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For the use of biological agents in warfare, see Biological warfare. Biological warfare (BW — known as a germ warfare, biological weapons and bioweaponry — is the use of any Pathogen ( Bacterium

Bioterrorism is terrorism by intentional release or dissemination of biological agents (bacteria, viruses or toxins); these may be in a naturally-occurring or in a human-modified form. Terrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion A biological agent is an Infectious disease or Toxin that can be used in Bioterrorism or Biological warfare. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable A toxin ( Greek:, toxikon, lit (poison for use on arrows is a Poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms that is active at very low

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Definition

According to the U. S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 1:

A bioterrorism attack is the deliberate release of viruses, bacteria, or other germs (agents) used to cause illness or death in people, animals, or plants. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services based in unincorporated These agents are typically found in nature, but it is possible that they could be changed to increase their ability to cause disease, make them resistant to current medicines, or to increase their ability to be spread into the environment. Biological agents can be spread through the air, through water, or in food. Terrorists may use biological agents because they can be extremely difficult to detect and do not cause illness for several hours to several days. Some bioterrorism agents, like the smallpox virus, can be spread from person to person and some, like anthrax, cannot.

History

Biological terrorism dates as far back as ancient Roman civilization, where dead and rotting animals were thrown into wells to poison water supplies (Bock, 2001. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC ) This early version of biological terrorism was used to destroy enemy forces covertly. It continued on into the 14th century where the bubonic plague was used to infiltrate enemy cities, both by instilling the fear of infection in residences, in hopes that they would evacuate, and also to destroy defending forces that would not yield to the attack. Bubonic plague is the best-known manifestation of the bacterial disease plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis (formerly known as The use of disease as a weapon in this stage of history exhibited a lack of control aggressors had over their own biological weapons. Primitive medical technology provided limited means of protection for the aggressor and a battle's surrounding geographical regions. After the battle was won, the inability to contain enemies who escaped death led to widespread epidemics affecting not only the enemy forces, but also surrounding regions' inhabitants. Due to the use of these biological weapons, and the apparent lack of medical advancement necessary to defend surrounding regions from them, widespread epidemics such as the bubonic plague quickly moved across all of Western Europe, destroying a large portion of its population. The victims of biological terrorism in fact became weapons themselves. This was noted in the Middle Ages, but medical advancements had not progressed far enough to prevent the consequences of a weapons use (Eitzen and Takafuji, 1997).

In the 15th century, smallpox was used on contaminated clothing to defeat South American and Native American forces (Bock, 2001). Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Again, the use of biological weapons, for which limited protection and containment was available, led to casualties on both sides of battles. Bioterrorism continued to be an effective method of weakening an adversary but it was also difficult to contain. In the Revolutionary War, colonists were vaccinated from the smallpox virus and then used the virus to intentionally infect enemies. In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" This demonstrated a major advancement in the evolution of bioterrorism. Once the ability to defend from biological warfare became possible through medical advancement, the weapons became far more valuable.

As time continued the use of biological warfare became more and more sophisticated. Countries were developing weapons that delivered much higher effectiveness and less chance of infecting the wrong party. One significant enhancement in biological weapon development was the first use of anthrax. Anthrax is an acute Disease in humans and animals caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis which is highly lethal in some forms Anthrax effectiveness was initially limited to victims of large dosages. This became a weapon of choice because it is easily transferred, has a high mortality rate, and could be easily obtained. Also, variants of the anthrax bacterium can be found all around the world making it the biological weapon of choice in the early 19th century. Another property of anthrax that helped fuel its use as a biological weapon is its poor ability to spread far beyond the targeted population.

By the time World War I began, attempts to use anthrax were directed at animal populations. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All This was ineffective. Instead, the use of poisonous mustard gas became the biological weapon of choice. The sulfur mustards, of which mustard gas ( Bis (2-chloroethyl sulfide is a member are a class of related Cytotoxic, Vesicant Chemical The sheer horror of its affects lead to a treaty called the Geneva Protocol of 1925. The treaty was created to prevent the use of asphyxiating gas as a method of biological warfare (Brooks, 2001). While this was a significant advancement toward the prevention of biological weapon use, the treaty said nothing about weapon development. Secretly, biological weapon development programs existed in many nations. While no documented instances of biological weapon use exist it is believed that this was primarily due to the programs immaturity and not the unwillingness to use them.

American biological weapon development began in 1942. President Franklin D. Roosevelt placed George W. Merck in charge of the effort to create a development program. George W Merck (1894 - 1957 the son of George Merck, was an American scientist and president of Merck & Co These programs continued until 1969, when by executive order President Richard Nixon shut down all programs related to American offensive use of biological weapons (http://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/cbw/bw.html).

Accusations of the use of biological weapons against North Korea were spread during Vietnam, however it is believed that those accusations were propaganda developed by the North Korean regime to villainize American Armed Forces. As the 1970s passed, global efforts to prevent the development of biological weapons and their use were widespread. In 1972 the prohibition of development, production and stockpiling biological weapons was developed.

In the 1980’s Iraq made substantial efforts to develop and stockpile large amounts of biological weapons. By the end of the 80’s Iraq had several sites dedicated to the research and development of biological warfare. They began to test their findings in the late 80’s. These actions lead to the first Gulf war in which Iraq’s biological weapons were dismantled and destroyed.

Since that time, efforts to use biological warfare has been more apparent in small radical organizations attempting to create fear in the eyes of large groups. Some efforts have been partially effective in creating fear, due to the lack of visibility associated with modern biological weapon use by small organizations. In 1995 a small terrorist group launched a terrorist attack aboard a Tokyo subway. The attack killed twelve and affected more than 5000. The response of Japanese emergency services successfully prevented an outcome with much higher mortality rates.

In the United States a more recent biological terrorism attack occurred in 2001 when letters laced with infectious anthrax were delivered to news media offices and the U. S Congress (Johnston, 2005). The letters killed 5. While many believed this attack to be in relation to Iraq’s development of biological weapons, tests on the anthrax strand used in the attack pointed to a domestic source.

Types of biological agents

The CDC has defined and categorized bioterrorism agents according to priority 2 as follows:

Category A agents

These are biological agents with both a high potential for adverse public health impact and that also have a serious potential for large-scale dissemination. Many of these agents require Biosafety Level 4 laboratories. A Biosafety Level is the level of the biocontainment precautions required to isolate dangerous Biological agents in an enclosed facility The Category A agents are anthrax, smallpox, plague, botulism, tularemia, and viral hemorrhagic fevers.

Anthrax 
Anthrax is a non-contagious disease. Anthrax is an acute Disease in humans and animals caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis which is highly lethal in some forms An anthrax vaccine does exist but requires many injections and has side effects that render it unsuitable for general use. An adverse drug reaction (abbreviated ADR) or adverse drug event (abbreviated ADE) is an expression that describes the unwanted negative consequences
Smallpox 
Smallpox is a highly contagious virus. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable It transmits easily through the atmosphere and has a high mortality rate (20-40%). Mortality rate is a measure of the number of Deaths (in general or due to a specific cause in some population scaled to the size of that population per unit time Smallpox was eliminated in the world in the 1970s, thanks to a worldwide vaccination program. However, some virus samples are still available in Russian and American laboratories. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Some believe that after the collapse of the Soviet Union, cultures of smallpox have become available in other countries. Although people born pre-1970 will have been vaccinated for smallpox under the WHO program, the effectiveness of vaccination is limited since the vaccine provides high level of immunity for only 3 to 5 years. As a biological weapon smallpox is dangerous because of the highly contagious nature of both the infected and their pox. Smallpox occurs only in humans, and has no external hosts or vectors.
Botulinum toxin 
Botulinum toxin is one of the deadliest toxins known, and is produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Botulinum toxin is a Neurotoxin Protein produced by the Bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Clostridium botulinum is a Gram-positive, rod shaped bacterium that produces the Neurotoxin Botulin, which causes the flaccid Botulism causes death by respiratory failure and paralysis. Respiratory failure is a medical term for inadequate Gas exchange by the Respiratory system. Paralysed redirects here For other uses see xx Paralysed (disambiguation Paralysis is the complete loss of Muscle function It is not easy to obtain even though it is found in the cosmetic products Botox and Dysport. Botulinum toxin is a Neurotoxin Protein produced by the Bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Botulinum toxin is a Neurotoxin Protein produced by the Bacterium Clostridium botulinum.
Plague 
Plague is a disease caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium. Bubonic plague is the best-known manifestation of the bacterial disease plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis (formerly known as Yersinia pestis (formerly Pasteurella pestis) is a Gram-negative rod-shaped Bacterium belonging to the family Rodents are the normal host of plague, and the disease is transmitted to humans by flea bites and occasionally by aerosol in the form of pneumonic plague. Flea is the Common name for any of the small wingless Insects of the order Siphonaptera (some authorities use the name Aphaniptera Pneumonic plague is the most virulent and least common form of plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. The disease has a history of use in biological warfare dating back many centuries, and is considered a threat due to its ease of culture and ability to remain in circulation among local rodents for a long period of time.
Viral hemorrhagic fever 
This includes the Filoviridae (containing the Marburg and Ebola genera), and the Arenaviridae (for example Lassa or Machupo). The viral hemorrhagic Fevers ( VHFs') are a diverse group of animal and human illnesses that are caused by five distinct families of Filoviridae is the family of Viruses that belong to the order Mononegavirales. The Marburg virus is the causative agent of Marburg haemorrhagic fever (also known as green monkey disease) Ebola is the common term for a group of Viruses belonging to genus Ebolavirus, family Filoviridae, and for the disease which they Arenavirus is a genus of Virus. The type species is Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV; it also includes the species responsible for Lassa fever is an acute viral Hemorrhagic fever first described in 1969 in the town of Lassa in Borno State, Nigeria located in the Bolivian hemorrhagic fever ( BHF) also known as black typhus or Machupo virus, is a Hemorrhagic fever and zoonotic Infectious Ebola has fatality rates ranging from 50-90%. No cure currently exists, although vaccines are in development. The United States and the erstwhile Soviet Union both investigated the use of Ebola for biological warfare, and the Aum Shinrikyo group possessed cultures of the virus. Aum Shinrikyo, now known as Aleph, is a Japanese new religious movement organization Ebola kills its victims through multiple organ failure and hypovolemic shock. Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS, previously known as multiple organ failure (MOF, is altered organ function in an acutely ill patient requiring In Physiology and Medicine, hypovolemia (also hypovolaemia is a state of decreased Blood volume more specifically decrease in volume of Blood plasma Marburg was first discovered in Marburg, Germany. Marburg is a city in Hesse, Germany, on the River Lahn. It is the main town of the Marburg-Biedenkopf district Fatality rates range from 25-100%, and although a vaccine is in development, no treatments currently exist aside from supportive care. The Arenaviruses have a greatly reduced fatality rate, but a larger presence, chiefly in central Africa and South America. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a Many of the Arenaviruses can be aerosol transmitted, making them particularly viable for bioterrorism. Technically an aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas
Tularemia 
Tularemia, or rabbit fever, has a very low fatality rate if treated, but can severely incapacitate. Tularemia (also known as "rabbit fever" "deer-fly fever" "Ohara fever" and "Francis disease" is a serious Infectious disease The disease is caused by the Francisella tularensis bacterium. Francisella is a Genus of Pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria. They are small coccobacillary or rod-shaped It has been widely produced for biological warfare due to its highly infective nature, and ease of aerosolization.

Category B agents

Category B agents are moderately easy to disseminate and have low mortality rates.

Category C agents

Category C agents are pathogens that might be engineered for mass dissemination because they are easy to produce and have potential for high morbidity or mortality (examples: nipah virus, hantavirus and multi-drug resistant Tuberculosis (MTB). Vibrio cholerae (also Kommabacillus) is a Gram negative curved-rod shaped Bacterium with a polar Flagella that causes Cholera Cryptosporidium is a Protozoan that can cause gastro-intestinal illness with Diarrhea in humans A pathogen (from Greek πάθος pathos "suffering passion" and γἰγνομαι (γεν- gignomai (gen- "I give birth to" infectious Genetic engineering, Recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct In Medicine, Epidemiology and Actuarial science, the term morbidity can refer to the state of poor health (from Latin Henipavirus is a Genus of the family Paramyxoviridae, order Mononegavirales containing two members Hendravirus Hantaviruses belong to the Bunyaviridae family of Viruses There Bunyaviridae family is divided into 5 genera

Modern bioterrorist incidents

1915-16 livestock sabotage by Germany

Dr Anton Dilger, a German-American physician, worked for Germany in the U. Anton Casimir Dilger (1884 &ndash 17 October 1918) was a German-American physician and the main proponent of the German Biological warfare sabotage S. (Chevy Chase and Baltimore) in 1915 and 1916 with cultures of anthrax and glanders with the intention of biological sabotage on behalf of the German government. Chevy Chase is the name of both a Town and an unincorporated Census-Designated Place (CDP in Montgomery County Maryland. Anthrax is an acute Disease in humans and animals caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis which is highly lethal in some forms Glanders (from Middle English glaundres or Old French glandres, both meaning glands ( Latin: Malleus German [1] Other German agents are known to have undertaken similar sabotage efforts during WWI in Norway, Spain, Romania and Argentina.

1984 Rajneeshee Salmonella attack

Main article: 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack

In 1984, followers of the Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh attempted to control a local election by incapacitating the local population by infecting salad bars in eleven restaurants, doorknobs, produce in grocery stores and other public domains with Salmonella typhimurium in the city of The Dalles, Oregon. The 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack was the Food poisoning of more than 750 individuals in The Dalles, Oregon, United States through the "Rajneesh" Chandra Mohan Jain (रजनीश चन्द्र मोहन जैन (December 11 1931 – January 19 1990 also known as Acharya Rajneesh An election is a Decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold formal office Salad is a mixture of cold foods usually including vegetables and/or fruits often with a dressing occasionally nuts or Croutons, and sometimes with the addition of Salmonella enterica is a rod shaped Flagellated Gram-negative Bacterium, and a member of the Genus Salmonella This page is about the Oregon town For the nearby geological formation The Dalles see Celilo Falls. Oregon ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The attack caused about 751 people to get sick (no fatalities). This incident was the first known bioterrorist attack in the United States in the 20th century.

2001 anthrax attack

Main article: 2001 anthrax attacks

In September and October of 2001, several cases of anthrax broke out in the United States in the 2001 anthrax attacks, caused deliberately. The 2001 Anthrax attacks in the United States, also known as Amerithrax from its Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI case name occurred over The United States of America —commonly referred to as the This was a well-publicized act of bioterrorism. It motivated efforts to define biodefense and biosecurity, where more limited definitions of biosafety had focused on unintentional or accidental impacts of agricultural and medical technologies. Biodefense refers to short term local usually Military measures to restore Biosecurity to a given group of persons in a given area &mdash in the Civilian Biosecurity A set of preventive measures designed to reduce the risk of intentional removal (theft of a valuable biological material Biosafety: prevention of large-scale loss of Biological integrity, focusing both on Ecology and Human health

2003 ricin incidents

See also: Ricin

Planning for and reacting to a bioterrorist attack

Planning may involve the development of biological identification systems. Ricin (ˈraɪ sɨn is a Protein Toxin that is extracted from the castor bean ( Ricinus communis)

Until recently in the United States, most biological defense strategies have been geared to protecting soldiers on the battlefield rather than ordinary people in cities. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Financial cutbacks have limited the tracking of disease outbreaks. Some outbreaks, such as food poisoning due to E. coli or Salmonella, could be of either natural or deliberate origin. Salmonella is a Genus of rod-shaped Gram-negative enterobacteria that causes Typhoid fever, Paratyphoid fever

Preparedness and response to a biological attack

Biological agents are relatively easy to obtain by terrorists and are becoming more threatening in the U. S. , and laboratories are working on advanced detection systems to provide early warning, identify contaminated areas and populations at risk, and to facilitate prompt treatment. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in Methods for predicting the use of biological agents in urban areas as well as assessing the area for the hazards associated with a biological attack are being established in major cities. In addition, forensic technologies are working on identifying biological agents, their geographical origins and/or their initial son. forts include decontamination technologies to restore facilities without causing additional environmental concerns (2).

Biosurveillance strategies

In 1999, the University of Pittsburgh's Center for Biomedical Informatics deployed the first automated bioterrorism detection system, called RODS (Real-Time Outbreak Disease Surveillance). The University of Pittsburgh, commonly referred to as Pitt, is a non-sectarian coeducational independent state-related, "public" research University Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted RODS is designed to draw collect data from many data sources and use them to perform signal detection, that is, to detect the a possible bioterrorism event at the earliest possible moment. RODS, and other systems like it, collect data from sources including clinic data, laboratory data, and data from over-the-counter drug sales. In 2000, Michael Wagner, the codirector of the RODS laboratory, and Ron Aryel, a subcontractor, conceived of the idea of obtaining live data feeds from "non-traditional" (non-health-care) data sources. The RODS laboratory's first efforts eventually led to the establishment of the National Retail Data Monitor, a system which collects data from 20,000 retail locations nation-wide.

On February 5, 2002, George W. Bush visited the RODS laboratory and used it as a model for a $300 million spending proposal to equip all 50 states with biosurveillance systems. Events 1576 - Henry of Navarre converts to Roman Catholicism in order to ensure his right to the throne of France. See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been In a speech delivered at the nearby Masonic temple, Bush compared the RODS system to a modern "DEW" line (referring to the Cold War ballistic missile early warning system).

The principles and practices of biosurveillance, a new interdisciplinary science, were defined and described in the Handbook of Biosurveillance, edited by Michael Wagner, Andrew Moore and Ron Aryel, and published in 2006. Biosurveillance is the science of real-time disease outbreak detection. Its principles apply to both natural and man-made epidemics (bioterrorism).

Data which potentially could assist in early detection of a bioterrorism event include many categories of information. Health-related data such as that from hospital computer systems, clinical laboratories, electronic health record systems, medical examiner record-keeping systems, 911 call center computers, and veterinary medical record systems could be of help; researchers are also considering the utility of data generated by ranching and feedlot operations, food processors, drinking water systems, school attendance recording, and physiologic monitors, among others. An electronic health record (EHR refers to an individual patient's Medical record in digital format Events By Place Europe Autumn — Charles the Simple agrees to the Treaty of St A ranch is an area of landscape including various structures given primarily to the practice of ranching the practice of raising grazing livestock such as Cattle A feedlot or feedyard is a type of Confined Animal Feeding Operation (CAFO (also known as " Factory farming " which is used for finishing livestock Water of sufficient quality to serve as drinking water is termed potable water whether it is used for drinking or not Intuitively, one would expect systems which collect more than one type of data to be more useful than systems which collect only one type of information (such as single-purpose laboratory or 911 call-center based systems), and be less prone to false alarms, and this appears to be the case. A false Alarm, also called a nuisance alarm, is the Phony report of an emergency causing unnecessary panic and/or bringing resources (such as fire engines

In Europe, disease surveillance is beginning to be organized on the continent-wide scale needed to track a biological emergency. The system not only monitors infected persons, but attempts to discern the origin of the outbreak.

Researchers are experimenting with devices to detect the existence of a threat:

Limitations of bioterrorism

Bioterrorism is inherently limited as a warfare tactic because of the uncontrollable nature of the agent involved. Microchipsjpg|right|thumb|200px|Microchips ( EPROM memory with a transparent window showing the integrated circuit inside Neurons (ˈnjuːɹɒn also known as neurones and nerve cells) are responsive cells in the Nervous system that process and transmit information An optical fiber (or fibre) is a Glass or Plastic fiber that carries Light along its length Antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins, abbreviated Ig) are Gamma globulin Proteins that are found in Blood or other Bodily A biological weapon is useful to a terrorist group mainly as a method of creating mass panic and disruption to a society. However, technologists such as Bill Joy have warned of the potential power which genetic engineering might place in the hands of future bio-terrorists[2]; a bacterial agent might be engineered for genetic or geographical selectivity. William Nelson Joy (born Nov 8, 1954) commonly known as Bill Joy, is an American Computer scientist. Genetic engineering, Recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct Such a scenario formed the plot of the science fiction novel The White Plague and the action novel Area 7. The White Plague (1982 is a Science fiction novel by Frank Herbert. Area 7 is a novel written by Australian thriller writer Matthew Reilly.

Other forms of bioterrorism

The use of agents that do not cause harm to humans but disrupt the economy have been discussed. A highly relevant pathogen in this context is the foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus, which is capable of causing widespread economic damage and public concern (as witnessed in the 2001 and 2007 FMD outbreaks in the UK), whilst having almost no capacity to infect humans. Foot-and-mouth disease ( FMD) or hoof-and-mouth disease ( Aphtae epizooticae) is a highly contagious and sometimes fatal viral

The genomic revolution requires scientists to follow a recognised Code of Conduct. The 'dual-use' technology dilemma implicates issues further; good scientific inventions can be reapplied along a sinister vector.

References

  1. ^ Geißler, Erhard (1999), Biologische Waffen - Nicht in Hitlers Arsenalen, Bsiologische und Toxin-Kampfmittel in Deutschland von 1915 bis 1945, Lit-Verlag, Münster
  2. ^ Why the future doesn't need us

See also:

See also

External links

Agroterrorism, also known as Agriterrorism, is "the malicious use of plant or animal Pathogens to cause devastating disease in the agricultural sector The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new Technology The Defense Threat Reduction Agency (or DTRA) is an agency within the United States Department of Defense (DoD created "to safeguard America and its interests Biological warfare (BW — known as a germ warfare, biological weapons and bioweaponry — is the use of any Pathogen ( Bacterium The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction (usually referred to as the The Global Health Security Initiative (GHSI is an international partnership between countries in order to supplement and strengthen their preparedness to repond to threats of biological The National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity is a panel of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. The Center for Biosecurity is an independent nonprofit organization of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC that is dedicated to improving the country’s resilience The Australia Group is an informal group of countries (now joined by the European Commission established in 1985 (after the use of chemical weapons by Iraq in

Dictionary

bioterrorism

-noun

  1. Terrorism that involves biological weapons or agents.
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