban al-Muslimin) was founded in Egypt in 1927 There was also support for the growth in influence of the radical nationalist Independence Party (Hizb al-Istiqlal), which called for a boycott of the British in the manner of the Indian Congress Party. The Independence Party ( Hizb al-Istiqlal) was a radical Arab nationalist party established on 13 August, 1932 in Palestine during the British mandate The term " Indian independence movement " is diffuse incorporating various national and regional campaigns agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant Some even took to the hills to fight the British and the Zionists. The Black Hand (( Transliteration) al-Kaff al-Aswad) was an Islamic resistance organization in the British Mandate of Palestine. Most of these initiatives were contained and defeated by notables in the pay of the Mandatory Administration, particularly the mufti and his cousin Jamal al-Husayni. Jamal al-Husayni, (b 1893-1982 (جمال الحُسيني was born in Jerusalem and was a member of the influential Husayni family The younger generation also formed the backbone of the organisation of the six-month general strike of 1936, which marked the start of the great Palestinian Revolt. [55] According to Khalidi this was a grass-roots uprising, which was eventually adopted by the old Palestinian leadership, whose 'inept leadership helped to doom these movements as well'.
The Great Arab Revolt (1936–1939)
The death of the Shaykh Izz ad-Din al-Qassam at the hands of the British police near Jenin in November 1935 generated widespread outrage and huge crowds accompanied Qassam's body to his grave in Haifa. Sheikh, also rendered as Sheik, Cheikh, Shaikh, and other variants ( Arabic:, shaykh Sheikh Izz ad-Din al-Qassam (1882&ndash November 20, 1935) ( عزّ الدين القسّام,) full nameIzz al-Din ibn Abd al-Qadar ibn Mustapha Jenin ( Arabic:; ג'נין a city in the West Bank 's Jenin Governorate, is a major Palestinian agricultural center Haifa (חֵיפָה; حَيْفَا) is the largest City in Northern Israel, and the third-largest city in the country with A few months later, in April 1936, a spontaneous Arab national general strike broke out. A general strike is a Strike action by a critical mass of the labour force in a city region or country This lasted until October 1936. During the summer of that year thousands of Jewish-farmed acres and orchards were destroyed, Jews were attacked and killed and some Jewish communities, such as those in Beisan and Acre, fled to safer areas. (בֵּית שְׁאָן بيسان Bayt Šān or بيسان, Beisan or Bisan) is a city in the North District of Israel [56] After the strike, one of the longest ever anticolonial strikes, the violence abated for about a year while the British sent the Peel Commission to investigate. The Peel Commission of 1936-1937 formally known as the Palestine Royal Commission, was a British Royal Commission of Inquiry set out to propose changes to the Mandate for [57]
In 1937, the Peel Commission proposed a partition between a small Jewish state, whose Arab population had to be transferred, and an Arab state to be attached to Jordan. The Peel Commission of 1936-1937 formally known as the Palestine Royal Commission, was a British Royal Commission of Inquiry set out to propose changes to the Mandate for The proposal was rejected by the Arabs and by the Zionist Congress (by 300 votes to 158) but accepted by the latter as a basis for negotiations between the Executive and the British Government. The World Zionist Organization ( Hebrew: ההסתדרות הציונית העולמית or WZO, was founded as the Zionist Organization ( Hebrew [58][59]
In the wake of the Peel Commission recommendation an armed uprising spread through the country. The Peel Commission of 1936-1937 formally known as the Palestine Royal Commission, was a British Royal Commission of Inquiry set out to propose changes to the Mandate for Over the next 18 months the British lost control of Jerusalem, Nablus, and Hebron. Nablus ( sometimes Nābulus; Arabic:; næːblʊs is a Palestinian city in the northern West Bank, approximately north of Jerusalem British forces, supported by 6,000 armed Jewish auxiliary police,[60] suppressed the widespread riots with overwhelming force. The British officer Charles Orde Wingate (who supported a Zionist revival for religious reasons[61]) organized Special Night Squads composed of British soldiers and Jewish volunteers such as Yigal Alon, which "scored significant successes against the Arab rebels in the lower Galilee and in the Jezreel valley"[62] by conducting raids on Arab villages. Major-General Orde Charles Wingate, DSO and two bars ( February 26, 1903 &ndash March 24, 1944) was a The Special Night Squads (SNS were a joint British-Jewish force consisting of British soldiers and Jewish Settlement Police, established by Orde Wingate in Palestine Yigal Allon (יגאל אלון born 10 October 1918, died 29 February 1980) was an Israeli politician a commander of the The squads used excessive and indiscriminate force[63] The Jewish militias the Stern Gang and Irgun used violence also against civilians, attacking marketplaces and buses. Lehi ('lɛxi Hebrew acronym for Lohamei Herut Israel, "Fighters for the Freedom of Israel" לח"י - לוחמי חירות Irgun (ארגון shorthand for HaIrgun HaTzva'i HaLe'umi BeEretz Yisra'el, he הארגון הצבאי הלאומי בארץ ישראל "National Military Organization During the Great Uprising ( 1936 - 1939) of the Arabs in Palestine, in which more than 320 Jews were killed by Arab attacks the
The Revolt resulted in the deaths of 5,000 Palestinians and the wounding of 10,000. In total 10 percent of the adult male population was killed, wounded, imprisoned, or exiled [64]. The Jewish population had 400 killed; the British 200. Significantly, from 1936 to 1945, whilst establishing collaborative security arrangements with the Jewish Agency, the British confiscated 13,200 firearms from Arabs and 521 weapons from Jews. The Jewish Agency for Israel (Hebrew הסוכנות היהודית לארץ ישראל HaSochnut HaYehudit L'Eretz Yisra'el) also known as the Sochnut or JAFI [65]
The attacks on the Jewish population by Arabs had three lasting effects: First, they led to the formation and development of Jewish underground militias, primarily the Haganah ("The Defense"), which were to prove decisive in 1948. Haganah ( Hebrew: "The Defense" ההגנה was a Jewish Paramilitary organization in what was then the British Mandate of Palestine Secondly, it became clear that the two communities could not be reconciled, and the idea of partition was born. Thirdly, the British responded to Arab opposition with the White Paper of 1939, which severely restricted Jewish land purchase and immigration. The White Paper of 1939, also known as the MacDonald White Paper after Malcolm MacDonald, the British Colonial Secretary who presided over However, with the advent of World War II, even this reduced immigration quota was not reached. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The White Paper policy also radicalized segments of the Jewish population, who after the war would no longer cooperate with the British.
The revolt had a negative effect on Palestinian national leadership, social cohesion and military capabilities and contributed to the outcome of the 1948 War because "when the Palestinians faced their most fateful challenge in 1947–49, they were still suffering from the British repression of 1936–39, and were in effect without a unified leadership. Indeed, it might be argued that they were virtually without any leadership at all". [66]
World War II and post-war end of Mandate
Allied and Axis activity
As in most of the Arab world, there was no unanimity amongst the Palestinian Arabs as to their position regarding the combatants in World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Palestinians, by this point, were tired of outside forces controlling their destiny. Most preferred to be neutral in what they perceived as 'other people's conflict'. However, most youth signed up for the British army, primarily because Britain was the 'mother country', but a few saw an Axis victory as the likely outcome and a way of securing Palestine back from the Zionists and the British. The Axis powers also known as the Axis alliance Axis nations Axis countries or sometimes just the Axis were those Countries Al-Husseini spent the rest of the war serving with the Waffen SS in the German-conquered Bosnia. The Waffen-SS ( German for "Armed SS" literally "Weapons SS" was the Combat arm of the Schutzstaffel ("Protective Squadron" Historically and geographically the Region known as Bosnia (natively Bosna; Cyrillic: Босна lies mainly in the Dinaric Alps, ranging
Even though Arabs were not highly regarded by Nazi racial theory, the Nazis encouraged Arab support as much as possible as a counter to British hegemony throughout the Arab world. Nazism developed several theories concerning races They claimed to scientifically measure a strict hierarchy among "human race " at the top was the " Nordic race [67]
Arabs who opposed the persecution of the Jews at the hand of the Nazis included Habib Bourguiba in Tunisia and Egyptian intellectuals such as Tawfiq al-Hakim and Abbas Mahmoud al-Arkad. Habib Bourguiba (حبيب بورقيبة Ḥabīb Būrqība ( August 3, 1903 &ndash April 6, 2000) was a Tunisian statesman and the Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Tawfiq al-Hakim or Tawfik al-Hakim ( October 9, 1898 - July 26, 1987 ( توفيق الحكيم) was a prominent Egyptian (Source: Yad Vashem). Yad Vashem (יד ושם also spelled Yad VaShem; "Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority" is Israel 's official memorial to the Jewish The mandate recruited soldiers in Palestine. About 6,000 Palestinian Arabs and 26,000 Palestinian Jews joined the British forces. This Army Division acted in the Mediterranean theatre. The African Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre of World War II encompasses naval land and air campaigns between Allied and Axis forces
On 10 June 1940, during early stages of World War II, Italy declared war on the British Commonwealth and sided with Germany. Events 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Sally River while leading an army to Jerusalem Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Within a month, the Italians attacked Palestine from the air. The bombings of Palestine in World War II, which started in July 1940 were part of an Italian effort to strike at the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth Many attacks continued from the air and on the ground.
In 1942, there was a period of anxiety for the Yishuv, when the forces of German General Erwin Rommel advanced east in North Africa towards the Suez Canal and there was fear that they would conquer Palestine. Yishuv (ישוב literally "settlement" or Ha-Yishuv (the Yishuv הישוב or the full term הישוב היהודי בארץ ישראל Hayishuv Hayehudi Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel ( ( 15 November 1891 – 14 October 1944) (also known as the " Desert Fox " Wüstenfuchs North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan The Suez Canal is a Canal in Egypt. Opened in 1869 it allows Water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation This period was referred to as the two hundred days of anxiety. This event was the direct cause for the founding, with British support, of the Palmach[68] — a highly-trained regular unit belonging to Haganah (which was mostly made up of reserve troops). The Palmach ( Hebrew: פלמ"ח an acronym for Plugot Maḥatz (Hebrew פלוגות מחץ Strike Companies) was the regular fighting force Haganah ( Hebrew: "The Defense" ההגנה was a Jewish Paramilitary organization in what was then the British Mandate of Palestine
On 3 July 1944, the British government consented to the establishment of a Jewish Brigade with hand-picked Jewish and also non-Jewish senior officers. Events 324 - Battle of Adrianople Constantine I defeats Licinius, who flees to Byzantium. Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Her Majesty's Government, or when the monarch is male His Majesty's Government, is the title used by the Government of the United Kingdom, based at For other Jewish regiments see Jewish legion (disambiguation. On 20 September 1944, an official communique by the War Office announced the formation of the Jewish Brigade Group of the British Army. Events 451 - The Battle of Chalons takes place in North Eastern France. Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The brigade fought in Europe.
The Holocaust and the Jewish Revolt
The Holocaust had a major effect on the situation in Palestine. The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as During the war, the British forbade entry into Palestine of European Jews escaping Nazi persecution, placing them in detention camps or deporting them to places such as Mauritius. Mauritius (pronounced məˈrɪʃəs L’île Maurice /il mɔ'ʁis/ Mauritian Creole: Maurice) officially the Republic of Mauritius, République [69]
Starting in 1939, the Zionists organized an illegal immigration effort, known as Aliya Beth, conducted by "Hamossad Le'aliyah Bet", that rescued tens of thousands of European Jews from the Nazis by shipping them to Palestine in rickety boats. Aliyah Bet (Hebrew 'עלייה ב meaning " Aliyah 'B'" ( bet being the second letter of the Hebrew alphabet was the code name given to Illegal immigration The Mossad Le'aliyah Bet ( Hebrew: 'המוסד לעלייה ב (English The Institution for Immigration B) was a branch of the Jewish Defense Association ( Haganah Many of these boats were intercepted. The last immigrant boat to try to enter Palestine during the war was the Struma, torpedoed in the Black Sea by a Soviet submarine in February 1942. Struma was a ship chartered to carry Jewish refugees from officially Axis-allied Romania to British-controlled Palestine during World War The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey A soviet (сове́т, "council" originally was a workers' local council in late Imperial Russia. The boat sank with the loss of nearly 800 lives. Illegal immigration resumed after WW II.
Eliyahu Hakim and Eliyahu Bet Zuri, members of the Jewish Lehi underground, assassinated Lord Moyne in Cairo on 6 November 1944. Eliyahu Hakim (אליהו חכים 1925 - 22 March 1945) was a member of the Lehi executed in Egypt for the Assassination Eliyahu Bet-Zuri (1922 &ndash 22 March 1945) was a member of Lehi, who was Executed in Egypt for assassinating Lord Walter Edward Guinness 1st Baron Moyne DSO and Bar Queen's South Africa Medal MID PC ( 29 March 1880 – 6 November Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. Events 355 - Roman Emperor Constantius II promotes his cousin Julian to the rank of Caesar, entrusting him with Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Moyne was the British Minister of State for the Middle East. The assassination is said by some to have turned British Prime Minister Winston Churchill against the Zionist cause. Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS, PC, PC (Can ( 30 November 1874 The ban on illegal immigration continued.
As a result of the assassination of Lord Moyne, the Haganah kidnapped, interrogated, tortured and turned over to the British many members of the Irgun and Lehi. Walter Edward Guinness 1st Baron Moyne DSO and Bar Queen's South Africa Medal MID PC ( 29 March 1880 – 6 November Haganah ( Hebrew: "The Defense" ההגנה was a Jewish Paramilitary organization in what was then the British Mandate of Palestine This period is known as the 'Hunting Season'. A hunting season is a a period marked by the Legality to kill a particular Species in the field of Hunting. Irgun ordered its members not to resist or retaliate with violence, so as to prevent a civil war.
Following the war, 250,000 Jewish refugees were stranded in displaced persons (DP) camps in Europe. Despite the pressure of world opinion, in particular the repeated requests of US President Harry S. Truman and the recommendations of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry that 100,000 Jews be immediately granted entry to Palestine, the British maintained the ban on immigration. The Jewish underground forces then united and carried out several terrorist attacks and bombings against the British. In 1946, the Irgun blew up the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, the headquarters of the British administration, killing 92 people. The King David Hotel bombing was a deadly bomb strike by the Irgun, a Militant Zionist group on the headquarters of the British Mandatory
Following the bombing, the British Government began imprisoning illegal Jewish immigrants in Cyprus. Cyprus internment camps were operated by the British for Internment of Jewish immigrants who attempted to immigrate to the Mandatory Palestine during the Those imprisoned were held without trial and included women and children. Most were holocaust survivors. There are many famous Holocaust survivors who survived the Nazi Genocides in Europe and went on to achievements of great fame and notability The negative publicity resulting from the situation in Palestine meant the mandate was widely unpopular in Britain and caused US Congress to delay granting the British vital loans for reconstruction. At the same time, many European Jews were finding their way to the United States. An increasing growing influence in American politics, many Zionist backers won over sympathizers in the American and other Western governments. The Labour party had promised before its election to allow mass Jewish migration into Palestine. Additionally the situation required maintenance of 100,000 British troops in the country. In response to these pressures the British announced their desire to terminate the mandate and withdraw by May 1948.
United Nations Partition Plan
The British Peel Commission proposed a Palestine divided between a Jewish and an Arab State, but in time changed their position and sought to limit Jewish immigration from Europe to a minimum. The Peel Commission of 1936-1937 formally known as the Palestine Royal Commission, was a British Royal Commission of Inquiry set out to propose changes to the Mandate for The White Paper of 1939, also known as the MacDonald White Paper after Malcolm MacDonald, the British Colonial Secretary who presided over This was seen by Zionists and their sympathisers as betrayal of the terms of the mandate, especially in light of the increasing persecution in Europe and was met with a popular uprising and guerrilla war from Jewish terrorist groups, often viewed as one of several factors that led the British to hand the problem over to the United Nations. Kristallnacht ( literally "Crystal night" or the Night of Broken Glass was a Pogrom in Nazi Germany on November 9–10 1938 The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security
The UN, the successor to the League of Nations, attempted to solve the dispute, creating the UNSCOP (UN Special Committee on Palestine) on May 15, 1947. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 The United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP was formed in the May 1947 in response to the British Governments announcement to terminate Mandate of Palestine. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. After spending three months conducting hearings and general survey of the situation in Palestine, UNSCOP officially released its report on August 31. Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne A majority of nations (Canada, Czechoslovakia, Guatemala, Netherlands, Peru, Sweden, Uruguay) recommended the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states, with Jerusalem to be placed under international administration. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Uruguay.(official full name in República Oriental del Uruguay;, Oriental Republic of Uruguay) is a country located in the southeastern part of South America Corpus separatum is Latin for "separated body" The 1947 UN Partition Plan used this term to refer to a proposed internationally administered zone to include A minority (India, Iran, Yugoslavia) supported the creation of a single federal state containing both Jewish and Arab constituent states. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. See also Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Yugoslavia ( Serbo-Croatian Australia abstained. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. On November 29, the UN General Assembly voted 33 to 13, with 10 abstentions, in favour of the Partition Plan, while making some adjustments to the boundaries between the two states proposed by it. Events 1777 - San Jose California, is founded as el Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe The division was to take effect on the date of British withdrawal. Both the United States and Soviet Union agreed on the resolution. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 In addition, pressure was exerted on some small countries by Zionist sympathizers in the United States. History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the [70] The five members of the Arab League who were voting members at the time voted against the Plan, as did the United Kingdom. The Arab League ( الجامعة العربية) officially called the League of Arab States ( جامعة الدول العربية
The partition plan was rejected out of hand by the leadership of the Palestinian Arabs and by most of the Arab population. Most of the Jews accepted the proposal, in particular the Jewish Agency, which was the Jewish state-in-formation. The Jewish Agency for Israel (Hebrew הסוכנות היהודית לארץ ישראל HaSochnut HaYehudit L'Eretz Yisra'el) also known as the Sochnut or JAFI Numerous records indicate the joy of Palestine's Jewish inhabitants as they attended the U. N. session voting for the division proposal. Up to this day, Israeli history books mention 29 November, the date of this session, as the most important date leading to the creation of the Israeli state. Events 1777 - San Jose California, is founded as el Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe
Meeting in Cairo in November and December of 1947, the Arab League then adopted a series of resolutions aimed at a military solution to the conflict. The Arab League ( الجامعة العربية) officially called the League of Arab States ( جامعة الدول العربية The United Kingdom refused to implement the plan arguing it was not acceptable to both sides. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located It also refused to share with the UN Palestine Commission the administration of Palestine during the transitional period, and decided to terminate the Mandate on May 15th, 1948. [70][70]
Several Jewish organizations also opposed the proposal. Menachem Begin, Irgun's leader, announced: "The partition of the homeland is illegal. (מְנַחֵם בְּגִין Mieczysław Biegun Менахем Вольфович Бегин 16 August 1913 – 9 March 1992 was the sixth prime minister of the State of Israel It will never be recognized. The signature by institutions and individuals of the partition agreement is invalid. It will not bind the Jewish people. Jerusalem was and will for ever be our capital. The Land of Israel will be restored to the people of Israel. All of it. And for ever". His views were publicly rejected by the majority of the nascent Jewish state.
Expiration of the Mandate and 1948 War
The British mandate over Palestine was due to expire on 15 May 1948, but Jewish Leadership led by future Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, declared independence on 14 May. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1264 - Battle of Lewes: Henry III of England is captured in France making Simon de Montfort the The State of Israel declared itself as an independent nation, and was quickly recognized by the Soviet Union, the United States, and many other countries, but not by the surrounding Arab states. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. The Israeli Declaration of Independence (הכרזת העצמאות Hakhrazat HaAtzma'ut or מגילת העצמאות Megilat HaAtzma'ut) made on 14 May The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Over the next few days, approximately 1,000 Lebanese, 5,000 Syrian, 5,000 Iraqi, 10,000 Egyptian troops invaded Israel. Four thousand Transjordanian troops, commanded by 38 British officers who had resigned their commissions in the British army only weeks earlier (commanded by General Glubb), invaded the Corpus separatum region encompassing Jerusalem and its environs, as well as areas designated as part of the Arab state by the UN partition plan. Lieutenant-General Sir John Bagot Glubb KCB, CMG, DSO, OBE, better known as Glubb Pasha (born 16 April Corpus separatum is Latin for "separated body" The 1947 UN Partition Plan used this term to refer to a proposed internationally administered zone to include They were aided by corps of volunteers from Saudi Arabia, Libya and Yemen. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab
The Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, May 14, 1948 stated:
We appeal . The Israeli Declaration of Independence (הכרזת העצמאות Hakhrazat HaAtzma'ut or מגילת העצמאות Megilat HaAtzma'ut) made on 14 May Events 1264 - Battle of Lewes: Henry III of England is captured in France making Simon de Montfort the Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. . . to the Arab inhabitants of the State of Israel to preserve peace and participate in the upbuilding of the State on the basis of full and equal citizenship and due representation in all its provisional and permanent institutions.
In an official cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the UN Secretary-General on 15 May 1948, the Arab states publicly proclaimed their aim of creating a "United State of Palestine" in place of the Jewish and Arab, two-state, UN Plan. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. They stated the UN plan was invalid, as it was opposed by Palestine's Arab majority, and maintained that the absence of legal authority made it necessary to intervene to protect Arab lives and property. [71] On the date of British withdrawal the Jewish provisional government declared the formation of the State of Israel, and the provisional government said that it would grant full civil rights to all within its borders, whether Arab, Jew, Bedouin or Druze.
Mandatory borders and 1949 Armistice
Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the State of Israel retained nearly all the territory that would have been assigned to it in the 1947 UN Partition Plan, as well as conquered half of the land intended to become the Arab state of Palestine and a portion of the territory intended for international administration around Jerusalem. The remaining half of the land that had been intended to become Palestine along the West Bank of the Jordan River was annexed by Jordan, as was most of the Jerusalem enclave; the Gaza Strip along the Mediterranean coast, also included in the Arab state territory, was captured by Egypt. The West Bank (الضفة الغربية, הגדה המערבית Hagadah Hamaaravit) also referred to in Israel as " Judea and Samaria This article is about the Jordan River and its valley in western Asia The Gaza Strip (قطاع غزة, רצועת עזה Retzu'at 'Azza) is a coastal strip of land along the Mediterranean Sea, bordering Egypt on the south-west
Population
Demographics, 1920
In 1920, the majority of the approximately 750,000 people in this multi-ethnic region were Arabic-speaking Muslims, including a Bedouin population (estimated at 103,331 at the time of the 1922 census[72] and concentrated in the Beersheba area and the region south and east of it), as well as Jews (who comprised some 11% of the total) and smaller groups of Druze, Syrians, Sudanese, Circassians, Egyptians, Greeks, and Hejazi Arabs. Beersheba (בְּאֵר שֶׁבַע Be'er Sheva, بئر السبع, Birüssebi is the largest City in the Negev desert of southern PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The Druze ( Arabic: درزي derzī or durzī, plural دروز durūz) are a religious community found primarily in Syria, Lebanon Circassians is a term derived from the Turkic Cherkess ( Çerkes) and is not the self-designation of any people al-Hejaz (also Hijaz, Hedjaz; الحجاز al-Ḥiǧāz, literally "the barrier" is a region in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia
In 1922, the British undertook the first census of the mandate. The population was 752,048, comprising 589,177 Muslims, 83,790 Jews, 71,464 Christians and 7,617 persons belonging to other groups. After a second census in 1931, the population had grown to 1,036,339 in total, comprising 761,922 Muslims, 175,138 Jews, 89,134 Christians and 10,145 people belonging to other groups. There were no further censuses but statistics were maintained by counting births, deaths and migration. Some components such as illegal immigration could only be estimated approximately. The White Paper of 1939, which placed immigration restrictions on Jews, stated that the Jewish population "has risen to some 450,000" and was "approaching a third of the entire population of the country". The White Paper of 1939, also known as the MacDonald White Paper after Malcolm MacDonald, the British Colonial Secretary who presided over In 1945, a demographic study showed that the population had grown to 1,764,520, comprising 1,061,270 Muslims, 553,600 Jews, 135,550 Christians and 14,100 people of other groups.
| Year | Total | Muslim | Jewish | Christian | Other |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1922 | 752,048 | 589,177(78%) | 83,790(11%) | 71,464(10%) | 7,617(1%) |
| 1931 | 1,036,339 | 761,922(74%) | 175,138(17%) | 89,134(9%) | 10,145(1%) |
| 1945 | 1,764,520 | 1,061,270(60%) | 553,600(31%) | 135,550(8%) | 14,100(1%) |
By district
The following table gives the demographics of each of the 16 districts of the Mandate.
| Demographics of Palestine by district as of 1945 | |||||||
| District | Muslim | Percentage | Jewish | Percentage | Christian | Percentage | Total |
| Acre | 51,130 | 69% | 3,030 | 4% | 11,800 | 16% | 73,600 |
| Beersheba | 6,270 | 90% | 510 | 7% | 210 | 3% | 7,000 |
| Beisan | 16,660 | 67% | 7,590 | 30% | 680 | 3% | 24,950 |
| Gaza | 145,700 | 97% | 3,540 | 2% | 1,300 | 1% | 150,540 |
| Haifa | 95,970 | 38% | 119,020 | 47% | 33,710 | 13% | 253,450 |
| Hebron | 92,640 | 99% | 300 | <1% | 170 | <1% | 93,120 |
| Jaffa | 95,980 | 24% | 295,160 | 72% | 17,790 | 4% | 409,290 |
| Jenin | 60,000 | 98% | Negligible | <1% | 1,210 | 2% | 61,210 |
| Jerusalem | 104,460 | 42% | 102,520 | 40% | 46,130 | 18% | 253,270 |
| Nablus | 92,810 | 98% | Negligible | <1% | 1,560 | 2% | 94,600 |
| Nazareth | 30,160 | 60% | 7,980 | 16% | 11,770 | 24% | 49,910 |
| Ramallah | 40,520 | 83% | Negligible | <1% | 8,410 | 17% | 48,930 |
| Ramle | 95,590 | 71% | 31,590 | 24% | 5,840 | 4% | 134,030 |
| Safad | 47,310 | 83% | 7,170 | 13% | 1,630 | 3% | 56,970 |
| Tiberias | 23,940 | 58% | 13,640 | 33% | 2,470 | 6% | 41,470 |
| Tulkarm | 76,460 | 82% | 16,180 | 17% | 380 | 1% | 93,220 |
| Total | 1,076,780 | 58% | 608,230 | 33% | 145,060 | 9% | 1,845,560 |
| Data from the Survey of Palestine[73] | |||||||
Land ownership of the British Mandate of Palestine
As of 1931, the territory of the British Mandate of Palestine was 26,625,600 dunums, of which 8,252,900 dunums or 33% were cultivable. The District of Acre (also 'Province of' or Akko Sanjak was one of the districts of the Damascus Wilayah, established by the Ottoman Empire Beersheba (בְּאֵר שֶׁבַע Be'er Sheva, بئر السبع, Birüssebi is the largest City in the Negev desert of southern (בֵּית שְׁאָן بيسان Bayt Šān or بيسان, Beisan or Bisan) is a city in the North District of Israel Gaza (غزة, עַזָּה ʕazzā is the largest city in the Gaza Strip and the Palestinian territories. Haifa (חֵיפָה; حَيْفَا) is the largest City in Northern Israel, and the third-largest city in the country with Hebron ( al-Ḫalīl or al-Khalīl, Standard Hebrew: Ḥevron Tiberian Hebrew: Ḥeḇrôn is the largest city in the West Bank, located in the south Jaffa يَافَا;(יָפוֹ Yafo; also Japho, Joppa) is an ancient Port city believed to be one of the oldest in the world Jenin ( Arabic:; ג'נין a city in the West Bank 's Jenin Governorate, is a major Palestinian agricultural center Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the Nablus ( sometimes Nābulus; Arabic:; næːblʊs is a Palestinian city in the northern West Bank, approximately north of Jerusalem Nazareth (ˈnæzərəθ (נָצְרַת Hebrew Natz'rat or Natzeret, الناصرة an-Nāṣira or an-Naseriyye) is the capital and largest Ramallah ( Arabic:) (lit "Height of God" is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank adjacent to Al-Bireh with a population 118000 Ramla (רַמְלָה Ramlāh; الرملة also Ramle and sometimes Rama) is a city in central Israel with a mixed Arab and Safed (צְפַת pronounced Tsfat; صفد pronounced Safad) is a city in the Northern District of Israel. Tiberias ( British English: /taɪˈbɪəriæs -əs/ American English: /taɪˈbɪriəs/ טְבֶרְיָה Tverya; طبرية Ṭabariyyah Tulkarm or Tulkarem ( طولكرم Ṭūlkarm; טול כרם) is a Palestinian city in the Tulkarm Governorate in the A dunam or dönüm, dunum, donum is a unit of Area used in the Ottoman Empire and still used in various standardized versions [74]Official statistics show that Jews privately and collectively owned 1,393,531 dunums of land in 1945. [75] Estimates of the total volume of land that Jews had acquired by May 15, 1948 are complicated by illegal and unregistered land transfers, as well as by the lack of data on land concessions from the Palestine administration after March 31, 1936. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 307 - After divorcing his wife Minervina, Constantine marries Fausta, the daughter of the retired Roman Emperor Year 1936 ( MCMXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [76] According to Avneri, Jews held 1,850,000 dunums of land in 1947. [77] Stein gives the estimate of 2,000,000 dunums as of May 1948. [78]
Land Ownership by district
The following table shows the land ownership of Palestine by district:
| Land ownership of Palestine by district as of 1945 | ||||||
| District | Arab owned | Jewish owned | Public and other | |||
| Acre | 87% | 3% | 10% | |||
| Beersheba | 15% | <1% | 85% | |||
| Beisan | 44% | 34% | 22% | |||
| Gaza | 75% | 4% | 21% | |||
| Haifa | 42% | 35% | 23% | |||
| Hebron | 96% | <1% | 4% | |||
| Jaffa | 47% | 39% | 14% | |||
| Jenin | 84% | <1% | 16% | |||
| Jerusalem | 84% | 2% | 14% | |||
| Nablus | 87% | <1% | 13% | |||
| Nazareth | 52% | 28% | 20% | |||
| Ramallah | 99% | <1% | 1% | |||
| Ramle | 77% | 14% | 9% | |||
| Safad | 68% | 18% | 14% | |||
| Tiberias | 51% | 38% | 11% | |||
| Tulkarm | 78% | 17% | 5% | |||
| Data from the Land Ownership of Palestine[79] | ||||||
Land ownership by type
The land owned privately and collectively by Arabs and Jews can be classified as urban, rural built-on, cultivable (farmed), and uncultivable. Beersheba (בְּאֵר שֶׁבַע Be'er Sheva, بئر السبع, Birüssebi is the largest City in the Negev desert of southern (בֵּית שְׁאָן بيسان Bayt Šān or بيسان, Beisan or Bisan) is a city in the North District of Israel Gaza (غزة, עַזָּה ʕazzā is the largest city in the Gaza Strip and the Palestinian territories. Haifa (חֵיפָה; حَيْفَا) is the largest City in Northern Israel, and the third-largest city in the country with Hebron ( al-Ḫalīl or al-Khalīl, Standard Hebrew: Ḥevron Tiberian Hebrew: Ḥeḇrôn is the largest city in the West Bank, located in the south Jaffa يَافَا;(יָפוֹ Yafo; also Japho, Joppa) is an ancient Port city believed to be one of the oldest in the world Jenin ( Arabic:; ג'נין a city in the West Bank 's Jenin Governorate, is a major Palestinian agricultural center Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the Nablus ( sometimes Nābulus; Arabic:; næːblʊs is a Palestinian city in the northern West Bank, approximately north of Jerusalem Nazareth (ˈnæzərəθ (נָצְרַת Hebrew Natz'rat or Natzeret, الناصرة an-Nāṣira or an-Naseriyye) is the capital and largest Ramallah ( Arabic:) (lit "Height of God" is a Palestinian city in the central West Bank adjacent to Al-Bireh with a population 118000 Ramla (רַמְלָה Ramlāh; الرملة also Ramle and sometimes Rama) is a city in central Israel with a mixed Arab and Safed (צְפַת pronounced Tsfat; صفد pronounced Safad) is a city in the Northern District of Israel. Tiberias ( British English: /taɪˈbɪəriæs -əs/ American English: /taɪˈbɪriəs/ טְבֶרְיָה Tverya; طبرية Ṭabariyyah Tulkarm or Tulkarem ( طولكرم Ṭūlkarm; טול כרם) is a Palestinian city in the Tulkarm Governorate in the The following chart shows the ownership by Arabs and Jews in each of the categories.
| Land ownership of Palestine (in dunums) as of April 1st, 1943 | ||||||
| Category of land | Arab and other non-Jewish ownership | Jewish ownership | Total Land | |||
| Urban | 76,662 | 70,111 | 146,773 | |||
| Rural built-on | 36,851 | 42,330 | 79,181 | |||
| Cereal (taxable) | 5,503,183 | 814,102 | 6,317,285 | |||
| Cereal (not taxable) | 900,294 | 51,049 | 951,343 | |||
| Plantation | 1,079,788 | 95,514 | 1,175,302 | |||
| Citrus | 145,572 | 141,188 | 286,760 | |||
| Banana | 2,300 | 1,430 | 3,730 | |||
| Uncultivable | 16,925,805 | 298,523 | 17,224,328 | |||
| Total | 24,670,455 | 1,514,247 | 26,184,702 | |||
| Data is from Survey of Palestine. [80] | ||||||
Land Laws of Palestine
- Ottoman Land Code of 1858
- Land Transfer Ordinance of 1920
- 1926 Correction of Land Registers Ordinance
- Land Settlement Ordinance of 1928
- Land Transfer Regulations of 1940
British Chief Administrators of Palestine
| Name | Term |
|---|---|
| Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby | 1917–1918 |
| Sir Arthur Wigram Money | 1918–1919 |
| Sir Louis Jean Bols | 1919–1920 |
British High Commissioners for Palestine
| Name | Term |
|---|---|
| Sir Herbert Louis Samuel | 1920–1925 |
| Sir Gilbert Falkingham Clayton | May–December 1925 (acting) |
| Herbert Onslow Plumer | 1925–1928 |
| Sir Harry Charles Luke (acting) | 1928 |
| Sir John Chancellor | 1928–1931 |
| Sir Mark Aitchison Young | 1931–1932 (acting) |
| Sir Arthur Grenfell Wauchope | 1932–1937 |
| William Denis Battershill | 1937–1938 (acting) |
| Sir Harold MacMichael | 1938–1944 |
| John Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort | 1944–1945 |
| Sir Alan Cunningham | 1945–1948 |
See also
- Mohammad Amin al-Husayni, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem
- Ottoman Empire
- Balfour Declaration 1917
- 1922 Text: League of Nations Palestine Mandate
- Italian bombings on Palestine in World War II
- 1947 UN Partition Plan
- Napoleon and a Jewish state in Palestine
- Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, May 14, 1948
- 1948 Arab-Israeli War
- Palestinian
- Jewish Brigade
- Haganah
- Irgun
- Lehi (group)
- The Sergeants affair
- Museum of Underground Prisoners
- Russian Compound
- Ernest Bevin
- Elon Peace Plan
- Herbert Dowbiggin
- Palestinian pound
- Postal history of Palestine
- Category:Political parties in the British Mandate of Palestine
Notes
- ^ See:San Remo Resolution
- ^ a b Douglas J. Field Marshal Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby 1st Viscount Allenby GCB GCMG GCVO ( April 23 1861 - May 14 1936 Lieutenant-General Sir Louis Jean Bols KCB, KCMG, DSO ( Cape Town November 23, 1867 &ndash September 13 Herbert Louis Samuel 1st Viscount Samuel GCB OM GBE PC ( November 6, 1870 - February 2, 1963 Field Marshal Herbert Charles Onslow Plumer 1st Viscount Plumer, GCB, GCMG, GCVO, GBE ( 13 March 1857 &ndash Sir Harry Charles Luke, KCMG (1884-1969 was a British colonial official Lieutenant-Colonel Sir John Robert Chancellor, GCMG, GCVO, GBE, DSO (b Sir Mark Aitchison Young, GCMG, (30 June 1886 &ndash 12 May 1974 楊慕琦 was a British administrator who became the Governor of Hong Kong Sir Arthur Grenfell Wauchope (1874-1947 was a British Soldier and colonial administrator Sir Harold Alfred MacMichael GCMG DSO (1882-1969 was a British colonial administrator Field Marshal John Standish Surtees Prendergast Vereker 6th Viscount Gort VC, GCB, CBE, DSO & Two Bars, MVO, General Sir Alan Gordon Cunningham GCMG, KCB, DSO, MC (1 May 1887 - 30 January 1983 was a British Army officer Mohammad Amin al-Husayni (محمد أمين الحسيني properly transliterated al-Husseini, 1895 / 1897 - July 4, 1974) a member The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem is the Sunni Muslim cleric in charge of Jerusalem 's Islamic holy places including the Al-Aqsa Mosque The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Balfour Declaration of 1917 (dated November 2 1917) was a Classified formal statement of Policy by the British government stating The bombings of Palestine in World War II, which started in July 1940 were part of an Italian effort to strike at the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth The United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine or United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181 was a plan approved by the General Assembly on November 29 The ascendancy of Napoleon Bonaparte proved to be an important event in the emancipation of the Jews of Europe from old laws restricting them to Jewish The Israeli Declaration of Independence (הכרזת העצמאות Hakhrazat HaAtzma'ut or מגילת העצמאות Megilat HaAtzma'ut) made on 14 May Palestinian people or Palestinians ( الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha`b al-filasTīni; الفلسطينيون, al-filasTīnīyyūn For other Jewish regiments see Jewish legion (disambiguation. Haganah ( Hebrew: "The Defense" ההגנה was a Jewish Paramilitary organization in what was then the British Mandate of Palestine Irgun (ארגון shorthand for HaIrgun HaTzva'i HaLe'umi BeEretz Yisra'el, he הארגון הצבאי הלאומי בארץ ישראל "National Military Organization Lehi ('lɛxi Hebrew acronym for Lohamei Herut Israel, "Fighters for the Freedom of Israel" לח"י - לוחמי חירות The Sergeants affair (פרשת הסרג'נטים was an incident that took place in the British Mandate of Palestine in July 1947 in which the Irgun kidnapped two The Museum of Underground Prisoners is a museum in Jerusalem, Israel, commemorating the activity of the Jewish underground - Haganah, Irgun The Russian Compound (מִגְרַשׁ הָרוּסִים Migrash HaRusim) is one of the oldest districts in central Jerusalem, including a large Russian Orthodox Ernest Bevin ( 9 March 1881 - 14 April 1951) was a British labour leader politician and statesman best known for his time as The Elon Peace Plan (now "The Israeli Initiative", formerly "The Right Road to Peace") is a solution for the Israeli-Palestinian conflict Sir Herbert Layard Dowbiggin, CMG ( 1880 - May 24, 1966) was the British colonial Inspector General of Police of Ceylon The pound ( Arabic: جنيه ( junyah) Hebrew: פונט was the currency of the British Mandate of Palestine between 1927 and 1948 The postal history of Palestine emerges out of its geographic location as a crossroads amidst the empires of the Ancient Near East, the Levant and the Middle Feith et al. (1994). Israel's Legitimacy in Law and History. Center for Near East Policy, p. 5-6 & 102. ISBN 0964014505. “There was never any question that Britain's two mandates—for Palestine and Mesopotamia—were to be geographically contiguous. But Britain had not decided by 1920 where in the desert east of the Jordan River the boundary line between eastern Palestine and Mesopotamia should be drawn. ”
- ^ "In a telegram to the Foreign Office summarizing the conclusions of the [San Remo] conference, the Foreign Secretary, Lord Curzon, stated: 'The boundaries will not be defined in Peace Treaty but are to be determined at a later date by principal Allied Powers. ' When Samuel set up the civil mandatory government in mid-1920 he was explicitly instructed by Curzon that his jurisdiction did not include Transjordan. Following the French occupation in Damascus in July 1920, the French, acting in accordance with their wartime agreements with Britain refrained from extending their rule south into Transjordan. That autumn Emir Faisal's brother, Abdullah, led a band of armed men north from the Hedjaz into Transjordan and threatened to attack Syria and vindicate the Hashemites' right to overlordship there. Samuel seized the opportunity to press the case for British control. He succeeded. In March 1921 the Colonial Secretary, Winston Churchill, visited the Middle East and endorsed an arrangement whereby Transjordan would be added to the Palestine mandate, with Abdullah as the emir under the authority of the High Commissioner, and with the condition that the Jewish National Home provisions of the Palestine mandate would not apply there. Palestine, therefore, was not partitioned in 1921-1922. Transjordan was not excised but, on the contrary, added to the mandatory area. Zionism was barred from seeking to expand there - but the Balfour Declaration had never previously applied to the area east of the Jordan. Why is this important? Because the myth of Palestine's 'first partition' has become part of the concept of 'Greater Israel' and of the ideology of Jabotinsky's Revisionist movement. " Wasserstein, Bernard (2004). Israel and Palestine: Why They Fight and Can They Stop?, pp. 105-106.
- ^ Ian Lustick (1988). For the Land and the Lord: Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel. Council on Foreign Relations, 37. ISBN 0876090366.
- ^ Ilan Pappe (2004). Ilan Pappé ( אילן פפה, born 1954) is a professor of history at the University of Exeter. A History of Modern Palestine: One Land, Two Peoples. Cambridge University Press, 84. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 ISBN 0521556325.
- ^ "Mandate for Palestine," Encyclopedia Judaica, Vol. 11, p. 862, Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1972
- ^ Pappe, Ilan. The Making of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1947–1951, I. B. Tauris; New Ed edition (August 15, 1994), p. 3.
- ^ Biger, 2005, p. 173.
- ^ Biger, 2005, p. 55, p. 164.
- ^ The others included Occupied Enemy Territories North (Lebanon) under the command of French Colonel De Piape and Occupied Enemy Territories East (Syria and Transjordan) under the command of Faisal's chief of staff General Ali Riza el-Riqqabi.
- ^ See also "The Armistice in the Middle East," in [1]
- ^ Report of a Committee Set up to Consider Certain Correspondence Between Sir Henry McMahon and the Sharif of Mecca in 1915 and 1916, UNISPAL, Annex H. Sir Arthur Henry McMahon, GCSI, GCIE, GCVO ( 28 November 1862 &mdash 29 December 1949) was a British
- ^ Pappe, p. 3–5. Pappe suggests the French concessions were made to guarantee British support for French aims at the post-war peace conference concerning Germany and Europe.
- ^ Biger, 2005, p. 173
- ^ Aruri, Naseer Hasan. Jordan: A Study in Political Development 1923–1965. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1972. p. 17.
- ^ Telegram from Earl Curzon to Sir Herbert Samuel, dated August 6, 1920, in Rohan Butler et al. , Documents of British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939, first series volume XIII London:Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1963, p. 331, cited in Aruri, p. 17
- ^ Telegram August 7, 1920, in Rohan Butler et al. Events 322 BC - Battle of Crannon between Athens and Macedon following the death of Alexander the Great. Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar , Documents of British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939, first series volume XIII London:Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1963, p. 334, in Aruri, p. 18.
- ^ Aruri p. 18.
- ^ Aruri, 1972, p. 18.
- ^ a b c Bernard Wasserstein, ‘Samuel, Herbert Louis, first Viscount Samuel (1870–1963)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004; online edn, May 2006 accessed 21 April 2007.
- ^ Biger, 2005, p. 173.
- ^ Chaim Weizmann, subsequently reported to his colleagues in London: "There are still important details outstanding, such as the actual terms of the mandate and the question of the boundaries in Palestine. Chaim Azriel Weizmann ( Hebrew: חיים עזריאל ויצמן – November 27, 1874 &ndash November 9, 1952) was a Zionist There is the delimitation of the boundary between French Syria and Palestine, which will constitute the northern frontier and the eastern line of demarcation, adjoining Arab Syria. The latter is not likely to be fixed until the Emir Feisal attends the Peace Conference, probably in Paris. " See: 'Zionist Aspirations: Dr Weizmann on the Future of Palestine', The Times, Saturday, 8 May, 1920; p. Events 589 - Reccared summons the Third Council of Toledo 1450 - Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen 15.
- ^ a b Franco-British Convention on Certain Points Connected with the Mandates for Syria and the Lebanon, Palestine and Mesopotamia, signed Dec. 23, 1920. Text available in American Journal of International Law, Vol. 16, No. 3, 1922, 122–126.
- ^ Agreement between His Majesty's Government and the French Government respecting the Boundary Line between Syria and Palestine from the Mediterranean to El Hámmé, Treaty Series No. 13 (1923), Cmd. 1910. Also Louis, 1969, p. 90.
- ^ FSU Law.
- ^ "The Zionist cause depends on rational northern and eastern boundaries for a self-maintaining, economic development of the country. This means, on the north, Palestine must include the Litani River and the watersheds of the Hermon, and on the east it must include the plains of the Jaulon and the Hauran. Narrower than this is a mutilation… I need not remind you that neither in this country nor in Paris has there been any opposition to the Zionist program, and to its realization the boundaries I have named are indispensable". Abelson, Meir, Palestine: The Original Sin.
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 32,33
- ^ Official Records of the Second Session of the General Assembly, Supplement No. 11, United Nations Special Committee on Palestine, Report to the General Assembly, Volume 1. Lake Success, NY, 1947. A/364, 3 September 1947, Chapter II. C. 68. , at [2]
- ^ "in April 1920 the Allies decided that so far as the Arabic-speaking world was concerned they would implement the provisions of such a treaty [with Turkey] as they envisaged. Such action was of course, highly illegal. . . this irregular conduct was more public spirited than otherwise. It was the only sensible thing to do. . . " Christopher Sykes, Crossroads to Israel
- ^ League of Nations, Official Journal, Oct 1923, p1217.
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 33,34
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 32,36
- ^ (1946) A Survey of Palestine: Prepared in December, 1945 and January, 1946 for the Information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry 1. Palestine: Govt. printer, pp. 185.
- ^ Ibid. , pp. 210: "Arab illegal immigration is mainly . . . casual, temporary and seasonal". pp. 212: "The conclusion is that Arab illegal immigration for the purpose of permanent settlement is insignificant".
- ^ J. McCarthy (1995). The population of Palestine: population history and statistics of the late Ottoman period and the Mandate. Princeton, N. J. : Darwin Press.
- ^ Gottheil, Fred M. "The Smoking Gun: Arab Immigration into Palestine, 1922–1931.". Retrieved on 2007-05-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Middle East Quarterly, Winter 2003, Volume X, Number 1, at [3]
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 13,14
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 27
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 14,24
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 16
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 17
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 29,30
- ^ See: The Jewish Community under the Mandate
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 63
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 63
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 52
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 56,57
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 59
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 63,69
- ^ Tom Segev, One Palestine, Complete, 2000, ch. Tom Segev (born March 1 1945 in Jerusalem) is an Israeli Journalist, and Historian. Nebi Musa.
- ^ B. Morris, 1999, 'Righteous Victims, a history of the Zionist-Arab Conflict 1881-2001', p. 112
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 63,64,72-73, 85
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 78
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 81
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 87,90
- ^ Gilbert, 1998, p. 80.
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2006, 'The Iron Cage', ISBN 0-8070-0308-5, p. 87,90
- ^ 'Zionists Ready To Negotiate British Plan As Basis', The Times Thursday, August 12, 1937; pg. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon - Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid 10; Issue 47761; col B.
- ^ Eran, Oded. "Arab-Israel Peacemaking. " The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. Ed. Avraham Sela. Avraham Sela is an Israeli authority on the Politics of the Middle East and International relations. New York: Continuum, 2002, page 122.
- ^ Gilbert, 1998, p. 85. The Jewish Settlement Police were set up and equipped with trucks and armored cars by the British working with the Jewish Agency. The Jewish Settlement Police (JSP were a division of the Notrim established in the British Mandate of Palestine in 1936 The Jewish Agency for Israel (Hebrew הסוכנות היהודית לארץ ישראל HaSochnut HaYehudit L'Eretz Yisra'el) also known as the Sochnut or JAFI
- ^ van Creveld, 2004, p. 45.
- ^ Black, 1992, p. 14.
- ^ Shapira, 1992, pp. 247, 249, 350.
- ^ (see Khalidi, 2001)
- ^ Khalidi, 1987, p. 845 (cited in Khalidi, 2001).
- ^ R. Khalidi, 2001, p. 29.
- ^ Secret World War II documents released by the UK in July, 2001, include documents on an Operation Atlas (See References: KV 2/400–402. A German task force, lead by Kurt Wieland, parachuted into Palestine in September 1944. This was one of the last German efforts in the region to attack the Jewish community in Palestine and undermine British rule by supplying local Arabs with cash, arms and sabotage equipment. The Palestinians would have nothing to do with the Germans and their philosophy, and, thus, the team was captured and picked up shortly after landing.
- ^ How the Palmach was formed (History Central)
- ^ Karl Lenk, The Mauritius Affair, The Boat People of 1940/41, London 1991
- ^ a b c "Palestine". Encyclopedia Britannica Online School Edition, 2006. 15 May 2006.
- ^ 'The Origins and Evolution of the Palestine Problem: 1917–1988. Part II, 1947–1977.
- ^ "Hope Simpson report," October 1930, Chapter III, at [4]
- ^ (1991) A Survey of Palestine : Prepared in December, 1945 and January, 1946 for the Information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry 1. The Hope Simpson Report was an investigation into governance of the British Mandate of Palestine, which had been recommended by the Shaw Report, following the widespread Institute for Palestine Studies, 12–13. ISBN 0-88728-211-3.
- ^ Stein, p. 4
- ^ "Land Ownership in Palestine," CZA, KKL5/1878. The statistics were prepared by the Palestine Lands Department for the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry, 1945, ISA, Box 3874/file 1. See Khalaf (1991), pp. 26–27, Stein p. 226
- ^ Stein, pp. 246–247
- ^ Avneri p. 224
- ^ Stein, pp. 3–4, 247
- ^ Land Ownership of Palestine — Map prepared by the Government of Palestine on the instructions of the UN Ad Hoc Committee on the Palestine Question.
- ^ (1991) A Survey of Palestine : Prepared in December, 1945 and January, 1946 for the Information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry 1. Institute for Palestine Studies. ISBN 0-88728-211-3.
References
- Bethell, Nicholas The Palestine Triangle : the Struggle Between the British, the Jews and the Arabs, 1935–48, London : Deutsch, 1979 ISBN 023397069X. Nicholas William Bethell 4th Baron Bethell ( 19 July 1938 &ndash 8 September 2007) was a British Historian of Central
- Eini, Roza El- (2006). Mandated Landscape: British Imperial Rule in Palestine 1929–1948. London: Routledge. ISBN 0714654264
- Biger, Gideon (2005). The Boundaries of Modern Palestine, 1840–1947. London: Routledge. ISBN 0714656542
- Louis, Wm. Roger (1969). The United Kingdom and the Beginning of the Mandates System, 1919–1922. International Organization, 23(1), pp. 73–96.
- Asher Maoz (1994). "Application of Israeli law to the Golan Heights is annexation". Brooklyn journal of international law 20, afl. 2: 355–96.
- Tayseer Maar'i & Usama Halabi (1992). "Life under occupation in the Golan Heights". Journal of Palestine Studies 22: 78–93.
- Morris, Benny (2001) Righteous Victims New York, Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-679-74475-7.
- Eyal Zisser (2002). "June 1967: Israel's capture of the Golan Heights". Israel Studies 7,1: 168–194.
- Paris, Timothy J. (2003). Britain, the Hashemites and Arab Rule, 1920–1925: The Sherifian Solution. London: Routledge. ISBN 0714654515
- Segev, Tom (2000). Tom Segev (born March 1 1945 in Jerusalem) is an Israeli Journalist, and Historian. One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate, Henry Holt and Co. ISBN 0-8050-6587-3
- Sherman, A J (1998). Mandate Days: British Lives in Palestine, 1918–1948, Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-8018-6620-0
- Stein, Kenneth W. The Land Question in Palestine, 1917–1939. University of North Carolina, 1984. ISBN 0-8078-1579-9
External links
- Resources > Modern Period > 20th Cent. > History of Israel > Building a State > British Mandate (1917–1948)The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
- Coins and Banknotes of Palestine under the British Mandate
- Stamps of Palestine under the British Mandate
- Legal Status of West Bank, Gaza and East Jerusalem
- A history of Palestine, Israel and the Arab-Israeli conflict
- An Introduction to the Israel-Palestine Conflict by Norman Finkelstein
- Jewish Defense Organizations
- United Nations
- Map of Population Distribution by Ethnicity 1946
- Population of Palestine before 1948
- Map of Land Ownership in Palestine 1945
- Facts about Palestine from the American Zionist Organisation
- British Servicemen and Police who died 1945–1948 — Database
- The Jewish Community under the Mandate at Jewish Virtual Library . Norman Gary Finkelstein (born December 8, 1953) is an American political scientist and author whose primary fields of research are the org
- Exodus1947.com PBS Documentary Film focusing on the secret American involvement in "illegal" immigration to Palestine during the Mandate, narrated by Morley Safer
Primary sources
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