A bird nest is the spot in which a bird lays and incubates its eggs and raises its young. The Great Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus arundinaceus, is an Old World warbler in the genus Acrocephalus. Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. Incubation is the process by which Birds hatch their eggs, and to the development of the Embryo within the egg In most Birds and Reptiles an egg ( Latin ovum) is the Zygote, resulting from Fertilization of the Ovum. While the term popularly refers to a specific structure made by the bird itself—such as the grassy cup nest of the American Robin or Eurasian Blackbird, or the elaborately woven hanging nest of the Montezuma Oropendola, the Village Weaver or the Red-browed Pardalote—that is too restrictive a definition. The American Robin, Turdus migratorius, is a migratory Songbird of the thrush family The Blackbird, Common Blackbird or Eurasian Blackbird ( Turdus merula) is a species of true thrush which breeds in Europe, Asia The Montezuma Oropendola, Psarocolius montezuma, is a New World tropical icterid Bird. The Village Weaver ( Ploceus cucullatus) is a resident breeding Bird species in much of sub-Saharan Africa, and has been introduced to The Red-browed Pardalote ( Pardalotus rubricatus) occupies the northern two-thirds of Australia, is a fraction larger than the Forty-spotted Pardalote For some species, a nest is simply a shallow depression made in sand; for others, it is the knot-hole left by a broken branch, a burrow dug into the ground, a chamber drilled into a tree, an enormous rotting pile of vegetation and earth, or a mud dome with an entrance tunnel. Some species of cave swiftlets of the genus Collocalia make their nests entirely from their saliva, which dries and hardens to form a bracket on the cave wall into which the birds lay their eggs. UserPolbot. -->The Cave Swiftlet ( Collocalia linchi) is a species of Swift in the Apodidae Collocalia is a genus of Swifts contaning some of the smaller species termed " Swiftlets quot

The smallest bird nests are those of some hummingbirds, tiny cups which can be a mere 2 cm (less than one inch) across and 2–3 cm (about one inch) high. Hummingbirds are Birds in the family Trochilidae, and are endemic to the Americas. A centimetre ( American spelling: centimeter, symbol cm) is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one hundredth Inches redirects here To see the Les Savy Fav album see Inches. ^[1] At the other extreme, some nest mounds built by the Dusky Scrubfowl measure more than 11 m (34 ft) in diameter and stand nearly 5 m (15 ft) tall. The Dusky Scrubfowl, Megapodius freycinet, is a medium-sized up to 41cm long black Megapode with short pointed crest bare red facial skin dark legs brown The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit ^[2]

In most species, the female does all or most of the nest construction, though the male often helps. ^[3] In some polygynous species, however, the male may do most or all of the nest building. Polygyny (which comes from neo- Greek: πολύ poly "many" + γυνή gyny "woman" is a specific form of Polygamy, The nest may also form a part of their courtship display such as in bowerbirds and weaver birds. This article is about the species of bird called bowerbird For the band see Bowerbirds (band. The ability to choose and maintain good nest sites and build high quality nests may be selected for by females in these species. In some species the young from previous broods may also act as helpers for the adults. Helpers at the nest is a term used in Behavioural ecology and Evolutionary biology to describe a social structure in which juveniles of one or both sexes remain

Contents 1 Nest types 1.1 Scrape 1.2 Mound 1.3 Burrow 1.4 Cavity 1.5 Cup 1.6 Saucer or plate 1.7 Platform 1.8 Pendant 1.9 Sphere 2 Nest protection and sanitation 3 Colonial nesting 4 In human culture 5 Sources 5.1 Citations 5.2 References 6 External links

Nest types

Not every bird species builds or uses a nest. Some auks, for instance—including Common Murre, Thick-billed Murre and Razorbill—lay their eggs directly onto the narrow rocky ledges they use as breeding sites. This article is about a family of birds For the American ornithological journal see The Auk. The Common Guillemot or Common Murre ( Uria aalge) is a large Auk. The Thick-billed Murre or Brünnich's Guillemot ( Uria lomvia) is a Bird in the Auk family (Alcidae The Razorbill, Alca torda, is a large Auk, 38-43 cm in length with a 60-69 cm wingspan ^[4] The eggs of these species are dramatically pointed at one end, so that they roll in a circle when disturbed. This is critical for the survival of the developing eggs, as there are no nests to keep them from rolling off the side of the cliff. Presumably because of the vulnerability of their unprotected eggs, parent birds of these auk species rarely leave them unattended. ^[5]

King and Emperor Penguins also do not build nests; instead, they tuck their eggs and chicks between their feet and folds of skin on their lower bellies. The King Penguin ( Aptenodytes patagonicus) is the second largest species of Penguin at about 90 cm (3 ft tall and weighing 11 to 16 kg (24 to The Emperor Penguin ( Aptenodytes forsteri) is the tallest and heaviest of all living Penguin species and is endemic to Antarctica. They are thus able to move about while incubating, though in practice only the Emperor Penguin regularly does so. Emperor Penguins breed during the harshest months of the Antarctic winter, and their mobility allows them to form huge huddled masses which help them to withstand the extremely high winds and low temperatures of the season. Without the ability to share body heat (temperatures in the center of tight groups can be as much as 10C above the ambient air temperature), the penguins would expend far more energy trying to stay warm, and breeding attempts would probably fail. ^[6]

Some crevice-nesting species, including Ashy Storm-petrel, Pigeon Guillemot, Eurasian Eagle-Owl and Hume's Tawny Owl, lay their eggs in the relative shelter of a crevice in the rocks or a gap between boulders, but provide no additional nest material. The Ashy Storm-petrel ( Oceanodroma homochroa) is a small scarce Seabird of the Storm-petrel family Hydrobatidae. The Pigeon Guillemot ( Cepphus columba) is a medium-sized alcid endemic to the Pacific. The Eurasian Eagle Owl ( Bubo bubo) is a species of Horned owl resident in much of Europe and Asia. The Hume’s Owl or Hume’s Tawny Owl ( Strix butleri) is a species of Owl. ^[7][8] Potoos lay their single egg directly atop a broken stump, or into a shallow depression on a branch—typically where an upward-pointing branch died and fell off, leaving a small scar or knot-hole. The potoos are a family, Nyctibiidae of Near passerine Birds related to the Nightjars and Frogmouths They are sometimes ^[9] Brood parasites, such as the New World cowbirds, the honeyguides, and many of the Old World and Australasian cuckoos, do not build nests at all, but rather lay their eggs in the active nests of other species. Brood parasites are organisms that use the strategy of brood-parasitism, a kind of Kleptoparasitism found among Birds Fish or Insects The New World is one of the names used for the non-Eurasian/non-African parts of the Earth specifically the Americas and Australia. Cowbirds are Birds belonging to the genus Molothrus in the family Icteridae. Honeyguides, ( family Indicatoridae) are Near passerine Bird species of the order Piciformes. The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans Asians and Africans in the 15th century Australasia is a Region of Oceania: New Zealand, Australia, Papua New Guinea, and neighbouring Islands in the Pacific The cuckoos are a family Cuculidae, of Near passerine Birds The order Cuculiformes, in addition to the cuckoos also includes the ^[10][11]

Scrape

The simplest nest construction is the scrape, which is merely a shallow depression in soil or vegetation. Charadrius is a genus of Plovers a group of wading Birds They are found throughout the world Plovers are a widely distributed group of wading Birds belonging to the Subfamily Charadriinae. ^[12] This nest type, which typically has a rim deep enough to keep the eggs from rolling away, is sometimes lined with bits of vegetation, small stones, shell fragments or feathers. Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of a region it refers to the Ground cover provided by plants In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere A seashell, also known as a sea shell, is the Common name for a hard protective outer layer a shell or in some cases a " test " that was created Feathers are one of the epidermal growths that form the distinctive outer covering or Plumage, on Birds They are considered the most complex integumentary structures ^[13] These materials may help to camouflage the eggs or may provide some level of insulation; they may also help to keep the eggs in place, and prevent them from sinking into muddy or sandy soil if the nest is accidentally flooded. ^[14] Ostriches, most tinamous, many ducks, most shorebirds, most terns, some falcons, pheasants, quail, partridges, bustards and sandgrouse are among the species that build scrape nests. The Ostrich ( Struthio camelus) is a large Flightless bird native to Africa (and formerly the Middle East) The tinamous are one of the most ancient groups of Bird, members of a South American Bird family of about 47 species in 9 genera For duck as a food see Duck (food; for other meanings see Duck (disambiguation. Waders, called shorebirds in North America (where "wader" is used to refer to long-legged wading Birds such as Storks and Terns are Seabirds in the family Sternidae, previously considered a subfamily (Sterninae of the gull family Laridae (van Tuinen et al A falcon (fɔlkən or fælkən is any Species of raptor in the Genus Falco. Pheasants are a group of large Birds in the order Galliformes. Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized Birds in the Pheasant family Phasianidae, or in the family Odontophoridae. Partridges are Birds in the Pheasant family Phasianidae. They are a non-migratory Old World group Bustards are large terrestrial Birds mainly associated with dry open country and steppes in the Old World. Sandgrouse is also the name of the journal of the Ornithological Society of the Middle East - see Sandgrouse (journal The sandgrouse are a

Eggs and young in scrape nests—and the adults that brood them—are more exposed to predators and the elements than those in more sheltered nests; they are on the ground and typically in the open, with little to hide them. The weather is a set of all the phenomena occurring in a given Atmosphere at a given Time. The eggs of most ground-nesting birds (including those that use scrape nests) are cryptically colored to help camouflage them when the adult is not covering them; the actual color generally corresponds to the substrate on which they are laid. ^[15] Brooding adults also tend to be well camouflaged, and may be difficult to flush from the nest. Most ground-nesting species have well-developed distraction displays, which are used to draw (or drive) potential predators from the area around the nest. ^[16] Most species with this type of nest have precocial young, which quickly leave the nest upon hatching. In Biology, the term precocial refers to species in which the young are relatively mature and mobile from the moment of birth or hatching

The technique used to construct a scrape nest varies slightly depending on the species. The American Golden Plover ( la Pluvialis dominica) is a medium-sized Plover. Beach-nesting terns, for instance, fashion their nests by rocking their bodies on the sand in the place they have chosen to site their nest,^[17] while skimmers build their scrapes with their feet, kicking sand backwards while resting on their bellies and turning slowly in circles. Sand is a naturally occurring Granular material composed of finely divided rock and Mineral particles The Skimmers, Rhynchopidae, are a small family of Tern -like Birds in the order Charadriiformes which also includes the Waders Gulls ^[18] The Ostrich also scratches out its scrape with its feet, though it stands while doing so. ^[19] Many tinamous lay their eggs on a shallow mat of dead leaves they have collected and placed under bushes or between the root buttresses of trees,^[20] and Kagus lay theirs on a pile of dead leaves against a log, tree trunk or vegetation. In Botany, a leaf is an above-ground Plant organ specialized for Photosynthesis. A shrub or Bush is a horticultural rather than strictly botanical category of Woody plant, distinguished from a Tree ROOT is an object-oriented program and library developed by CERN. A tree is a perennial Woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or KAGU is a Classical music Radio station run by Gonzaga University in Spokane Washington. ^[21] Marbled Godwits stomp a grassy area flat with their feet, then lay their eggs, while other grass-nesting waders bend vegetation over their nests so as to avoid detection from above. The Marbled Godwit, Limosa fedoa, is a large Shorebird. Adults have long blue-grey legs and a very long pink bill with a slight upward curve and dark at the ^[22] Many female ducks, particularly in the northern latitudes, line their shallow scrape nests with down feathers plucked from their own breasts, as well as with small amounts of vegetation. This is about the direction for other uses see North (disambiguation. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the ^[23]

Among scrape-nesting birds, the Three-banded Courser and Egyptian Plover are unique in their habit of partially burying their eggs in the sand of their scrapes. UserPolbot. -->The Three-banded Courser ( Rhinoptilus cinctus) is a species of Bird in the Glareolidae The Egyptian Plover, Pluvianus aegyptius, is a Wader, the only member of the genus Pluvianus. ^[24]

Mound

Burying eggs as a form of incubation reaches its zenith with the Australiasian megapodes. The Malleefowl ( Leipoa ocellata) is a stocky ground-dwelling Australian bird about the size of a domestic Chicken (to which it Australasia is a Region of Oceania: New Zealand, Australia, Papua New Guinea, and neighbouring Islands in the Pacific The megapodes, also known as incubator birds or mound-builders, are stocky medium-large chicken-like Birds with small heads and large feet in the family Several megapode species construct enormous mound nests made of soil, branches, sticks, twigs and leaves, and lay their eggs within the rotting mass. The heat generated by these mounds, which are in effect giant compost heaps, warms and incubates the eggs. ^[1] Recent research has shown that much of the nest's heat results from the respiration of thermophilic fungi and other microorganisms rather than fermentation, as had been previously believed. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually ^[25] The size of some of these mounds can be truly staggering; several of the largest—which contain more than 100 cubic meters of material, and probably weigh more than 50 tons^[25]—were initially thought to be Aboriginal middens. Indigenous Australians are descendants of the first known human inhabitants of the Australian continent and its nearby islands. ^[26]

In most mound-building species, males do most or all of the nest construction and maintenance. ^[27] Using his strong legs and feet, the male scrapes together material from the area around his chosen nest site, gradually building a conical or bell-shaped pile. This process can take five to seven hours a day for more than a month. ^[27] While mounds are typically reused for multiple breeding seasons, new material must be added each year in order to generate the appropriate amount of heat. A female will begin to lay eggs in the nest only when the mound's temperature has reached an optimal level.

Both the temperature and the moisture content of the mound are critical to the survival and development of the eggs, so both are carefully regulated for the entire length of the breeding season (which may last for as long as eight months), principally by the male. The Chilean Flamingo ( Phoenicopterus chilensis) is a large species (110-130 cm closely related to Caribbean Flamingo and Greater Flamingo, with which it ^[25] Ornithologists believe that megapodes may use sensitive areas in their mouths to assess mound temperatures; each day during the breeding season, the male digs a pit into his mound and sticks his head in. ^[28] If the mound's core temperature is a bit low, he adds fresh moist material to the mound, and stirs it in; if it is too high, he opens the top of the mound to allow some of the excess heat to escape. This regular monitoring also keeps the mound's material from becoming compacted, which would inhibit oxygen diffusion to the eggs and make it more difficult for the chicks to emerge after hatching. ^[27] The Malleefowl, which lives in more open forest than do other megapodes, uses the sun to help warm its nest as well—opening the mound at midday during the cool spring and autumn months to expose the plentiful sand incorporated into the nest to the sun's warming rays, then using that warm sand to insulate the eggs during the cold nights. The Malleefowl ( Leipoa ocellata) is a stocky ground-dwelling Australian bird about the size of a domestic Chicken (to which it During hot summer months, the Malleefowl opens its nest mound only in the cool early morning hours, allowing excess heat to escape before recovering the mound completely. ^[29]

One recent study showed that the sex ratio of Australian Brush-turkey hatchlings correlated strongly with mound temperatures; females hatched from eggs incubated at higher mean temperatures. The Australian Brush-turkey Alectura lathami, also frequently called the Scrub Turkey or Bush Turkey, is a common widespread species of mound-building ^[30]

Flamingos make a different type of mound nest. Flamingos or flamingoes ( are gregarious Wading birds in the Genus Phoenicopterus and family Using their beaks to pull material towards them,^[31] they fashion a cone-shaped pile of mud between 15–46 cm (6–18 inches) tall, with a small depression in the top to house their single egg. Anatomy Stegosaurus --> Beaks can vary significantly in size and shape from species to species ^[32] The height of the nest varies with the substrate upon which it is built; those on clay sites are taller on average than those on dry or sandy sites. Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and ^[31] The height of the nest and the circular, often water-filled trench which surrounds it (the result of the removal of material for the nest) help to protect the egg from fluctuating water levels and excessive heat at ground level. In East Africa, for example, temperatures at the top of the nest mound average some 20C (40F) cooler than those of the surrounding ground. East Africa is the Easternmost Region of the African Continent. ^[31]

Burrow

Soil plays a different role in the burrow nest; here, the eggs and young—and in most cases the incubating parent bird—are sheltered under the earth. The Sand Martin ( Riparia riparia) is a migratory Passerine Bird in the Swallow family Most burrow-nesting birds excavate their own burrows, but some use those excavated by other species; Burrowing Owls, for example, sometimes use the burrows of prairie dogs, ground squirrels, badgers or tortoises,^[33] China's endemic White-browed Tits use the holes of ground-nesting rodents^[34] and Common Kingfishers occasionally nest in rabbit burrows. The Burrowing Owl ( Athene cunicularia) is a small long-legged owl found throughout open landscapes of North and South America The prairie dogs ( Cynomys) are small burrowing Rodents native to the Grasslands of North America The ground squirrels are the members of the Sciuridae most closely related to the Genus Marmota. Badger is the Common name for any animal of three subfamilies which belong to the family Mustelidae: the same Mammal family as the Tortoises or land Turtles are land-dwelling Reptiles of the family of Testudinidae', order Testudines. The White-browed Tit ( Poecile superciliosus, formerly Parus superciliosus) is a species of Bird in the tit family Paridae. The Common Kingfisher, Alcedo atthis, also known as Eurasian Kingfisher or River Kingfisher, is a small Kingfisher with seven subspecies ^[35] Puffins, shearwaters, some megapodes, motmots, todies, most kingfishers, the Crab Plover, miners and leaftossers are among the species which use burrow nests. Puffin describes any of four Auk species (or alcids) in the Bird genus Fratercula (Latin little brother — probably a reference Shearwaters are medium-sized long-winged Seabirds There are more than 20 Species of shearwaters a few larger ones in the genus Calonectris The motmots or Momotidae are a family of tropical Birds in the Near passerine order Coraciiformes, which also includes the The todies are a family, Todidae, of Caribbean Birds in the order Coraciiformes, which also includes the Kingfishers Kingfishers are small bright colored Birds of the three families Alcedinidae ( River kingfishers, Halcyonidae ( Tree kingfishers, and Cerylidae ( Water The Crab Plover ( Dromas ardeola is a Bird related to the Waders but sufficiently distinctive to merit its own family Dromadidae. Geositta is a Genus of Passerine Birds in the ovenbird family Furnariidae UserPolbot. --> Sclerurus is a genus of Bird in the Furnariidae family

Most burrow nesting species dig a horizontal tunnel into a vertical (or nearly vertical) dirt cliff, with a chamber at the tunnel's end to house the eggs. ^[36] The length of the tunnel varies depending on the substrate and the species; Sand Martins make relatively short tunnels ranging from 50–90 cm (20–35 in),^[37] for example, while those of the Burrowing Parakeet can extend for more than three meters (nearly 10 ft). The Burrowing Parakeet ( Cyanoliseus patagonus) also known as the Patagonian Conure is a species of Parrot in the Psittacidae family ^[38] Some species, including the ground-nesting puffbirds, prefer flat or gently sloping land, digging their entrance tunnels into the ground at an angle. The puffbirds and their relatives in the Near passerine family Bucconidae are tropical birds breeding from South America up to Mexico. ^[39] In a more extreme example, the D'Arnaud's Barbet digs a vertical tunnel shaft more than a meter (39 in) deep, with its nest chamber excavated off to the side at some height above the shaft's bottom; this arrangement helps to keep the nest from being flooded during heavy rain. D'Arnaud's Barbet ( Trachyphonus darnaudii) is an African barbet. ^[40] Buff-breasted Paradise-kingfishers dig their nests into the compacted mud of active termite mounds, either on the ground or in trees. The Buff-breasted Paradise Kingfisher ( Tanysiptera sylvia) is a Tree kingfisher. ^[35]

Birds use a combination of their beaks and feet to excavate burrow nests. The European Bee-eater, Merops apiaster, is a Near passerine Bird in the Bee-eater family Meropidae. The tunnel is started with the beak; the bird either probes at the ground to create a depression, or flies toward its chosen nest site on a cliff wall and hits it with its bill. The latter method is not without its dangers; there are reports of kingfishers being fatally injured in such attempts. ^[35] Some birds remove tunnel material with their bills, while others use their bodies or shovel the dirt out with one or both feet. Female paradise-kingfishers are known to use their long tails to clear the loose soil. ^[35]

Predation levels on some burrow-nesting species can be quite high; on Alaska's Wooded Islands, for example, river otters munched their way through some 23 percent of the island's Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel population during a single breeding season in 1977. Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent The River Otter rises in the Blackdown Hills just inside the county of Somerset, near Otterford, then flows south for some 32 km through ^[41] There is some evidence that increased vulnerability may lead some burrow-nesting species to form colonies, or to nest closer to rival pairs in areas of high predation than they might otherwise do. ^[42]

Not all burrow-nesting species incubate their young directly. Some megapode species bury their eggs in sandy pits dug where sunlight, subterranean volcanic activity, or decaying tree roots will warm the eggs. ^[1][25]

Cavity

The cavity nest is a chamber, typically in living or dead wood, but sometimes in the trunks of tree ferns^[43] or large cacti, including saguaro. The Northern Flicker ( Colaptes auratus) is a medium-sized member of the Woodpecker family The order Cyatheales is a Taxonomic division of the Fern subclass Cyatheatae, which includes the tree ferns. A cactus (plural cacti) is any member of the Spine plant family Cactaceae, native to the Americas The Saguaro, pronounced "sah-wah-roh" ( Carnegiea gigantea) is a large tree-sized Cactus Species in the Monotypic genus ^[43][44] In tropical areas, cavities are sometimes excavated in arboreal insect nests. ^[45][46] A relatively small number of species, including woodpeckers, trogons, some nuthatches and many barbets, can excavate their own cavities. The woodpeckers, piculets and wrynecks are a family, Picidae, of Near-passerine Birds. The trogons and quetzals are Birds in the order Trogoniformes which contains only one family the Trogonidae. The nuthatches are a Genus, Sitta, of small Passerine Birds belonging to the Wallcreeper, constitute the American barbets, family Capitonidae, are Near passerine Birds of the order Piciformes which inhabit South America. Far more species—including parrots, tits, bluebirds, most hornbills, some kingfishers, some owls, some ducks and some flycatchers—use natural cavities, or those abandoned by species able to excavate them; they also sometimes usurp cavity nests from their excavating owners. Parrots are birds of the roughly 350 Species in 85 genera comprising the order Psittaciformes, found in most warm and tropical regions The tits, chickadees, and titmice comprise Paridae, a large family of small Passerine Birds which occur in the Northern hemisphere The bluebirds are medium-sized mostly insectivorous or omnivorous Birds in the genus Sialia of the thrush family Turdidae Hornbills ( family Bucerotidae) are a group of Birds characterized by a long down-curved bill sometimes with a casque on the upper mandible True owls or typical owls ( family Strigidae) are one of the two generally accepted families of Owls the other being the barn owls For duck as a food see Duck (food; for other meanings see Duck (disambiguation. Those species that excavate their own cavities are known as "primary cavity nesters", while those that use natural cavities or those excavated by other species are called "secondary cavity nesters". Both primary and secondary cavity nesters can be enticed to use nest boxes (also known as bird houses); these mimic natural cavities, and can be critical to the survival of species in areas where natural cavities are lacking. A nest box (or nestbox also called birdhouse) is a man-made box provided for animals to Nest in ^[47]

Woodpeckers use their chisel-like bills to excavate their cavity nests, a process which takes, on average, about two weeks. ^[44] Cavities are normally excavated on the downward-facing side of a branch, presumably to make it more difficult for predators to access the nest, and to reduce the chance that rain floods the nest. ^[48] There is also some evidence that fungal rot may make the wood on the underside of leaning trunks and branches easier to excavate. ^[48] Most woodpeckers use a cavity for only a single year. The endangered Red-cockaded Woodpecker is an exception; it takes far longer—up to two years—to excavate its nest cavity, and may reuse it for more than two decades. About the size of the Northern Cardinal, the Red-cockaded Woodpecker ( Picoides borealis) is approximately 8 ^[44] The typical woodpecker nest has a short horizontal tunnel which leads to a vertical chamber within the trunk. The size and shape of the chamber depends on species, and the entrance hole is typically only as large as is needed to allow access for the adult birds. While wood chips are removed during the excavation process, most species line the floor of the cavity with a fresh bed of them before laying their eggs.

Trogons excavate their nests by chewing cavities into very soft dead wood; some species make completely enclosed chambers (accessed by upward-slanting entrance tunnels), while others—like the extravagantly-plumed Resplendent Quetzal—construct more open niches. The Black Woodpecker, Dryocopus martius is a large Woodpecker, 40-46 cm long with a 67-73 cm wingspan ^[46] In most trogon species, both sexes help with nest construction. The process may take several months, and a single pair may start several excavations before finding a tree or stump with wood of the right consistency.

Species which use natural cavities—or old woodpecker nests—sometimes line the cavity with soft material such as grass, moss, lichen, feathers or fur. Though a number of studies have attempted to determine whether secondary cavity nesters preferentially choose cavities with entrance holes facing certain directions, the results remain inconclusive. ^[49] While some species appear to preferentially choose holes with certain orientations, studies (to date) have not shown consistent differences in fledging rates between nests oriented in different directions. ^[49]

Cavity-dwelling species have to contend with the danger of predators accessing their nest, catching them and their young inside and unable to get out. They have a variety of methods for decreasing the likelihood of this happening. Red-cockaded Woodpeckers peel bark around the entrance, and drill wells above and below the hole; since they nest in live trees, the resulting flow of resin forms a barrier that prevents snakes from reaching the nests. ^[50] Red-breasted Nuthatches smear sap around the entrance holes to their nests, while White-breasted Nuthatches rub foul-smelling insects around theirs. The Red-breasted Nuthatch, Sitta canadensis, is a small Songbird. The White-breasted Nuthatch ( Sitta carolinensis) is a small Songbird of the Nuthatch family which breeds in old-growth woodland across much of temperate ^[51] Eurasian Nuthatches wall up part of their entrance holes with mud, decreasing the size and sometimes extending the tunnel part of the chamber. The Eurasian Nuthatch, Sitta europaea, is a small passerine found throughout temperate Europe and Asia, although not in Ireland. Most female hornbills seal themselves into their cavity nests, using a combination of mud (in some species brought by their mates), food remains and their own droppings to reduce the entrance hole to a narrow slit. ^[52]

Cup

The cup nest is smoothly hemispherical inside, with a deep depression to house the eggs. The Redwing ( Turdus iliacus) is a Bird in the thrush family Turdidae native to Europe and Asia, slightly smaller than the related Most are made of pliable materials—including grasses—though a small number are made of mud. Many passerines and a few non-passerines, including some hummingbirds and some swifts, build this type of nest. Hummingbirds are Birds in the family Trochilidae, and are endemic to the Americas.

Small bird species in more than 20 passerine families, and a few non-passerines—including most hummingbirds, kinglets and crests in the genus Regulus, some tyrant flycatchers and several New World warblers—use considerable amounts of spider silk in the construction of their nests. The kinglets or crests are a small group of birds sometimes included in the Old World warblers but are frequently given family status because they also resemble the The tyrant flycatchers ( Tyrannidae) are a family of Passerine Birds which occur throughout North and South America, but are mainly This article refers to the New World wood warbler family of birds the Parulidae ^[53][54] The lightweight material is strong and extremely flexible, allowing the nest to mold to the adult during incubation (reducing heat loss), then to stretch to accommodate the growing nestlings; as it is sticky, it also helps to bind the nest to the branch or leaf to which it is attached. ^[54]

Saucer or plate

The saucer or plate nest, though superficially similar to a cup nest, has at most only a shallow depression to house the eggs.

Platform

The platform nest is a large structure, often many times the size of the birds which build and use it. The Osprey (Pandion haliaetus, also called Sea Hawk, is a diurnal, fish-eating Bird of prey. In the case of raptor nests, or eyries, these are often used for many years, with new material added each breeding season. In some cases, the nests grow large enough to cause structural damage to the tree itself, particularly during bad storms where the weight of the nest can cause additional stress on wind-tossed branches.

Pendant

The pendant nest is an elongated sac woven of pliable materials such as grasses and plant fibers and suspended from a branch. UserPolbot. -->The Taveta Golden Weaver ( Ploceus castaneiceps) is a species of Bird in the Ploceidae Oropendolas, caciques, orioles, weavers and sunbirds are among the species that weave pendant nests. The oropendolas comprise two or three genera of South and Central American Passerine Birds in the New World blackbird family Cacique or Cazique (female form Cacica) from the Taíno word for the Pre-Columbian tribal chiefs or leaders, of the Taino The orioles are a family of Old World Passerine Birds The family Oriolidae comprises the Figbird Sphecotheres viridis, the only The sunbirds and '''spiderhunters''' are very small Passerine Birds which feed largely on Nectar, although they will also take insects especially

Sphere

The sphere nest is a roundish structure; it is completely enclosed, except for a small opening which allows access.

Nest protection and sanitation

Many species of bird conceal their nests to protect them from predators. Some species may choose nest sites that are inaccessible. Some may make specific modifications to keep predators at bay. Bird nests can also act as habitats for other inquiline species which may not affect the bird directly. In Zoology, an inquiline (from Latin inquilinus, "lodger" or "tenant" is an Animal that lives commensally in Birds have also evolved nest sanitation measures to reduce the effects of parasites and pathogens on nestlings.

Some aquatic species such as Grebes are very careful when approaching and leaving the nest so as not to reveal the location. Some species will use leaves to cover up the nest prior to leaving.

Ground birds such as plovers may use broken wing or rodent run displays to distract predators from nests. ^[55]

Nests can become home to many other organisms including parasites and pathogens. The excreta of the fledglings also pose a problem. In most passerines, the adults actively dispose the fecal sacs of young at a distance or consume them. This is believed to help prevent ground predators from detecting nests. ^[56] Young birds of prey however usually void their excreta beyond the rims of their nests. ^[57] Blowflies of the genus Protocalliphora have specialized to become obligate nest parasites with the maggots feeding on the blood of nestlings. Protocalliphora or Bird blowflies are a Blow fly genus containing many species which are obligate parasites of birds ^[58]

Some birds have been shown to choose aromatic green plant material for constructing nests that may have insecticidal properties, ^[59][60] while others may use materials such as carnivore scat to repel smaller predators. ^[61]

Colonial nesting

Main article: Bird colony

Though most birds nest individually, some species—including seabirds, penguins, flamingos, many herons, gulls, terns,weavers, some corvids and some sparrows—gather together in sizeable colonies. The Montezuma Oropendola, Psarocolius montezuma, is a New World tropical icterid Bird. A bird colony is used to refer to large aggregations of individuals of one or more Species of Bird that roost or nest in close proximity at a particular location Seabirds are Birds that have adapted to life within the marine environment Penguins ( order Sphenisciformes, family Spheniscidae) are a group of aquatic, flightless Birds living almost The herons are wading Birds in the Ardeidae family Some are called Egrets or Bitterns instead of herons Gulls (often informally Seagulls) are birds in the family Laridae Terns are Seabirds in the family Sternidae, previously considered a subfamily (Sterninae of the gull family Laridae (van Tuinen et al Corvidae is a cosmopolitan family of Oscine Passerine Birds that contains the Crows Ravens rooks The "true sparrows" the Old World sparrows in the family Passeridae, are small Passerine Birds Generally sparrows tend to be Birds that nest colonially may benefit from increased protection against predation. They may also be able to better utilize food supplies, by following more successful foragers to their foraging sites. ^[62]

In human culture

Many birds nest close to human habitations and some have been specially encouraged. Nesting White Storks have been protected and held in reverence in many cultures. The White Stork ( Ciconia ciconia) is a large wading Bird in the Stork family Ciconiidae, breeding in the warmer parts of Europe ^[63] Nest boxes are often used to encourage cavity nesting birds. A nest box (or nestbox also called birdhouse) is a man-made box provided for animals to Nest in The nesting of Peregrine Falcons on tall buildings has captured popular interest. The Peregrine Falcon ( Falco peregrinus) also known simply as the Peregrine, and historically as the "Duck Hawk" in North America is a ^[64] Colonial breeders produce guano which is a valuable fertilizer. Guano (from the Quechua 'wanu' via Spanish) is the Feces of Seabirds Bats and seals The saliva nests of Cave Swiftlets are used to make Bird's nest soup in parts of Southeast Asia. Swiftlets or cave swiftlets are Birds contained within the four genera Aerodramus, Hydrochous, Schoutedenapus and Bird's nest soup is a delicacy in Chinese cuisine. A few species of swift, the cave swifts, are renowned for building the saliva nests used to

Some species of birds are also considered nuisances when they nest in the proximity of human habitations. Feral pigeons are often unwelcome and sometimes also considered as a health risk. ^[65]

The Beijing Olympic Stadium, principal venue of the 2008 Summer Olympics, has been nicknamed "The Bird Nest" because of its architectural design, which its designers likened to a bird's woven nest. Beijing National Stadium ( also known as the National Stadium ( 国家体育场) Of the final thirteen Li Xinggang of China Architecture Design and Research ^[66]

Sources

Citations

References

External links

• Lecture notes on bird nesting
• Department of natural resources Illinois state
• Earthlife site on bird nests
• Point Reyes Bird Observatory Teacher Resource Packet—Activity 4: Building Bird Nests

HBW_-_Taxonomygif|right|frame|(400 × 258 pixels file size38KBMIME typeimage/gif|HBW-Page on Taxonomy]]HBW-accounts_8-082-083_copia

---

© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic