A brain drain or human capital flight is a large emigration of individuals with technical skills or knowledge, normally due to conflict, lack of opportunity, political instability, or health risks. Human capital refers to the stock of skills and knowledge embodied in the ability to perform labor so as to produce Economic value. War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly A brain drain is usually regarded as an economic cost, since emigrants usually take with them the fraction of value of their training sponsored by the government. Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. It is a parallel of capital flight which refers to the same movement of financial capital. Capital flight, in Economics, occurs when Assets and/or Money rapidly flow out of a Country, due to an economic event that disturbs Investors Financial capital is money used by Entrepreneurs and Businesses to buy what they need to make their products or provide their services The term was coined by the Royal Society to describe the emigration of "scientists and technologists" to North America from post-war Europe. The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660 A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including ^[1] The converse phenomenon is brain gain, which occurs when there is a large-scale immigration of technically qualified persons.

Brain drains are common amongst developing nations, particularly former colonies like much of Africa^[2] or the island nations of the Caribbean. An island (ˈaɪlənd or isle (/ˈaɪl/ is any piece of land that is completely surrounded by water in two dimensions above high tide and isolated from other significant The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting ^[3]

Europe

2007 Election campaign poster by the Swiss People's Party, who successfully won votes by appealing to public anger with immigrant criminality. The Swiss People's Party (SVP also known as the Democratic Union of the Centre (UDC is a Political party in Switzerland. Immigrant criminality ( foreigner criminality, foreigner delinquency) refers to Delinquency perpetrated by non-naturalized residents of foreign origin within The black sheep is being kicked off the Swiss flag. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation The caption is a pun on the German words for "sheep and "to cause", "Schaf" and "schaffen" respectively. It reads: "Bringing safety".

Brain drain phenomena in Europe fall into two distinct trends. The first is an outflow of highly-qualified scientists from Western Europe mostly to the United States. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[4] The second is a migration of skilled workers from Eastern and Southeastern Europe into Western Europe, often made easy by new EU membership,^[5], although there is evidence that the trend is slowing. Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in ^[6][7] The European Union has noted a net loss of highly-skilled workers and introduced a "blue card" policy-much like the American green card-which "seeks to draw an additional 20 million workers from Asia, Africa and Latin America in the next two decades". Green card may refer to United States Permanent Resident Card, an identification document issued by the United States of America affording non-citizens of that ^[8]

Although the EU recognizes a need for extensive immigration in order to mitigate the effects of an aging population ^[9], nationalist political parties have gained support in many European countries by calling for stronger laws restricting immigration. ^[10] Immigrants are perceived as a burden on the state and cause of social problems like increased crime rates, even in the absence of hard evidence. In the sociological field, crime is the breach of a rule or Law for which some governing authority or force may ultimately prescribe a Punishment ^[11]

Flow digram of net migration patterns

Western Europe

In 2006, over 250 000 Europeans emigrated to the United States (164 285)^[12], Australia (40 455) ^[13], Canada (37 946)^[14] and New Zealand (30 262)^[15]. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Germany alone saw 155 290 people leave the country (though mostly to destinations within Europe). Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. This is the highest rate of worker emigration since reunification, which itself was equal to the rate in the aftermath of World War II. German reunification (Deutsche Wiedervereinigung took place twice after 1945 first in 1957 the Saarland was permitted to join the Federal Republic of Germany World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including ^[16] Portugal is suffering the largest drain in Western Europe. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The country has lost 19. 5% of its qualified population and is struggling to absorb sufficient skilled immigrants to cater for losses to Australia, Canada, Switzerland, Germany and Austria. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich ^[17]

Central and Eastern Europe

Central and Eastern European countries have expressed concerns about extensive migration of skilled labourers to Ireland and the United Kingdom. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. Ireland ( Irish: Éire, ˈeːrʲə is a country in north-western Europe. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Lithuania, for example, has lost about 100 000 citizens since 2003, many of them young and well-educated, to emigration to Ireland in particular. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. (Ireland itself used to suffer serious brain drain to America, Britain and Canada before the Celtic Tiger economic programs. Celtic Tiger (Tíogar Ceilteach is a name for the period of rapid Economic growth in the Republic of Ireland that began in the 1990s and slowed in 2001 ) The same phenomenon occurred in Poland after its entry into the European Union. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in In the first year of its EU membership, 100 000 Poles registered to work in England, joining an estimated 750 000 residents of Polish descent. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland ^[18] However, with the rapid growth of salaries in Poland, booming economy, strong value of the złoty, and decreasing unemployment (which fell from 14. The złoty (/ˈzwɔtɨ/, plural for numbers ending in 2 3 and 4 (except 12 13 and 14 złote /ˈzwɔtɛ/ plural for all other numbers złotych /ˈzwɔtɨx/ 2% in May 2006 to 8% in March 2008^[19]), the flight of Polish workers is slowing. ^[20] In 2008 people who came back outnumbered thoses leaving the country.

South Eastern Europe

The rapid and large-scale departure of highly-skilled workers from Southeastern Europe has caused concern about those nations developing towards inclusion in the European Union. ^[21] This has sparked programmes to curb the outflow by encouraging skilled technicians and scientists to remain in the region to work on international projects. ^[22] Among the most notable Yugoslav talent losses is Rada Ivekovic. Rada Iveković, born in 1945 in Zagreb, Croatia is a professor philosopher, Indologist, and writer

Africa

Even though little has been discussed about the effects of brain drain in Africa, it is believed to be one of the biggest issues to the developing nations. Conservatively speaking, "Brain drain has cost the African continent over $4 billion in the employment of 150,000 expatriate professionals annually. "^[23] According to UNDP, "Ethiopia lost 75 per cent of its skilled workforce between 1980 and 1991," which harms the ability of such nations to get out of poverty. Nigeria, Kenya and Ethiopia are believed to be the most affected. In the case of Ethiopia, the country produces many excellent doctors, but there are more Ethiopian doctors in Chicago than there are in Ethiopia. ^[24]. South African President Thabo Mbeki said in his 1998 'African Renaissance' speech:

"In our world in which the generation of new knowledge and its application to change the human condition is the engine which moves human society further away from barbarism, do we not have need to recall Africa's hundreds of thousands of intellectuals back from their places of emigration in Western Europe and North America, to rejoin those who remain still within our shores! I dream of the day when these, the African mathematicians and computer specialists in Washington and New York, the African physicists, engineers, doctors, business managers and economists, will return from London and Manchester and Paris and Brussels to add to the African pool of brain power, to enquire into and find solutions to Africa's problems and challenges, to open the African door to the world of knowledge, to elevate Africa's place within the universe of research the information of new knowledge, education and information. Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki (born 18 June 1942 is a South African politician who served as President of South Africa from 1999 to 24 September 2008 The African Renaissance is the concept that African people and nations overcome the current challenges confronting the continent and achieve cultural scientific economic etc "

South Africa

South Africa has been suffering a massive departure of skilled, mostly white, labourers—mostly aged between 20 and 39—since the end of Apartheid in 1990: between 1991 and 2005, nearly 800 000 are estimated to have left. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) Year 1991 ( MCMXCI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^[25] By 2002, approximately 70% of skilled South Africans were said to be considering emigration, citing crime, AIDS, unemployment^[26] and affirmative action^[27] as motivating factors. See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Crime is an issue in South Africa in the 2000s A survey for the period 1998-2000 compiled by the United Nations Office Unemployment occurs when a person is available to work and currently seeking work but the person is without work. Affirmative action in the United States|Employment equity (Canada|Reservation in India|Numerus clausus The term affirmative action describes many policies aimed at a historically Emigrants are attracted to developed English-speaking countries like the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island ^[28] Britain is particularly popular, with an estimated 800 000 to 1. 2 million South Africans at the end of 2007. ^[29]

The drain has an adverse effect on the health sector, since emigrating medical staff do not remain to assist in the fight against HIV/AIDS. ^[30] South Africa has the largest population living with AIDS in the world. ^[31]

Middle East

Iraq

The lack of basic services and security is feeding a outflow of professionals from Iraq that began under Saddam Hussein, under whose rule 4 million Iraqis are believed to have left the country. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti ( Arabic: ar صدام حسين عبد المجيد التكريتي --> April 28 1937 &ndash December 30 ^[32] The exodus is fueled by violence, which, as of 2006, has seen 89 university professors and senior lecturers killed. ^[33]

Iran

Main article: Iran's Brain Drain problem

In 2006, the International Monetary Fund ranked Iran highest in brain drain among 90 measured countries. Iran tops the world countries in the Brain drain phenomenon The CIA estimates that 89 The International Monetary Fund ( IMF) is an International organization that oversees the Global financial system by following the Macroeconomic For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. ^[34] The estimated exodus of 150,000 people per year is thought to be due to a poor job market, and tense domestic social conditions. ^[35]

Southeast Asia and Australasia

New Zealand

During the 1990s, 30 000 New Zealanders were emigrating each year. The 1990s collectively refers to the years between and including 1990 and 1999 Under John Howard's government, nationals re-entering the country were not automatically granted permanent residence or state benefits. See also Howard Government John Winston Howard AC (born 26 July 1939 was the 25th Prime Minister of Australia from 11 March ^[36] An OECD report released in 2005 revealed that 24. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. 2% of New Zealanders with a tertiary education were living outside of New Zealand, predominantly in Australia. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. ^[37] In 2007, around 24 000 New Zealanders settled in Australia. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ^[38] Student loans are cited as a reason, with graduates using higher foreign salaries to pay off their debts.

It has been noted that New Zealand also enjoys immigration of qualified foreigners, potentially leaving a net gain of skills. ^[39]

Philippines

The Philippines first began experiencing a noticeable brain drain in the 1970s, when the government set up a mechanism for international contract work. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP This article is about the Decade 1970-1979 For the Year 1970 see 1970. These Overseas Contract Workers were at first employed largely in Middle East nations, notably Saudi Arabia, but an increasing number of workers were taking contracts in Southeast Asia into the 1990s. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi The 1990s collectively refers to the years between and including 1990 and 1999 The number of Filipinos working abroad in such contract work increased from 36 035 in 1975 to 214 590 in 1980. Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) ^[40]

As of 2006, it was thought that approximately 8 million Filipinos were working abroad. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ^[41] Philippine workers sent home more than $10. 7 billion last year, equal to about 12% of the GDP. ^[42] The drain has a damaging effect on the country's health care system. It is estimated that approximately 100,000 nurses emigrated between 1994 and 2006 ^[43]. A nurse is responsible—along with other Health care Professionals —for the treatment safety and recovery of acutely or chronically This trend continues, with around 15 000 nurses expected to emigrate from the Philippines in 2008. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common ^[44] The outflow of medical professionals has forced the closure of medical schools and threatened hospitals. ^[45]

In attempt to curb the migration of skilled workers, the government has implemented minor incentive packages. In 1989, the Balikbayan program was created to encourage Filipino emigrants, mostly living in the United States and Canada, to return to the Philippines as free-spending tourists. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page ^[46] (Balikbayan is formed from the Tagalog terms balik (to return) and bayan (town and nation). )

North America

Canada

Colonial administrators in Canada observed the trend of human capital flight to the United States as early as the 1860s, when it was already clear that a majority of immigrants arriving at Québec were en route to destinations in the United States. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Events and trends Technology The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA was completed in 1869 Quebec (kwɨˈbɛk Alexander C. Buchanan, government agent at Québec, argued that prospective emigrants should be offered free land to remain in Canada. "Emigrant" redirects here For the Butterflies, see Catopsilia. The problem of attracting and keeping the right immigrants is a constant in Canadian immigration history. ^[47]

In Canada today, the brain drain to the United States is occasionally a domestic political issue. At times, brain drain is used as a justification for income tax cuts, although this causal relationship has been questioned. For example, Canadian conservatives often claim there is a drain from Canada to the United States, especially in the financial, software, aerospace, health care and entertainment industries, due to perceived higher wages and lower income taxes in the U. Conservatism is a term used to describe political philosophies that favour Tradition, where tradition refers to various religious cultural or nationally defined This article is about the field of research and industry for the corporation see The Aerospace Corporation Aerospace comprises the Health care is the prevention treatment and management of illness and the preservation of mental health through the services offered by the medical, Nursing See also Entertainment (disambiguation and The Entertainer (disambiguation Entertainment is an activity designed to give people S. , despite some statistical evidence to the contrary. ^[48] The evidence shows that Canada is indeed losing its homegrown talent to the US, but it is gaining skilled migrants from abroad. However, recent anecdotal evidence shows that stringent US security measures after September 11th, 2001 have helped to end the brain drain debate in Canada. ^[49]

United States

The 2000 United States Census Bureau published a special report on domestic worker migration, with a focus on the movement of young, single, college-educated migrants. 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United States Census Bureau (officially Bureau of the Census as defined in Title) is the government agency that is responsible for the United States Census ^[50] The data shows a trend of such people moving away from the Rust Belt and northern Great Plains region towards the Pacific Coast, Texas, Georgia and Florida. The Rust Belt, sometimes called the Manufacturing Belt, is an area in parts of the Northeastern United States, Mid-Atlantic States, and portions of the The Great Plains are the broad expanse of Prairie and Steppe which lie east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada A country's Pacific coast is the part of its Coast facing the Pacific Ocean. Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. The State of Georgia ( is a state in the United States and was one of the original Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule Florida ( is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the The area with the largest net influx of young, single, college-educated persons was San Francisco—Oakland—San Jose, California. The City and County of San Francisco is the fourth most populous city Oakland (ˈoʊklənd founded in 1852 is the eighth-largest city in the U

The country as a whole does not experience a large-scale brain drain to other countries, since it is often the destination of skilled workers migrating from elsewhere in the world. However, a governmental stance against stem cell research has fed a migration of researchers in this particular field to Europe, where the research is well-supported. Stem cells are cells found in most if not all multi-cellular Organisms. ^[51]

South America

In many Latin American nations where enrollment at local medical schools is very high, there is a chronic shortage of doctors with the exception of Cuba. The Cuban government operates a national health system and assumes fiscal and administrative responsibility for the Health care of its citizens

Cuba

In 2007, Cuban officials claimed that 31 000 Cuban doctors were deployed in 61 countries. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la ^[52] A large number practice in South America. 20 000 are employed in Venezuela in exchange for 100 000 barrels of oil per day. Venezuela (ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə) officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish República Bolivariana de Venezuela) is a country on the ^[53] From Venezuela and Bolivia, where another 1 700 doctors work, it is thought that as many as 500 doctors may have fled the missions into neighbouring countries. The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. ^[54] Figures are dubious, since the defections are rarely made public.

Caribbean

Most of the Caribbean Islands endure a substantial emigration of qualified workers. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting Approximately 30% of the labour forces of many islands have left, and more than 80% of college graduates from Suriname, Haiti, Grenada and Guyana have emigrated, mostly to the United States. Suriname ( Dutch: Suriname; Sranan Tongo: Sranan) officially the Republic of Suriname (traditionally spelled Surinam by Haiti ( English: ˈheɪ·tiː or haɪ·ˈjiː·tiː French Haïti a·i·ti Haitian Creole: Grenada (grɪˈneɪdə is an Island nation that includes the southern Grenadines in the southeastern Caribbean Sea. Guyana (ɡaɪˈænə or /ɡiːˈɑːnə/ officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana and previously known as British Guiana, is the only Nation state The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[55] However, it is noted that these nationals pay valuable remittances. In Jamaica, the money sent back amounts to 18% of GNP. Jamaica (ˈdʒəˈmeɪkə} is an Island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length and as much as in width situated in the Caribbean Sea. ^[56] This calls into question whether this trend can be described as a true brain drain.

Brain gain

An opposite situation, in which many trained and talented individuals seek entrance into a country, is called a brain gain; this may create a brain drain in the nations that the individuals are leaving. A Canadian symposium in 2000 gave circulation to the new term, at a time when many highly skilled Canadians were moving to the United States, while simultaneously many qualified immigrants were coming to Canada from a number of different nations. This is sometimes referred to as a 'brain exchange'.

In 2000, the US Congress announced it was raising the annual cap on the number of temporary work visas granted to highly skilled professionals under its H1B visa program, from 115,000 to 195,000 per year, effective through 2003. 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. The H-1B is a non-immigrant visa in the United States under the Immigration & Nationality Act section 101(a(15(H Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. That suggests a ballpark figure for the influx of talent into the United States at that time. A significant portion of this program was initiated by lobbyists from the computer industry, including Bill Gates. If you would like to experiment with Wikipedia please copy ^[57] In the same year the British government, in cooperation with the Wolfson Foundation, a research charity, launched a £20 million, five-year research award scheme aimed at drawing the return of the UK’s leading expatriate scientists and sparking the migration of top young researchers to the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located It has been shown, however, that scientists are attracted to the UK because there is a greater degree of freedom in experimentation. This is part of the reason why the UK leads the world in biomedical and genetic research.

See also

• Human capital
• Immigration
• Instructional capital
• Edict of Fontainebleau
• Free rider problem
• Canadians of convenience
• American exceptionalism
• Forty-Eighters
• Great Migration (African American)
• Jim Crow laws
• Reverse brain drain

Footnotes

References

• Lincoln C. Chen, M. D. , and Jo Ivey Boufford, M. D. "Fatal Flows Doctors on the Move" New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 353:1850-1852 October 27, 2005 Number 17 online version, editorial
• Cheng, L. Events 312 - Constantine the Great is said to have received his famous Vision of the Cross. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. , & Yang, P. Q. "Global interaction, global inequality, and migration of the highly trained to the United States. International Migration Review, (1998). 32, 626-94.
• Jeff Colgan, The Promise and Peril ff International Trade, (2005) ch 9.
• David Heenan. Flight Capital: The Alarming Exodus of America's Best and Brightest (2005), brain drain in reverse as immigrants return home
• Devesh Kapur and John McHale. Give Us Your Best and Brightest: The Global Hunt for Talent and Its Impact on the Developing World (2005) [6]
• Kemp, Paul. Goodbye Canada? (2003), from Canada to U. S.
• Khadria, Binod. The Migration of Knowledge Workers: Second-Generation Effects of India's Brain Drain, (2000)
• Kuznetsov, Yevgeny. Diaspora Networks and the International Migration of Skills: How Countries Can Draw on Their Talent Abroad (2006)
• D. W. Livingstone; The Education-Jobs Gap: Underemployment or Economic Democracy (1998), focus on Canada online edition
• Douglas S. Massey and J. Edward Taylor; International Migration: Prospects and Policies in a Global Market, (2003) online edition
• Mullan, Fitzhugh. "The Metrics of the Physician Brain Drain. " New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 353:1810-1818 October 27, 2005 Number 17 online version
• Caglar Ozden and Maurice Schiff. Events 312 - Constantine the Great is said to have received his famous Vision of the Cross. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. International Migration, Remittances, and Brain Drain. (2005)
• Ransford W. Palmer; In Search of a Better Life: Perspectives on Migration from the Caribbean Praeger Publishers, 1990 online edition
• Ronald Skeldon and Wang Gungwu; Reluctant Exiles? Migration from Hong Kong and the New Overseas Chinese 1994 online edition
• Michael Peter Smith and Adrian Favell. The Human Face of Global Mobility: International Highly Skilled Migration in Europe, North America and the Asia-Pacific, (2006)
• David Zweig, Chen Changgui, and Stanley Rosen; China's Brain Drain to the United States: Views of Overseas Chinese Students and Scholars in the 1990s Institute of East Asian Studies, 1995 online edition

Online references

• Moving Here, Staying Here: The Canadian Immigrant Experience - "Immigration," Annual Report of the Minister of the Province of Canada for the Year 1865 at Library and Archives Canada
• Mark Regets, Research Issues in the International Migration of Highly Skilled Workers - National Science Foundation, SRS 07-203, June 2007

External links

• Mario Cervantes and Dominique Guellec, "The brain drain: Old myths, new realities"
• "Brain Drain: Brain Gain"
• How Extensive Is the Brain Drain? An article on the extent of brain drain today
• Sami Mahroum, "Europe and the Challenge of the Brain Drain"
• US Census Bureau report on migration of the young and educatedPDF (210 KB)
• SciDev.net - Brain Drain
• How To Plug Europe's Brain Drain. Time Europe, accessed October 9, 2006