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Arraignment · Information · Indictment
Plea · Peremptory plea
Nolo contendere (U. Criminal procedure refers to the legal process for adjudicating claims that someone has violated Criminal law. An arrest warrant is a warrant issued by and on behalf of the state which authorizes the Arrest and detention of an individual A search warrant is a Court order issued by a Judge or Magistrate that authorizes law enforcement to conduct a Search In United States Criminal law, probable cause refers to the standard by which a Police officer has the right to make an Arrest, conduct Knock-and-announce, in United States Law of Criminal procedure, is an ancient Common-law principle incorporated into the Fourth Amendment An exigent circumstance, in the American Law of Criminal procedure, allows law enforcement to enter a structure without a warrant, or if they Reasonable suspicion is a legal standard in United States law that a person has been is or is about to be engaged in criminal activity based on specific and articulable facts Search and seizure is a legal procedure used in many civil law and Common law legal systems whereby Police or other authorities and their agents who suspect Police officers in various jurisdictions have power to search members of the public, for example for weapons drugs and stolen property An arrest is the act of depriving a person of his or her liberty usually in relation to the investigation and prevention of crime Detention of suspects is the process of keeping a person who has been Arrested in a police-cell prison or other detention centre before Trial or Sentencing The right to remain silent is a legal protection given to people undergoing police Interrogation or trial. In the United States, the Miranda warning is a Warning given by Police to criminal Suspects in police custody or in a custodial situation before The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In the Common law, a grand jury is a type of Jury which determines whether there is enough evidence for a trial. Criminal procedure refers to the legal process for adjudicating claims that someone has violated Criminal law. A statute of limitations is a Statute in a Common law Legal system that sets forth the maximum period of time after certain events that legal proceedings Nolle prosequi is a Latin legal phrase meaning "do not pursue A bill of attainder (also known as an act or writ of Attainder) is an act of Legislature declaring a person or group of persons guilty of Criminal jurisdiction is a term used in Constitutional law and Public law to describe the power of Courts to hear a case brought by a state accusing Extradition is the official process by which one nation or state requests and obtains from another nation or state the surrender of a suspected or convicted criminal Habeas corpus (ˈheɪbiəs ˈkɔɹpəs ( Latin: command that you have the body is the name of a legal action or Writ, through which a person can seek relief Traditionally bail is some form of Property deposited or pledged to a Court in order to persuade it to release a suspect from jail, on the understanding This article is about the inquisitorial system for organizing court proceedings The adversarial system (or adversary system) of law is the system of law generally adopted in Common law countries that relies on the skill of each advocate Arraignment is a Common law term for the formal reading of a criminal Complaint, in the presence of the Defendant, to inform him/her of the charges Information is a formal criminal charge made without a Grand jury Indictment by a Prosecutor in a document called an information. In the Common law legal system an indictment (ɪnˈdaɪtmənt (in-DITE-mint is a formal accusation of having committed a criminal offense For the Pygmy backswimmer Genus, see Plea (insect. In the Common law, the peremptory pleas ( pleas in bar) are Pleas that set out special reasons for which a trial cannot go ahead la Nolo contendere is a legal term that comes from the Latin for "I will not contend it S. ) · Plea bargain
Presentence Investigation
Related areas of law

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Criminal law · Evidence
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Law · Criminal justice

The border search exception is a doctrine of United States criminal law that exempts searches of travelers and their property from the Fourth Amendment warrant requirement. A plea bargain (also plea agreement, plea deal or copping a plea) is an agreement in a Criminal case whereby the Prosecutor offers A presentence investigation report ( PSI) is a Legal term referring to the investigation into the history of person convicted of a crime before sentencing to determine The term criminal law, sometimes called penal law, refers to any of various bodies of rules in different Jurisdictions whose common characteristic is the potential The Law of evidence governs the use of Testimony (eg oral or written statements such as an Affidavit) and exhibits (e Civil procedure is the body of law that sets out the process that Courts will follow when hearing cases of a civil nature (a " Civil action " as opposed to The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The term criminal law, sometimes called penal law, refers to any of various bodies of rules in different Jurisdictions whose common characteristic is the potential The Fourth Amendment' ( Amendment IV) to the United States Constitution is a part of the Bill of Rights.

The United States Customs and Border Protection (CBP), a division of the United States Department of Homeland Security, is permitted to search travelers and their belongings at the American border without probable cause or a warrant. The United States Bureau of Customs and Border Protection (CBP known as U In United States Criminal law, probable cause refers to the standard by which a Police officer has the right to make an Arrest, conduct Most often the term warrant refers to a specific type of Authorization; a Writ issued by a competent officer usually a Judge or Magistrate These searches are therefore exempted from the Fourth Amendment warrant requirement. Pursuant to this authority, CBP may generally stop and search the property of any traveler entering or exiting the United States at random, or even based largely on ethnic profiles. [1] However, CBP may only conduct searches of the traveler's body — including strip, body cavity, involuntary x-ray, and in some jurisdictions, patdown searches — if the Customs agent has reasonable suspicion to believe the traveler is concealing contraband. A strip search is the stripping ( removal of clothing, Search of person and/or personal effects of a person to check for weapons or other Contraband A body cavity search is either a visual search or a manual internal inspection of body cavities such as for prohibited material ( Contraband) such as illegal drugs Frisking or a " patdown " is a search of a person's outer clothing wherein a Police officer or other law enforcement agent runs his or her hands along the Reasonable suspicion is a legal standard in United States law that a person has been is or is about to be engaged in criminal activity based on specific and articulable facts [2]

Although border-searches are exempted from the Fourth Amendment warrant requirement,[3] they are still subject to the amendment's reasonableness requirement. [4] Whether a border search is reasonable depends on a judicial analysis that balances the intrusion into an individual’s legitimate privacy and dignity interests against the government’s legitimate interest in the subject of the search. [5] In reviewing the reasonableness of border-searches under the Fourth Amendment, many courts have distinguished between "routine" and "nonroutine" searches. [6] CBP may conduct "routine" searches without any level of suspicion, while "nonroutine" searches must be supported by "reasonable suspicion". Reasonable suspicion is a legal standard in United States law that a person has been is or is about to be engaged in criminal activity based on specific and articulable facts [7] Under this analysis, searches of a traveler's property, including luggage, briefcases, wallets, and other containers are "routine," while searches of a traveler's body, including strip, body cavity and involuntary x-ray searches, are considered "nonroutine. "[8]

Contents

Property searches

At the border CBP agents are authorized to search all travelers' closed containers without any level of suspicion. [9] This authority extends to all physical containers, regardless of size or the possible presence of personal, confidential or embarrassing materials. Pursuant to this authority, Customs may also open and search incoming international mail. [10]

Electronic materials

Currently, the main area of contention concerning the border search exception is its application to the search of the electronic files and information contained in travelers' laptops and other electronic storage devices. The United States Government's position regarding the search of electronic devices is that these devices are functionally and qualitatively equivalent to other closed containers. [11] According to this position, the Government asserts that it may open, login and search through all the electronic information stored on traveler's electronic devices. The only federal appeals court to address this issue directly, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, agreed with the government's position and held that "reasonable suspicion is not needed for customs officials to search a laptop or other electronic device at the international border. The US Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit is a federal court with Appellate jurisdiction over the district courts in the following districts Reasonable suspicion is a legal standard in United States law that a person has been is or is about to be engaged in criminal activity based on specific and articulable facts "[12]

Some criminal defendants have challenged the government's constitutional authority to search the contents of their laptops on two basis: (1) first, they claim that searches of the contents of their laptops violate their First Amendment freedom of expression;[13] and (2) second, they claim that searches of the files on their electronic devices are unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment because they are a substantial intrusion into travelers' privacy and dignity interests. [14]

The Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals, addressing a criminal defendant's challenge to Customs' authority to search electronic files in United States v. The United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit is a federal court located in Richmond Virginia with Appellate jurisdiction over the Ickes, held that there is no First Amendment exception to the border search doctrine for expressive materials . [15] The Court based its finding in part on the demands of protecting the nation from terrorist threats that may cross the American border in expressive materials. [16] in its analysis, the Court stated:

The border search doctrine is justified by the longstanding right of the sovereign to protect itself. Particularly in today's world, national security interests may require uncovering terrorist communications, which are inherently “expressive. ” Following Ickes's logic would create a sanctuary at the border for all expressive material-even for terrorist plans. This would undermine the compelling reasons that lie at the very heart of the border search doctrine. "[17]

Ickes did not directly address the required level of suspicion for laptop searches because customs agents in this case met the reasonable suspicion standard. However, the only court to address the Fourth Amendment protections of laptops at the national border held that customs may search any electronic device at the border without any level of suspicion. [18] In United States v. Arnold, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals rejected a defendant's contention that search of travelers' files on a laptop computer intrude upon a person's dignity and privacy interests to the same degree as searches of a traveler's body. The US Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit is a federal court with Appellate jurisdiction over the district courts in the following districts [19] Instead, the court ruled that searches of electronic materials are legally equivalent to searches of property. As such, Customs' authority to search electronic materials at the border are limited in only two ways: (1) the search may not cause exceptional damage to the property; and (2) the search may not be conducted in "a particularly offensive manner. "[20] These restrictions are applicable to all border searches of property. [21] According to Arnold, the characteristics that make electronic storage devices unique, including vast storage capacity and the ability to track its user's habits, tastes, and preferences, are not legally significant. Additionally, the Ninth Circuit held that searching through personal electronic information in a laptop does not constitute an "offensive search. "[22]

Although the Supreme Court has not addressed the standard of suspicion necessary for a warrantless border search of electronic materials, the current jurisprudence, guided by Ickes and Arnold suggests that customs agents may search any electronic materials (including laptops, CDs, MP3 players, cellular phones, and digital cameras) randomly, without any suspicion, and without any first amendment restrictions.

Searches of travelers' bodies

Unlike property searches, searches of travelers’ bodies are highly intrusive and implicate travelers’ most fundamental privacy and dignity interests. [23] Thus, before CBP can order a traveler to disrobe, conduct an internal body cavity search, or force the traveler to submit to an involuntary x-ray of the traveler’s body, the CBP officer must have reasonable suspicion to believe the search will reveal contraband, and may have to have a higher standard or court-reviewed warrant for some of the more invasive searches. Reasonable suspicion is a legal standard in United States law that a person has been is or is about to be engaged in criminal activity based on specific and articulable facts [24]

In the border search context, reasonable suspicion means that the facts known to the customs agent at the time of the search, combined with the agent's reasonable inferences from those facts, provides the agent with a particularized and objective basis for suspecting that the search will reveal contraband. [25] To form a basis for reasonable suspicion, a customs agent may rely on his training and prior experience, and may rely on entirely innocent factors, if the totality of the circumstances provide the agent with reasonable suspicion.

References

  1. ^ United States v. Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U. S. 531, 538 (1985) ("travelers may be stopped [and searched] at . . . the border without individualized suspicion even if the stop [or search] is based largely on ethnicity[. ]") (citing United States v. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U. S. 543, 562-563(1976))
  2. ^ See United States v. Flores-Montano, 541 U. S. 149, 152-53 (2004); United States v. Johnson, 991 F. 2d 1287, 1291-92 (7th Cir. 1993).
  3. ^ The Fourth Amendment states: "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. " U. S. Const. Amend IV.
  4. ^ Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U. S. at 537-38
  5. ^ Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U. S. at 537.
  6. ^ See Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U. S. at 537. However, the Supreme Court has expressly stated, in a case that reviewed whether the disassembly and search of a vehicle's gas tank is a reasonable search, that its use of "routine" and "nonroutine" terminology in Montoya de Hernandez was purely descriptive and does not embody a separate balancing test. United States v. Flores-Montano, 541 U. S. 149, 152 (2004) ("Complex balancing tests to determine what is a “routine” search of a vehicle, as opposed to a more “intrusive” search of a person, have no place in border searches of [property]. ") However, despite this forceful language in Flores-Montano, many Federal Courts still look to whether a border-search is "routine" or "nonroutine. " see, e. g. , United States v. Romm, 455 F. 3d 990, 997 (9th Cir. 2006).
  7. ^ see Flores-Montano, 541 U. S. at 152-53. "Reasonable suspicion" is defined as a "particularized and objective basis for suspecting the particular person of . . . smuggling. " Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U. S. at 541.
  8. ^ See, e. g. , Flores-Montano, 541 U. S. at 152-53.
  9. ^ See Flores-Montano, 541 U. S. at 152-53; Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U. S. at 538.
  10. ^ See 19 U. S. C. § 482; United States v. Ramsey, 431 U. S. 606 (1977)
  11. ^ See Opening Brief of the United States of America 30-31, United States v. Arnold, appeal No. 06-50581 (9th Cir. June 13, 2007), 2007 WL 1407234 ("Computer devices are conceptually no different for Fourth Amendment purposes than other closed storage containers that are subject to suspicionless searches at the border. ")
  12. ^ United States v. Arnold, 2008 WL 1776525 at *4 (9th Cir. 2008). see The Ninth Circuit reversed the District Court's holding on April 21, 2008. Events 753 BC - Romulus and Remus found Rome ( traditional date) 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common [1]
  13. ^ United States v. Ickes, 393 F. 3d 501, 504 (4th Cir. 2005)
  14. ^ United States v. Arnold, 454 F. Supp. 2d 999, 1003-04 (N. D. Cal. 2006); rev'd 2008 WL 1776525 (9th Cir. 2008).
  15. ^ Ickes, 393 F. 3d at 506-07.
  16. ^ Ickes, 393 F. 3d at 506.
  17. ^ Ickes, 393 F. 3d at 506.
  18. ^ United States v. Arnold, 2008 WL 1776525 (9th Cir. 2008).
  19. ^ Arnold, 2008 WL 1776525 at *2-3.
  20. ^ Arnold, 2008 WL 1776525 at *4-5.
  21. ^ see United States v. Ross, 456 U. S. 798 (1982).
  22. ^ Arnold, 2008 WL 1776525 at *5.
  23. ^ See, e. g. , Flores-Montano, 541 U. S. at 152
  24. ^ Flores-Montano, 541 U. S. at 152-53.
  25. ^ Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U. S. at 541.


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