Biophysics (also biological physics) is an interdisciplinary science that employs and develops theories and methods of the physical sciences for the investigation of biological systems. In Academia, Pedagogy, Physical sciences, Earth sciences, Human sciences and Social sciences Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of Natural science and Science that study non-living systems in contrast to the biological sciences Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Studies included under the umbrella of biophysics span all levels of biological organization, from the molecular scale to whole organisms and ecosystems. Structure is a fundamental and sometimes Intangible notion covering the Recognition, Observation, nature, and Stability of Biophysical research shares significant overlap with biochemistry, nanotechnology, bioengineering and systems biology. Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as Nanotechnology, sometimes shortened to nanotech, refers to a field of Applied science whose theme is the control of matter on an Atomic and Molecular Bioengineering (also known as Biological Engineering is the application of Engineering principles to address challenges in the fields of Biology and Medicine Systems biology is a biology-based inter-disciplinary study field that focuses on the systematic study of complex interactions in biological systems, thus using a new perspective

Molecular biophysics typically addresses biological questions that are similar to those in biochemistry and molecular biology, but the questions are approached quantitatively. Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Scientists in this field conduct research concerned with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis, as well as how these interactions are regulated. A great variety of techniques are used to answer these questions.

Fluorescent imaging techniques, as well as electron microscopy, x-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM) are often used to visualize structures of biological significance. Fluorescence is a Luminescence that is mostly found as an An electron microscope is a type of Microscope that uses Electrons to illuminate a specimen and create an enlarged image X-ray crystallography is a method of determining the arrangement of Atoms within a Crystal, in which a beam of X-rays strikes a crystal and scatters Protein nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (usually abbreviated protein NMR) is a field of Structural biology in which NMR spectroscopy is used The atomic force microscope (AFM or scanning force microscope (SFM is a very high-resolution type of scanning probe microscope, with demonstrated resolution of fractions Direct manipulation of molecules using optical tweezers or AFM can also be used to monitor biological events where forces and distances are at the nanoscale. An optical tweezer is a scientific instrument that uses a focused Laser beam to provide an attractive or repulsive force (typically on the order of pico Newtons) depending Molecular biophysicists often consider complex biological events as systems of interacting units which can be understood through statistical mechanics, thermodynamics and chemical kinetics. Statistical mechanics is the application of Probability theory, which includes mathematical tools for dealing with large populations to the field of Mechanics In Physics, thermodynamics (from the Greek θερμη therme meaning " Heat " and δυναμις dynamis meaning " Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics is the study of rates of chemical processes By drawing knowledge and experimental techniques from a wide variety of disciplines, biophysicists are often able to directly observe, model or even manipulate the structures and interactions of individual molecules or complexes of molecules. In Chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two Atoms in a definite arrangement held together by

In addition to traditional (i. e. molecular) biophysical topics like structural biology or enzyme kinetics, modern biophysics encompasses an extraordinarily broad range of research. Structural biology is the branch of Molecular biology concerned with the Architecture and shape of biological Macromolecules especially Proteins Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics is the study of rates of chemical processes It is becoming increasingly common for biophysicists to apply the models and experimental techniques derived from physics, as well as mathematics and statistics, to larger systems such as tissues, organs, populations and ecosystems. Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection analysis interpretation or explanation and presentation of Data. Population biology is a study of biological populations of organisms especially in terms of Biodiversity, Evolution, and environmental biology. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical (

Contents 1 Focus as a subfield 2 Topics in biophysics and related fields 3 Famous biophysicists 4 Other notable biophysicists 5 References 6 See also 7 External links

Focus as a subfield

Biophysics often does not have university-level departments of its own, but have presence as groups across departments within the fields of biology, biochemistry, chemistry, computer science, mathematics, medicine, pharmacology, physiology, physics, and neuroscience. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Computer science (or computing science) is the study and the Science of the theoretical foundations of Information and Computation and their Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system What follows is a list of examples of how each department applies its efforts toward the study of biophysics. This list is hardly all inclusive. Nor does each subject of study belong exclusively to any particular department. Each academic institution makes its own rules and there is much overlap between departments.

• Biology and molecular biology - Almost all forms of biophysics efforts are included in some biology department somewhere. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level To include some: gene regulation, single protein dynamics, bioenergetics, patch clamping, biomechanics. Gene modulation redirects here For information on therapeutic regulation of gene expression see Therapeutic gene modulation. The patch clamp technique is a Laboratory technique in Electrophysiology that allows the study of single or multiple Ion channels in cells Biomechanics is the application of mechanical principles on living organisms
• Structural biology - angstrom-resolution structures of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates, and complexes thereof. Structural biology is the branch of Molecular biology concerned with the Architecture and shape of biological Macromolecules especially Proteins
• Biochemistry and chemistry - biomolecular structure, siRNA, nucleic acid structure, structure-activity relationships. Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties
• Computer science - Neural networks, Biomolecular and drug databases. Computer science (or computing science) is the study and the Science of the theoretical foundations of Information and Computation and their Traditionally the term neural network had been used to refer to a network or circuit of biological neurons.
• Computational chemistry - Molecular dynamics simulation, Molecular docking, Quantum chemistry
• Bioinformatics - sequence alignment, structural alignment, Protein structure prediction
• Mathematics - graph/network theory, population modeling, dynamical systems, phylogenetics. Computational chemistry is a branch of Chemistry that uses computers to assist in solving chemical problems Molecular dynamics ( MD) is a form of Computer simulation in which atoms and molecules are allowed to interact for a period of time by approximations of In the field of Molecular modeling, docking is a method which predicts the preferred orientation of one molecule to a second when bound to each other to form Quantum chemistry is a branch of Theoretical chemistry, which applies Quantum mechanics and Quantum field theory to address issues and problems in Bioinformatics is the application of information technology to the field of molecular biology In Bioinformatics, a sequence alignment is a way of arranging the Primary sequences of DNA, RNA, or Protein to identify regions of Structural alignment is a form of Sequence alignment based on comparison of shape Protein structure prediction is one of the most important goals pursued by Bioinformatics and Theoretical chemistry. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and
• Medicine and neuroscience - tackling neural networks experimentally (brain slicing) as well as theoretically (computer models), membrane permitivity, gene therapy, understanding tumors. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system
• Pharmacology and physiology - channel biology, biomolecular interactions, cellular membranes, polyketides. Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical
• Physics - Biomolecular free energy, stochastic processes, covering dynamics. Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion.

Many biophysical techniques are unique to this field. Biophysical techniques are methods used for gaining information about biological systems on an atomic or molecular level Research efforts in biophysics are often initiated by scientists who were traditional physicists, chemists, and biologists by training.

Topics in biophysics and related fields

Famous biophysicists

• Luigi Galvani, discoverer of bioelectricity
• Hermann von Helmholtz, first to measure the velocity of nerve impulses; studied hearing and vision
• Alan Hodgkin & Andrew Huxley, mathematical theory of how ion fluxes produce nerve impulses
• Georg von Békésy, research on the human ear
• Bernard Katz, discovered how synapses work
• Hermann J. Muller, discovered that X-rays cause mutations
• Linus Pauling & Robert Corey, co-discoverers of the alpha helix and beta sheet structures in proteins
• J. D. Bernal, X-ray crystallography of plant viruses and proteins
• Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, James D. Watson and Francis Crick, pioneers of DNA crystallography and co-discoverers of the structure of DNA. A supramolecular assembly or "supermolecule" is a well defined complex of molecules held together by noncovalent bonds. Systems biology is a biology-based inter-disciplinary study field that focuses on the systematic study of complex interactions in biological systems, thus using a new perspective Systems neuroscience is a subdiscipline of neuroscience which studies the function of neural circuits and systems most commonly in awake behaving intact Organisms It is an For the movement system created by Carlos Castaneda, see Tensegrity (Castaneda Theoretical biology is a field of academic study and research that involves the use of Models and theories in Biology. Luigi Galvani was an Italian Physician and Physicist who lived and died in Bologna. Bioelectromagnetism (sometimes equated with bioelectricity) refers to the electrical magnetic or Electromagnetic fields produced by living cells tissues In Neurophysiology, the action potential is a self-regenerating Wave of Electrochemical activity that allows Nerve cells to carry a signal In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also Sir Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, OM, KBE, FRS (5 February 1914 Banbury, Oxfordshire, England – 20 December 1998 Cambridge Sir Andrew Fielding Huxley, OM, FRS (born 22 November 1917, Hampstead, London) is an English physiologist Note The term model has a different meaning in Model theory, a branch of Mathematical logic. An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge In Neurophysiology, the action potential is a self-regenerating Wave of Electrochemical activity that allows Nerve cells to carry a signal Georg von Békésy (Békésy György ( June 3, 1899 &ndash June 13, 1972) was a Hungarian biophysicist born in Budapest Sir Bernard Katz, FRS ( 26 March 1911 &ndash 20 April 2003) was a German -born biophysicist, noted for his work Chemical synapses are specialized junctions through which Neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in Muscles or Glands Hermann Joseph “HJ” Muller ( December 21 1890 &ndash April 5 1967) was an American Geneticist, educator and X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of Electromagnetic radiation. In biology mutations are changes to the Nucleotide sequence of the Genetic material of an organism Linus Carl Pauling (February 28 1901 – August 19 1994 was an American Scientist, Peace activist, Author and educator. Robert Brainard Corey (August 19 1897 – April 23 1971 was an American biochemist mostly known for his role in discovery of the α-helix and the β-sheet A common motif in the Secondary structure of Proteins the alpha helix (α-helix is a right-handed coiled conformation resembling a spring, in which The β sheet (also β-pleated sheet) is the second form of regular Secondary structure in Proteins consisting of beta strands connected laterally Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl John Desmond Bernal FRS (born 10 May 1901 died 15 September 1971 was an Irish-born scientist known for pioneering X-ray crystallography. X-ray crystallography is a method of determining the arrangement of Atoms within a Crystal, in which a beam of X-rays strikes a crystal and scatters Plant viruses are Viruses affecting Plants.Plant viruses like all other viruses are obligate intracellular Parasites that do not have the molecular Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Rosalind Elsie Franklin ( 25 July, 1920 Notting Hill, London – 16 April, 1958 Chelsea London) was an Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins CBE FRS ( 15 December 1916 – 5 October 2004) was a New Zealand -born British Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004 Ph Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of Atoms in Solids In older usage it is the scientific study of Crystals The Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Francis Crick later participated in the Crick, Brenner et al. experiment which established the basis for understanding the genetic code
• Max Perutz & John Kendrew, pioneers of protein crystallography
• Allan Cormack & Godfrey Hounsfield, development of computer assisted tomography
• Paul Lauterbur & Peter Mansfield, development of magnetic resonance imaging
• Seiji Ogawa, development of functional magnetic resonance imaging

Other notable biophysicists

• Adolf Eugen Fick, responsible for Fick's law of diffusion and a method to determine cardiac output. The Crick Brenner et al experiment was a Scientific experiment performed in 1961 by Francis Crick and Sydney Brenner. The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material ( DNA or RNA sequences is translated into Proteins Max Ferdinand Perutz, OM ( May 19 1914, Vienna, Austria – February 6 2002, Cambridge, Sir John Cowdery Kendrew ( 24 March 1917 &ndash 23 August 1997) was an English Biochemist and crystallographer Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of Atoms in Solids In older usage it is the scientific study of Crystals The Allan MacLeod Cormack ( February 23, 1924 &ndash May 7, 1998) was a South African born American Physicist Sir Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield CBE FRS, ( 28 August 1919 &ndash 12 August 2004) was an English Electrical engineer Computed tomography (CT is a Medical imaging method employing Tomography. Paul Christian Lauterbur ( May 6, 1929 – March 27, 2007) was an American Chemist who shared the Nobel Prize Sir Peter Mansfield, FRS, (born 9 October 1933) is a British Physicist who was awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Seiji Ogawa (小川 誠二 Ogawa Seiji, born January 19th 1934 is a Japanese researcher best known for discovering the technique that underlies Functional Magnetic Resonance Functional MRI or functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI is a type of specialized MRI scan Adolf Eugen Fick (1 April 1829 in Kassel Germany – 21 August 1901 in Blankenberge Flanders) was a German physiologist usually credited Fick's laws of diffusion describe Diffusion and can be used to solve for the diffusion coefficient D. Cardiac output (Q is the volume of blood being pumped by the Heart, in particular by a ventricle in a minute
• Howard Berg, characterized properties of bacterial chemotaxis
• Steven Block, observed the motions of enzymes such as kinesin and RNA polymerase with optical tweezers
• Carlos Bustamante, known for single-molecule biophysics of molecular motors and biological polymer physics
• Steven Chu, Nobel Laureate who helped develop optical trapping techniques used by many biophysicists
• Friedrich Dessauer, research on radiation, especially X-rays
• Julio Fernandez
• Stefan Hell, developed the principle of STED microscopy
• John J. Hopfield, worked on error correction in Transcription and Translation (kinetic proof-reading), and associative memory models (Hopfield net)
• Martin Karplus, research on molecular dynamical simulations of biological macromolecules. Howard Berg teaches Biophysics at Harvard University and studies Motility of E The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Chemotaxis, a kind of Taxis, is the phenomenon in which bodily cells bacteria, and other single-cell or Multicellular organisms direct their movements Dr Steven M Block (born 1952 is a professor at Stanford University with a joint appointment in the departments of Biological Sciences and Applied Physics Kinesins are a class of Motor proteins found in Eukaryotic cells RNA polymerase ( RNAP or RNApol) is an Enzyme that produces RNA. An optical tweezer is a scientific instrument that uses a focused Laser beam to provide an attractive or repulsive force (typically on the order of pico Newtons) depending Carlos José Bustamante (born 1951 in Lima, Peru) is an American Scientist. Molecular motors are biological Molecular machines that are the essential agents of movement in living organisms Polymer physics is the field of Physics associated to the study of Polymers their fluctuations mechanical properties, as well as the kinetics Steven Chu ( Chinese: 朱棣文 Pinyin: Zhū Dìwén (b February 28[[ 948]] St Friedrich Dessauer ( 19 July 1881 &ndash 16 February 1963) was an important physicist a philosopher a socially engaged entrepreneur and a journalist X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of Electromagnetic radiation. Julio Fernández may refer to Dr Julio A Fernández, Uruguayan astronomer who hypothesised the existence of what became known as the Kuiper belt Dr Stefan W Hell (born 23 December 1962 in Arad, Romania) is a Physicist and one of the directors of the Max Planck Institute for Stimulated Emission Depletion microscopy or STED microscopy, is a technique that uses the non-linear de-excitation of fluorescent dyes to overcome the resolution limit imposed by John Joseph Hopfield (b July 15, 1933) is an American scientist most widely known for his invention of an associative Neural network A Hopfield net is a form of recurrent artificial neural network invented by John Hopfield. Martin Karplus (born March 15, 1930, Vienna) is an Austrian born U Molecular dynamics ( MD) is a form of Computer simulation in which atoms and molecules are allowed to interact for a period of time by approximations of
• Franklin Offner, professor emeritus at Northwestern University of professor of biophysics, biomedical engineering and electronics who developed a modern prototype of the electroencephalograph and electrocardiograph called the dynograph
• Benoit Roux
• Mikhail Volkenshtein, Revaz Dogonadze & Zurab Urushadze, authors of the 1st Quantum-Mechanical (Physical) Model of Enzyme Catalysis, supported a theory that enzyme catalysis use quantum-mechanical effects such as tunneling. Benoît Roux, Professor at University of Chicago (previously at Cornell University) uses theoretical techniques such as classical Molecular dynamics, to Mikhail Vladimirovich Volkenshtein ( October 23, 1912 - February 18, 1992) was a notable Russian biophysicist, Corresponding Revaz Dogonadze ( November 21, 1931 - May 13, 1985) was a notable Georgian Quantum mechanics is the study of mechanical systems whose dimensions are close to the Atomic scale such as Molecules Atoms Electrons In Quantum mechanics, quantum tunnelling is a nanoscopic phenomenon in which a particle violates the principles of Classical mechanics by penetrating a
• John P. Wikswo, research on biomagnetism
• Douglas Warrick, specializing in bird flight (hummingbirds and pigeons)
• Ernest C. Pollard — founder of the Biophysical Society
• Marvin Makinen, pioneer of the structural basis of enzyme action
• Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran, developer of the Ramachandran plot and pioneer of the collagen triple-helix structure prediction
• Doug Barrick, repeat protein folding and the Mechanisms underlying Notch Signaling
• Naomi Courtemanche, kinetics of Leucine Rich Repeat protein folding

References

• Perutz M. Douglas Warrick, PhD, is an assistant Professor in Biophysics at the Zoology department of Oregon State University, working in Flight is the main mode of locomotion used by most of the world's bird species Hummingbirds are Birds in the family Trochilidae, and are endemic to the Americas. Ernest Charles "Ernie" Pollard ( 1906-04-16 in Yunnan, China &ndash 1997-02-24 in Jupiter Florida) was a Professor The Biophysical Society is an organization consisting of over 8000 researchers in Academia, Government, and Industry. Marvin W Makinen has been a member of the faculty at The University of Chicago since 1974 and is a founding member of the Human Rights Board Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran ( 8 October, 1922 - 7 April, 2001) is widely acknowledged as one of the most important Indian F. Proteins and Nucleic Acids, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1962
• Perutz MF (1969). "The haemoglobin molecule". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B 173 (31): 113-40.   PMID 4389425
• Dogonadze R. R. and Urushadze Z. D. Semi-Classical Method of Calculation of Rates of Chemical Reactions Proceeding in Polar Liquids. - J. Electroanal. Chem. , 32, 1971, pp. 235-245
• Volkenshtein M. V. , Dogonadze R. R. , Madumarov A. K. , Urushadze Z. D. and Kharkats Yu. I. Theory of Enzyme Catalysis. - Molekuliarnaya Biologia (Moscow), 6, 1972, pp. 431-439 (In Russian, English summary)
• Rodney M. J. Cotterill (2002). Rodney Michael John Cotterill Order of the Dannebrog ( 27 September, 1933 – 24 June, 2007) was a English - Danish Biophysics : An Introduction. Wiley. ISBN 978-0471485384.  
• Sneppen K. and Zocchi G. , Physics in Molecular Biology, Cambridge University Press, 2005. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 ISBN 0-521-84419-3
• Glaser R. , Biophysics, Springer, 2001, ISBN 3-540-67088-2

See also

• Important publications in biophysics (biology)
• important publications in biophysics (physics)

External links

• Biophysical Society
• The Wellcome Trust Physiome Project - Links

Anatomy Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon Optics Book of Optics

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