A brassiere (Brit. /'bɹæzɪə(ɹ)/; U. S. /bɹə'ziɹ/, commonly referred to as a bra, /bɹɑ/) is an article of clothing that covers, supports, and elevates the breasts. The breast is the upper Ventral region of an animal’s Torso, particularly that of Mammals including Human beings.

The bra is considered a foundation garment, as well as an undergarment, because of its role in shaping the wearer's figure. A foundation garment (also known as shapewear or shape-wear) is an Undergarment designed to change the wearer's shape producing a more fashionable figure Undergarments are clothes worn under other clothes often next to the skin It was originally developed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to replace the corset, and has now become, in many parts of the world, the most popular form of undergarment for the upper body. A corset is a Garment worn to mold and shape the Torso into a desired shape for Aesthetic or medical purposes (either for the duration of wearing it or ^[1]

The bra may be worn to support and enhance breast shape during everyday activities and a specialized bra, the sports bra to support and restrain breasts during exercise. Sports bra is a bra that provides firm support for the Breasts It is intended for wear during vigorous exercise that might cause the breasts to move uncomfortably The bra may also be worn to observe modesty or to present a certain image of femininity. Bras are typically designed to lift the breasts into a particular position, for a more youthful look or for enhancing cleavage. Cleavage enhancement encompasses a range of techniques used temporarily to improve the appearance of a person's breast cleavage or to create the illusion of breast cleavage on Cleavage is the cleft created by the partial exposure of a woman's Breasts, especially when exposed by low-cut clothing These roles are sometimes conflicting. Some designers aim at producing a garment that fulfills a practical role as well as making it look attractive. Bras are also used during pregnancy (when breasts are enlarged and more sensitive), and for nursing (see nursing bra) to support and provide access for breast feeding. A nursing bra is a Brassiere that permits comfortable Breastfeeding, without the need to remove the bra

Some have questioned the practical need for the bra given that some women prefer not to wear a bra and go braless on a regular basis. The bra has become charged with political and cultural meanings that overlay its practical purpose. Traditionally it is viewed as symbolic of a young girl's coming of age. It can also be interpreted as a feminine icon. On the other hand, some feminists consider brassieres symbols of the repression of women's bodies. ^[1]

Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Construction and fit 3.1 Fitting 3.2 Mechanical principles 4 Size and measurement 4.1 Measurement systems 4.2 Fitting difficulties 5 Types of bra 6 Therapeutic role of the bra 6.1 Countering the aging process 6.2 Pain relief and comfort 7 Cultural significance 7.1 Feminist comment 7.2 The bra as a fashion item 7.3 Social pressures and trends 8 Health problems 8.1 Mastalgia 8.2 Shoulder pain 8.3 Back pain 8.4 Obesity 8.5 Bra size 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Patents 10.2 Other sources 10.2.1 Books 10.2.2 Book reviews 10.2.3 Journal articles 10.2.4 Research papers 10.2.5 Documentaries 10.2.6 Relevant articles

Etymology

The French word brassière refers to a baby's vest (undershirt) or lifebelt, underbodice or harness. The word brassière derives from bracière, an Old French word meaning "arm protector" and referring to military uniforms (bras in French means "arm"). Old French was the Romance Dialect continuum spoken in territories which span roughly the northern half of modern France and parts of modern Belgium This later became used for a military breast plate, and later for a type of woman's corset. The current French term for brassière is soutien-gorge, literally, "held under the neck" or "throat-support". In French, gorge (throat) was a common euphemism for the breast. This dates back to the garment developed by Herminie Cadolle in 1905. Herminie Cadolle (1845-1926 was the inventor of the modern bra and founder of the Cadolle Lingerie house

The term "brassiere" seems to have come into use in the English language as early as 1893. ^[2] Manufacturers were using the term by about 1904, Vogue magazine first used it in 1907, and by 1911 the word had made its way into the Oxford English Dictionary. ^[3] On 13 November 1914, the newly formed US patent category for "brassieres" was inaugurated with a patent issued to Mary Phelps Jacob. Mary Phelps Jacob ( April 30, 1891 - January 24, 1970) was a New York Socialite, who in 1910 invented the first modern Brassiere

In the 1930s, "brassiere" gradually came to be shortened to "bra". In the French-speaking Canadian province of Quebec, both soutien-gorge and brassière are used interchangeably. Quebec (kwɨˈbɛk

The claim that the brassiere was invented by a man named Otto Titzling (phonetically tit-sling) who lost a lawsuit with Phillip de Brassiere (fill up de' brassiere) is an urban legend that originated with the 1971 book Bust-Up: The Uplifting Tale of Otto Titzling and the Development of the Bra and was propagated in a song from the movie Beaches. Otto Titzling is a Fictional character who is Apocryphally described as the inventor of the Brassiere in a book Bust Up The Uplifting Tale of Otto Phonetics (from the Greek φωνή ( phonê) "sound" or "voice" is the study of the physical sounds of human speech An urban legend or urban myth is a form of modern Folklore consisting of stories thought to be factual by those circulating them Beaches (also known as Forever Friends) is a 1988 Academy Award -nominated movie adapted by Mary Agnes Donoghue from the ^[4]

History

Main article: History of brassieres

During recorded history, women have used a variety of garments and devices to cover, restrain, or elevate their breasts. See also Brassiere The history of the bra is inextricably intertwined with the social History of the status of Women, including the evolution of Brassiere or bikini-like garments are depicted on some female athletes in the 1400's BC during the Minoan civilization era. The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization which arose on the island of Crete. Similar functionality was achieved by both outerwear and underwear.

From the 1500's (AD) onwards, the undergarments of wealthier women were dominated by the corset, which pushed the breasts upwards. A corset is a Garment worn to mold and shape the Torso into a desired shape for Aesthetic or medical purposes (either for the duration of wearing it or In the latter part of the 1800's, clothing designers began experimenting with various alternatives to the corset, trying things like splitting the corset into multiple parts: a girdle-like restraining device for the lower torso, and devices that suspended the breasts from the shoulder for the upper torso. This article is about the item of clothing In the Scots language, girdle refers to a cooking griddle.

By the early 1900's, garments more closely resembling contemporary bras had emerged, although large-scale commercial production did not occur until the 1930's. Since then, bras have replaced corsets (although some prefer camisoles), and bra manufacture and sale has become a multi-billion-dollar industry. A camisole or cami is a Woman 's Undergarment which covers the top part of the body Over time, the emphasis on bras has largely shifted from functionality to fashion. ^[5][6]

In China during the Ming dynasty a form of foundation cloth complete with cups and straps drawn over shoulders and tied to the girth seam at the lower back called a dudou was in vogue among the rich women. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National (Oriental Clothing and Modern Fetishism, various authors, ed. Partho Shanner, 1996, Yeti, Hong Kong). While they first arose in the Ming Dynasty, were also common in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). In English they are known as 'stomach protectors' or 'tummy covers' [1]

Construction and fit

A brassiere usually consists of two cups for breasts, a centre panel (gore), a band running around the torso under the bust, and a shoulder strap for each side. Brassieres are typically made of a fabric, such as cotton or polyester. A textile is a flexible material comprised of a network of natural or artificial Fibres often referred to as thread or Yarn. Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp Polyester is a category of Polymers which contain the Ester Functional group in their main chain Spandex and lace are also often used for various parts of the bra. Spandex or elastane is a Synthetic fiber known for its exceptional elasticity. The cups for the breasts may be reinforced by underwires made of metal sometimes coated in plastic. The bra is usually fastened with a hook fastener on the band, typically at the back. A fastener is a Hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects together In some bras the fastener is in the front, between the cups. Others are pulled on over the head and have no fasteners at all.

Some bras contain padding, designed either to increase comfort, to conceal the nipples, or to make the breasts appear larger. In Fashion, padding is material sometimes added to clothes It is often done in an attempt to enhance appearance by 'improving' a physical feature often a sexually significant Breast pads, commonly known as "falsies" or "cutlets", are sometimes worn between the breasts and the bra to create the illusion of a larger cup size. In Fashion, falsies is a term used in English to denote padding for use in a Brassiere to create the appearance of larger Breasts The term is Push-up bras in particular are designed to enhance the cleavage and use padding and the cut of the pattern to achieve this effect. Cleavage is the cleft created by the partial exposure of a woman's Breasts, especially when exposed by low-cut clothing

Fitting

The backstrap (underband) and cups should provide most of the support, rather than the shoulder straps, which are responsible for a number of health problems (see Mechanical principles, below).

• When viewed from the side, the underband that runs around the body should be horizontal, should not ride up the back, and should be firm but comfortable.

• The underwires at the front should lie flat against the rib cage (not the breast), along the infra-mammary fold, and should not dig in to the chest or the breasts, rub or poke out at the front.

• The breasts should be enclosed by the cups and there should be a smooth line where the fabric at the top of the cup ends.

• There should not be a ridge or any bulging over the top or sides of the cups, even with a low-cut style such as the balconette bra. See also Brassiere A wide range of styles of brassieres now exists to be worn in a variety of situations and with a variety of outergarments

Mechanical principles

The average breast weighs about 0. 5 kg (~1 lb),^[7][8]. One of the principal functions of a bra is to elevate and "support" the breasts, that is, to raise them from their normal position lying against the chest wall. This is considered the defining characteristic of the bra: supporting the weight from the back and shoulders, as opposed to lift from below (as corsets do). ^[1] Over-reliance on the platform (backstrap) for support will lead to undue compression of the breasts, so much of the weight tends to be carried by the shoulder strap, particularly for larger breasts. ^[9]

The major engineering weakness of the bra is that it acts as a pulley, transferring the weight of the breasts from the lower chest wall to higher structures such as the back, shoulder, neck, and head. A pulley (also called a sheave or block) is a Wheel with a groove between two Flanges around its Circumference The breast is the upper Ventral region of an animal’s Torso, particularly that of Mammals including Human beings. This can result in pain and injury in those structures, especially for women with pendulous breasts. ^[10]

Size and measurement

Main article: brassiere measurements

The comfort and function of any given bra is highly dependent on the correct size and fit. Brassiere sizes are commonly labeled by manufacturers with a code consisting of a number and one or more Latin Capital letters, the number referring to the circumference A large range of sizes are available to cater to the wide variety in the size of women's breasts and bodies. Bra sizes typically vary in two ways: the volume of the cups that fit over the breast, and the length of the back strap that goes around the body. It is essential that the bra fit correctly in both of these dimensions. There is typically some ability to adjust the band size, since bras usually have three or four alternative sets of fastening hooks. The shoulder straps of a bra are also almost always adjustable. The size of women's breasts is often expressed in terms of her usual bra size. The breast is the upper Ventral region of an animal’s Torso, particularly that of Mammals including Human beings. The breast is the upper Ventral region of an animal’s Torso, particularly that of Mammals including Human beings. Note on cup size vs. volume, in US fluid ounces and cubic centimeters - A = 8 fl. oz. = 236 cm³, B = 13 fl. oz. = 384 cm³, C = 21 fl. oz. = 621 cm³, D = 27 fl. oz. = 798 cm³, reference from History of Bras show on Discovery Health.

Measurement systems

Although all bras are labeled by size, many women find that the only way to obtain a bra that fits properly and achieves the effect they want is by trying a bra on with each bra type, model and brand.

Though many countries use the metric system, the majority of nations still use imperial units to determine the underband size of the bra itself. The metric system is a decimalised system of measurement. It exists in several variations with different choices of base units, though the choice of base units does Imperial units or the Imperial system is a collection of units first defined in the British Weights and Measures Act of 1824

There are several methods which may be used to provide an approximate size by taking measurements. ^[11] However, bra sizing systems differ widely between countries, between manufacturers, and between brands and designs, which can create many problems. brassiere ( Brit /'bɹæzɪə(ɹ/ US /bɹə'ziɹ/ commonly referred to as a bra, /bɹɑ/ is an article of clothing that covers supports and elevates Many researchers have demonstrated that these problems arise because fit requires knowing the breast volume, not the body circumference (the distance around the body), which is what is actually measured. Although bra sizing uses the circumference to estimate the volume, this has been shown to be highly unreliable. ^[5]

The size of a bra is commonly described by two values. The first is the band size (underband), a number based on the circumference of the chest under the bust, excluding the breasts. The second is the cup size given by a letter of the alphabet, and relating to the volume of the breasts themselves. For example, a 30D bra has a 30-size band and a D-size cup. Cup sizes typically start with AA, the smallest, and increase alphabetically. Double or triple lettering systems are also used, e. g. DDD for F or AA for a size smaller than A.

To provide women with better fitting bras, manufacturer Playtex recently introduced a range of half-sizes between cup sizes A and D. These half sizes are denoted by fractions, so that Playtex now provides bras in A, A½, B, B½, C, C½, and D cups.

Band size is usually determined by measuring body circumference under the breasts as tight as possible. A second measurement is a loose fit taken of the chest circumference over the fullest part of the breasts (overbust). The cup size can then be calculated with tables or a conversion tool from the difference between these two measurements.

The mean underband circumference in the UK is 34 inches (86 cm). For the overbust measurement, this is 40 inches (101 cm), for women 18–64 years. ^[12]

Fitting difficulties

Women often find it difficult to find the correct bra size. To achieve perfect sizing consistently, a bra would have to be custom made, because a "one-size-fits-all" manufacturing process is fraught with difficulties. Breasts vary in the position on the chest, and in their diameters.

A number of stores have certified professional bra-fitters specialists. However, even bra fitters have been shown to be quite variable in their recommendations. ^{[11] [6]} Buying "off-the-shelf" or "online" bras is unwise if the buyer has never tried on the brand and type of bra that they are interested in buying.

Some bra manufacturers and distributors state that trying on and learning to recognize a proper fit is the best way to determine a correct bra size, much the same as with shoes. A shoe is an item of Footwear. Shoes may vary from a simple Flip-flop to a complex Boot. Some critics observe that measuring systems such as the one described above often lead to an incorrect size, most commonly too small in the cup, and too large in the band. For anyone, especially cup sizes larger than a D, one should get a professional bra fitting from the lingerie department of a clothing store or a specialty lingerie store. ^[13]

Some women intentionally buy larger cups and pad them, while yet others buy smaller cups to give the appearance of being "full". Finally, the elastic properties of the band make band size highly unreliable, and in one study the label size was consistently different from the measured size. ^[14][11] Fashion and image drive the bra market, and these factors often take precedence over comfort and function. ^[15][16]

As already noted, there is no agreed standard across all manufacturers for measuring and specifying bra size. Obtaining the correct size is further complicated by the fact that the size and shape of a woman's breasts fluctuate during her menstrual cycle, ^[17] and also with weight gain or loss. The menstrual cycle is a recurring cycle of physiologic changes that occurs in reproductive-age Females Overt menstruation (where there is blood flow from the Even breathing can substantially alter the measurements. ^[16] It is frequently stated, from the results of surveys and studies in many different countries, that between 70 and 100% of women wear incorrectly fitted bras. ^{[18] [19][20] [21] [22] [23] [17]} Larger breasted women tend to wear bras that are too small, and smaller breasted women, ones that are too large. Larger women are more likely to have an incorrect bra fit. ^[17] This may be partly due to a lack of understanding of how to correctly determine bra size; it may also be due to unusual or unexpectedly rapid growth in size brought on by pregnancy, weight gain, or medical conditions including virginal breast hypertrophy. Virginal breast hypertrophy (VBH is not a medical name but the more known name for juvenile macromastia and juvenile Gigantomastia.

As breasts become larger, their shape and the distribution of the tissues within them changes, becoming ptotic and bulbous rather than conical. Breast Ptosis, or sagging Breasts is a medical term for the drooping or sagging of the breast This makes measurements increasingly unreliable, especially for large breasts. Similarly the heavier a build the woman has, the more inaccurate the underbust measurement as the tape sinks into the flesh more easily. ^[11] Finally, most women are asymmetrical (10% severely), with the left breast being larger in 62%, especially when the breasts are large. ^[24]

Many of the health problems associated with bras are due to fitting problems and are discussed further below, under health problems. brassiere ( Brit /'bɹæzɪə(ɹ/ US /bɹə'ziɹ/ commonly referred to as a bra, /bɹɑ/ is an article of clothing that covers supports and elevates However, finding a comfortable fit is described as very difficult by many women, which has affected sales. ^{[5] [1] [25]} Medical studies have also attested to the difficulty of getting a correct fit. ^[16] Scientific studies show that the current system of bra sizing is quite inadequate. ^[26]

Types of bra

Women may now choose from wide range of brassiere styles to match different body types, situations, and outer garments. The degree of shaping and coverage of the breasts varies between styles, as do functionality, fashion, fabric, and colour. For more, see brassiere designs. See also Brassiere A wide range of styles of brassieres now exists to be worn in a variety of situations and with a variety of outergarments

Therapeutic role of the bra

Countering the aging process

See also: Breast

Anatomically, the breasts are non-rigid areas of glandular tissue, with few support structures, such as connective tissue. The breast is the upper Ventral region of an animal’s Torso, particularly that of Mammals including Human beings. The breast is the upper Ventral region of an animal’s Torso, particularly that of Mammals including Human beings. Connective tissue is one of the four types of tissue in traditional classifications (the others being epithelial, Muscle, and Nervous tissue) Breasts are composed of the mammary glands, which remain relatively constant throughout life, as well as the adipose tissue or fat tissue that surrounds the mammary glands. Mammary glands are the organs that in Mammals produce Milk for the sustenance of the young "Adipose" redirects here For the Doctor Who monster see " Partners in Crime " It is the amount and distribution of adipose tissue and, to a lesser extent, glandular tissue that leads to variations in breast size. In addition, the breasts contain internal ligaments, although their exact function as related to breast support is controversial. Cooper's ligaments (also known as the suspensory ligaments of Cooper and the fibrocollegenous septa) are Connective tissue in the Breast that These ligaments, and the overlying skin (referred to as the dermal brassiere)^[27] help determine the resulting breast shape. The skin is the outer covering of living tissue of an animal (or plant

As the breasts mature, they fold over the lower attachment to the chest wall (infra-mammary fold), and their lower (inferior) surface lies against the chest wall when vertical. In popular culture, this maturation is referred to as "sagging" or "drooping", although plastic surgeons refer to it as ptosis, and recommend mastopexy (breast lift) for correction. Breast Ptosis, or sagging Breasts is a medical term for the drooping or sagging of the breast Mastopexy or breast lift surgery refers to a group of elective surgical operations designed to improve the appearance of the Breast. ^[28][29]

Although the exact mechanisms that determine breast shape and size remain largely unknown,^[30] it has long been claimed that this occurs because the normal anatomical support is inadequate, especially in older women and those with larger breasts. Hence the bra is often proposed as a means of providing artificial support, based on the presumption that the breasts cannot support themselves. ^[31] Health professionals have, however, found no evidence to suggest that the bra changes the natural process of aging of the breasts. ^[32] Bra manufacturers have also stated that bras only affect the shape of breasts while they are being worn. ^[33]

"There is no medical reason to wear a bra. . . The decision is yours, based on your own personal comfort and aesthetics. And even though, as little girls, we were told that bras save us from hanging breasts,. . . whether you have always worn a bra or always gone bra-less, age and breastfeeding will naturally cause your breasts to sag. " Dr. Niels Lauersen^[34]

"Breasts were fine before the invention of the brassiere. . . This is similar to the myth that women supposedly need corsets to support their stomach muscles. . . wearing a bra. . . has no medical necessity whatsoever. . . Except for the women who find bras especially comfortable or uncomfortable, the decision to wear or not wear one is purely aesthetic — or emotional. . . If you don't enjoy it, and job or social pressures don't force you into it, don't bother. . . A mistaken popular belief maintains that wearing a bra strengthens your breasts and prevents their eventual sagging. But you sag because of the proportion of fat and tissue in your breasts, and no bra changes that. . . If you don't like wearing a bra, don't wear one. " Dr Susan Love^[35]

Indeed, there are indications that wearing a bra may have an effect opposite to that which was intended. In a Japanese study, 11 women were measured wearing a standardised fitted bra for three months. They found that breasts became larger and lower, with the underbust measurement decreasing and the overbust increasing, while the lowest point of the breast moved downwards and outwards. The effect was more pronounced in larger-breasted women. This may be related to the particular bra chosen for the experiment. There was some improvement after changing to a different model. ^[36] These findings were confirmed in a much larger French study of 250 women who exercised regularly and were followed by questionnaires and biometric measurements for a year after agreeing not to wear a bra. While there was some initial discomfort at the first evaluation, this gradually disappeared and by the end of the year nearly all the women had improved comfort compared to before the study. The measurements showed firmer, and more elevated and youthful breasts. One example of a woman who had breasts that were uncomfortably large, and who had improvement after two years of being without a bra is given. ^[37][38]

While some may dispute the reasons why breasts change in shape with age and argue over whether or not the process can be delayed or reversed by wearing a bra, it is a natural process of bodily change. Health ethicists are concerned that plastic surgery and implants have altered our concept of what is "normal" and medicalised women's bodies by making a normal process a "disease. "^[39]

Pain relief and comfort

Wearing a bra can offer relief of breast pain (mastodynia, mastalgia), particularly when women are performing strenuous physical activity or exercise. Mastodynia, mastalgia or mammalgia are names for a medical symptom that means - pain in the breast (from the Greek masto-, breast Indeed, the sports bra is an example of a bra which has been specifically designed for this purpose. Sports bra is a bra that provides firm support for the Breasts It is intended for wear during vigorous exercise that might cause the breasts to move uncomfortably ^[40][11] An underwire bra can also help support breasts and keep them from bouncing (for example, during running), which is painful whether the breasts are large or small. Recently the requirement for a bra during exercise at all has been questioned following extensive studies on athletes and sportswomen. ^[37]

In the specific case of larger breasts, the bra lifts the breasts away from the chest and can prevent two skin surfaces from rubbing together. Without the bra, maceration (loss of skin), intertrigo (rash) and fungal infections are possible. An intertrigo is an Inflammation ( Rash) of the body folds (adjacent areas of Skin) ^[11]

Cultural significance

Feminist comment

Many feminist writers have interpreted the bra as an example of how women's clothing has shaped and even deformed women's bodies to historically aesthetic ideals, or shaped them to conform to male expectations of what is desirable. Germaine Greer, for example, has often depicted bras as symbols of oppression,^[41] and it was views like these, considered radical by some, which perhaps gave rise to the urban legend of bra-burning ceremonies. Germaine Greer (born 29 January 1939 is an Australian born Writer, Academic, Journalist and Scholar of early modern English literature An urban legend or urban myth is a form of modern Folklore consisting of stories thought to be factual by those circulating them ^[42]

The bra as a fashion item

Breasts which have not undergone sagging, and which present a "pert" or "perky" appearance, are widely considered to be a marker of youth. Bras are therefore used, particularly within Western cultures which place great value upon youth, to promote what is considered a more desirable youthful appearance by lifting the breasts from their natural position. Furthermore, the modern bra is often more decorative than its predecessors, and therefore has become both a fashion statement and an adornment, and even an icon of sensuality.

The design of bras which aim to be fashionable, rather than functional, has been driven by changing fashions in outerwear, which has often dictated what could be worn underneath. Hence its shape has evolved through flat, round, pointed, conical, to "natural". Although in popular culture the invention of the bra is frequently attributed to men, in fact women have played a large part in bra design and manufacture, accounting for half of the patents filed. ^[1]

Social pressures and trends

The average American woman today owns six bras, one of which is a strapless bra, and one in a colour other than white. While reliable data are hard to obtain, it is thought that in the Western world about 90% of women wear bras. Some women wear bras based on modesty; others because they believe that it is part of their cultural norm and that not wearing a bra would lead to ostracism. Ostracism ( ostrakismos) was a procedure under the Athenian democracy in which a prominent Citizen could be expelled from the City-state Some wear bras because they believe it improves the appearance of their figures; still others because they find wearing a bra more comfortable than going without.

Bras are a relatively recent invention and are by no means universally worn around the world. In a cross-cultural study of bra size and cancer in 9,000 in the 1960s, a Harvard group found 93% of women wore bras (from 88% in the UK to 99% in Greece), but could not find enough women in Japan with bras to complete their study. ^[43] In a number of cultures, women are quite comfortable to sunbathe or swim without any external support. Sun tanning describes a darkening of the skin (especially of fair-skinned individuals in a natural physiological response stimulated by exposure to ultraviolet (UV radiation

The prevalence of the bra, and perceived social expectation to wear one, does not imply that openly displaying it is encouraged. On the contrary, it is often not considered suitable to expose one's brassiere in public in western cultures, even partially, despite the fact that it is similar in appearance to the upper part of a bikini; to do so may be considered sexually provocative. However more young people are doing so, and bra straps are a common sight. Occasionally they may wear a bra as outerwear. An attractive bra can be considered partly as an accessory, just as a camisole might; more women, particularly in Eastern Europe, are now wearing translucent tops which reveal the underlying bra. A camisole or cami is a Woman 's Undergarment which covers the top part of the body

Even considering this relative cultural taboo, being seen in one's bra is still more socially acceptable than exposing the bare breasts, except at the beach. The breast is the upper Ventral region of an animal’s Torso, particularly that of Mammals including Human beings. Indeed, women may choose to be seen in just a bra to make a specific point. For instance, bras have recently been used by organisations like breast cancer charities to raise money, either by sponsored walks^[44] or to sell bras owned or decorated by celebrities. Breast cancer is a Cancer that starts in the cells of the Breast in women and men

An increasing number of women and health professionals^[45][46] are challenging the traditional values that suggest that that bras are either medically necessary or required socially and are adopting bralessness (also known as topfreedom, or breast freedom). Topfreedom is a Social movement seeking the recognition of a right of women and girls to be topfree in public where men and boys have that right ^[47][48] One survey found that 20% of women over 50 were not wearing bras (Farell-Beck and Gau p. 171). ^[1]

Some men also choose to wear bras. This may because they have large breasts due to a condition known as gynecomastia or simply obesity. Gynecomastia, or gynaecomastia, ˌgaɪnəkoʊˈmæstiə is the development of abnormally large Mammary glands in Males resulting in breast enlargement which

Many entertainers, actresses and members of the fashion industry have chosen not to wear bras. Susan Stranks who presented the Thames TV children's programme, Magpie between 1968 and 1974 chose not to wear a bra, even on camera. Susan Stranks (born 2 December, 1939) is a British actress television presenter and producer Magpie was a Children's television programme shown on ITV from the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s Another well known woman who regularly appears braless on TV is the presenter of BBC Gardening's Ground Force, Charlie Dimmock. Charlie Dimmock (born Charlotte Elouise Dimmock on 10 August 1966 in Southampton and brought up in Romsey, Hampshire ^[49]

Health problems

Many of the statements about the benefits of bras are actually situations where they can make things worse, because the vast majority of women wear bras that are ill-fitting. For instance, rather than keeping the breasts away from the chest wall, bras that are too tight can actually compress them against the chest even further. This also pulls the upper thoracic and cervical vertebrae (spine) forward and down, interfering with back, shoulder and chest movement. ^[11] Others believe that wearing a bra can actually increase the downward movement of the breasts with age, because the chest (pectoralis) muscles that support breasts are used less and atrophy from lack of use. The Pectoralis major (popularly known as pecs) is a thick fan-shaped muscle situated at the upper front ( Anterior) of the Chest wall ^[34]

As they did with corsets, health professionals have also had concerns about the constricting effects of brassieres, although this varies considerably with design and the relative size of the bra and the breast. While at least sports bras do not usually cause any significant impairment in respiration,^[50] some bras may put pressure on nerves. ^[51][52]

Mastalgia

Use of a properly fitting bra is regularly recommended for reduction of mastalgia (breast pain) from exercise or other activities which cause the breasts to bounce, or for pain related to fibrocystic breast disease. ^[53][54] A trial comparing the effectiveness of danazole versus use of a sports bra for treatment of mastalgia found the sports bra to be much more effective, and avoided the side effects experienced by 42% of those taking danazole. ^[55] Sports bras were also found most effective at reducing mastalgia caused by exercise. ^[56]

Shoulder pain

When the shoulder straps transfer most of the weight of the breast, a deep groove can be seen over the shoulder. brassiere ( Brit /'bɹæzɪə(ɹ/ US /bɹə'ziɹ/ commonly referred to as a bra, /bɹɑ/ is an article of clothing that covers supports and elevates ^[57][5] Use of thin straps, such as spaghetti straps, can exert pressure on the trapezius muscle, resulting in temporary symptoms such as neck and shoulder pain; numbness and tingling in the arm; and headaches. In Human anatomy, the trapezius is a large Superficial Muscle which extends longitudinally from the occipital bone to the lower thoracic vertebrae ^[58]

This seems more common in women whose activities require them to lift their arms above the shoulders. In a study of 100 women with painful shoulders, they were asked to not wear their bras for two weeks, by which time their symptoms had improved but returned within an hour of replacing the bra. 84% did not elevate their arms, and in these symptom relief was complete. Three years later, 79% of the women were still bra free; the remainder preferred pain to not wearing a bra. 16% worked in occupations requiring elevating their arms, and only achieved partial improvement. 13 of the 16 decided to become bra-free, and by six months all were cured. ^[9]

Back pain

Back pain is particularly common among large-breasted women who wear bras offering insufficient support. Back pain (also known " dorsalgia " is Pain felt in the back that usually originates from the Muscles Nerves Bones In extreme cases, such discomfort can lead to a woman seeking breast reduction surgery. Breast reduction or reduction mammoplasty is an Outpatient surgical procedure which involves the reduction in the size of Breasts by excising In a study^[59][11] of 103 women seeking breast-reduction surgery (reduction mammaplasty) for pain, one woman never wore a bra, but of the remaining 102 all were wearing an incorrect bra size. Breast reduction or reduction mammoplasty is an Outpatient surgical procedure which involves the reduction in the size of Breasts by excising The underband was too tight and the cup size too large. The larger the woman, the worse the fit. The result was a bra that compresses the breast and distorts it by compressing the breast against the skin of the chest wall.

Obesity

In 2007, a morbidly obese adolescent developed a pressure ulcer from her bra band. Bedsores, more properly known as pressure ulcers or decubitus ulcers, are Lesions caused by many factors such as unrelieved Pressure; friction ^[60]

Bra size

Based on their research, many physicians believe that bra size is meaningless, when breast volumes are calculated accurately. "The current popular system of determining bra size is inaccurate so often as to be useless. Add to this the many different styles of bras and the lack of standardization between brands, and one can see why finding a comfortable, well-fitting bra is more a matter of educated guesswork, trial, and error than of precise measurements. "^[14][61]

See also

• Bikini
• Brassiere measurements
• Bustier
• Corset
• Brassiere designs
• History of brassieres
• Lingerie
• Male bra
• Mammary gland
• Undergarment
• Victorian dress reform
• Wonderbra
• La Brassiere (2001), a comedy about the design of the "ultimate brassiere"

References

Patents

• US PAT No. 2,433  — 1859 Combined breast pads and arm-pit shield
• US PAT No. 844,242  — 1907 Bust supporter
• US PAT No. 1,115,674  — 1914 Jacob's Brassiere

Other sources

Books

• Yu W. , Fan J T. , Ng S P and Harlock S C, Innovation and Technology of Women’s Intimate Apparel, Woodhead Publishing Limited, August 2006, ISBN-13: 978 1 85573 745 7.
• Ewing, Elizabeth and Webber, Jean. Fashion in Underwear (Paperback) Batsford 1971 ISBN 0-7134-0857-X
• Farrell-Beck, Jane and Gau, Colleen. Uplift: The Bra in America. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002 xvi, 243 pp. $35. 00, ISBN 0-8122-3643-2. (for reviews, see next section)
• Greer, Germaine. brassiere ( Brit /'bɹæzɪə(ɹ/ US /bɹə'ziɹ/ commonly referred to as a bra, /bɹɑ/ is an article of clothing that covers supports and elevates The Female Eunuch (1970). 2002 edition Farrar Straus Giroux ISBN 0-374-52762-8
• Love, Susan; Lindsey, Karen; Williams, Marcia. Dr. Susan Love's Breast Book. Paperback: 632 pages. HarperCollins 3rd Rev edition (September 20, 2000) ISBN 0-7382-0235-5
• Pedersen, Stephanie. Bra: A Thousand Years Of Style, Support & Seduction. Hardcover: 127 pages. David & Charles Publishers (November 30, 2004). ISBN 0-7153-2067-X
• Steele, Valerie. The Corset: A Cultural History Paperback: 208 pages Yale University Press (February 8, 2003) ISBN 0-300-09953-3
• Stoppard, Miriam. The Breast Book. 224 pages DK ADULT 1st American edition April 4, 1996 ISBN 0-7894-0420-6
• Summers, Leigh. Bound to Please: A history of the Victorian corset. Berg Publishers (October 1, 2003) ISBN 1-85973-510-X
• Warner LC. Always starting things. Warner Brothers, Bridgeport, Connecticut 1948

Book reviews

Farrell-Beck and Gau. Uplift

• Fischer, Gayle V. Journal of American History; 2003; Mar 89(4): 1539-40
• Murphy, Michael. Winterthur Portfolio; 2003 38(2/3): 151-9

Journal articles

• Steele, Valerie. Le Corset: A Material Culture Analysis of a Deluxe French Book. The Yale Journal of Criticism - Volume 11, Number 1, Spring 1998, pp. 29-3
• Freeman S. K. In Style: Femininity and Fashion since the Victorian Era. Journal of Women's History; 2004; 16(4): 191-206
• Casselman A. The physics of bras. Discover November 22 2005

Research papers

• Kim Lovel, Chad Seastrunk, Timothy Clapp. The Application of TRIZ to Technology Forecasting. A Case Study: Brassiere Strap Technology. January 9 2006.
• The History of the Brassiere

Documentaries

• Bras, the Bare Facts. Channel 4 (UK), November 2000

Relevant articles

• Seigel, Jessica. The Cups Runneth Over. NY Times February 13, 2004
• 'Intelligent bra' battles bounce. 10 December 2007

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