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Escherichia coli Tree fern
Goliath beetle Gazelle
Biology studies the variety of life (clockwise from top-left) E. coli, tree fern, gazelle, Goliath beetle

Biology (from Greek βιολογία - βίος, bio, "life"; and λόγος, logos, "speech" lit. Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism The order Cyatheales is a Taxonomic division of the Fern subclass Cyatheatae, which includes the tree ferns. A GAZelle (ГАЗе́ль is a series of mid-sized Trucks Vans and Buses made by Russian car manufacturer GAZ. The Goliath beetles are among the largest insects on Earth, if measured in terms of size bulk and weight Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism grc-Latn Logos (ˈloʊːgɒs ( Greek, logos) is an important term in Philosophy, Analytical psychology, Rhetoric and Religion "to talk about life"), is a branch of Natural Science, and is the study of living organisms and how they react to their environment. Biology deals with every aspect of life in a living organism. Biology examines the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of living things. It classifies and describes organisms, their functions, how species come into existence, and the interactions they have with each other and with the natural environment. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and Four unifying principles form the foundation of modern biology: cell theory, evolution, genetics and homeostasis. Cell Theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Homeostasis (from Greek: ὅμος hómos, "equal" and ιστημι istēmi, "to stand" lit

Biology as a separate science was developed in the nineteenth century as scientists discovered that organisms shared fundamental characteristics. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Biology is now a standard subject of instruction at schools and universities around the world, and over a million papers are published annually in a wide array of biology and medicine journals. An academic journal is a peer-reviewed Periodical in which scholarship relating to a particular Academic discipline is published [1]

Most biological sciences are specialized disciplines. Traditionally, they are grouped by the type of organism being studied: botany, the study of plants; zoology, the study of animals; and microbiology, the study of microorganisms. Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία The fields within biology are further divided based on the scale at which organisms are studied and the methods used to study them: biochemistry examines the fundamental chemistry of life; molecular biology studies the complex interactions of systems of biological molecules; cellular biology examines the basic building block of all life, the cell; physiology examines the physical and chemical functions of the tissues and organ systems of an organism; and ecology examines how various organisms and their environment interrelate. Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level See also List of basic cell biology topics. Cell biology (also called cellular biology or formerly cytology, from the The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of

Contents

Foundations of modern biology

There are five unifying principles of biology [2]:

Cell Theory

Main article: Cell theory

The cell is the fundamental unit of life. Cell Theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing Cell theory states that all living things are composed of one or more cells, or the secreted products of those cells, for example, shell and bone. Secretion is the process of segregating elaborating and releasing chemicals from a cell, or a secreted Chemical substance or amount of substance Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce Cells arise from other cells through cell division, and in multicellular organisms, every cell in the organism's body is produced from a single cell in a fertilized egg. Cell division is a process by which a cell, called the parent cell divides into two or more cells called daughter cells. Furthermore, the cell is considered to be the basic part of the pathological processes of an organism. [3]

Evolution

Main article: Evolution

A central organizing concept in biology is that life changes and develops through evolution and that all lifeforms known have a common origin (see Common descent). eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common Ancestor. This has led to the striking similarity of units and processes discussed in the previous section. Introduced into the scientific lexicon by Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck in 1809,Charles Darwin established evolution fifty years later as a viable theory by articulating its driving force, natural selection (Alfred Russel Wallace is recognized as the co-discoverer of this concept as he helped research and experiment with the concept of evolution). Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet Chevalier de Lamarck ( August 1, 1744 &ndash December 18, 1829) was a French Soldier Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of Alfred Russel Wallace OM, FRS (8 January 1823 &ndash 7 November 1913 was an British naturalist, Explorer, Geographer Darwin theorized that species and breeds developed through the processes of natural selection as well as by artificial selection or selective breeding. Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of Artificial selection is the intentional breeding for certain traits or combinations of traits over others and is synonymous with " Selective breeding " This article focuses on selective breeding in domesticated animals [4] Genetic drift was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the modern synthesis of the theory. In Population genetics, genetic drift is the accumulation of random events that change the makeup of a gene pool slightly but often compound over time

The evolutionary history of the species— which describes the characteristics of the various species from which it descended— together with its genealogical relationship to every other species is called its phylogeny. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. Widely varied approaches to biology generate information about phylogeny. These include the comparisons of DNA sequences conducted within molecular biology or genomics, and comparisons of fossils or other records of ancient organisms in paleontology. A DNA sequence or genetic sequence is a succession of letters representing the Primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA Molecule Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Genomics is the study of an organism's entire Genome. The field includes intensive efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale Genetic FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. Palaeontology redirects here For the Scientific journal, see Palaeontology (journal. Biologists organize and analyze evolutionary relationships through various methods, including phylogenetics, phenetics, and cladistics. Phenetics should not be confused with Phonetics, the study of speech sounds despite the similarity in pronunciation Cladistics is the hierarchical classification of Species based on evolutionary ancestry For a summary of major events in the evolution of life as currently understood by biologists, see evolutionary timeline. This timeline of the evolution of life outlines the major events in the development

Up into the 19th century, it was commonly believed that life forms could appear spontaneously under certain conditions (see spontaneous generation). The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar In the Natural sciences, Abiogenesis, or origin of life, is the study of how Life on Earth emerged from Inanimate Organic This misconception was challenged by William Harvey's diction that "all life [is] from [an] egg" (from the Latin "Omne vivum ex ovo"), a foundational concept of modern biology. William Harvey ( April 1, 1578 – June 3, 1657) was an English Physician who is credited with being the first in Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Biogenesis is the process of Lifeforms producing other lifeforms e It simply means that there is an unbroken continuity of life from its initial origin to the present time.

A group of organisms share a common descent if they share a common ancestor. A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common Ancestor. An ancestor is a Parent or ( recursively) the parent of an ancestor (i All organisms on the Earth both living and extinct have been or are descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral gene pool. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 In Population genetics, a gene pool is the complete set of unique Alleles in a Species or Population. This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about 3.5 billion years ago. This timeline of the evolution of life outlines the major events in the development Biologists generally regard the universality of the genetic code as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent (UCD) for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes (see: origin of life). The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material ( DNA or RNA sequences is translated into Proteins The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex In the Natural sciences, Abiogenesis, or origin of life, is the study of how Life on Earth emerged from Inanimate Organic

Evolution does not always give rise to progressively more complex organisms. For example, the process of dysgenics has been observed among the human population. Dysgenics (and cacogenics) describes a system of breeding wherein artificial Selection is for traits that are deleterious or perceived as ethically [5]

Gene theory

Schematic representation of DNA, the primary genetic material.
Schematic representation of DNA, the primary genetic material. Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Genetic material is used to store the genetic information of an organic life form
Main article: Gene

Biological form and function are created from and passed on to the next generation by genes, which are the primary units of inheritance. History See also History of genetics The existence of genes was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822-1884 who in the 1860s studied inheritance Physiological adaptation to an organism's environment cannot be coded into its genes and cannot be inherited by its offspring (see Lamarckism). Lamarckism (or Lamarckian evolution) is the once widely accepted idea that an organism can pass on characteristics that it acquired during its lifetime to its offspring (also Remarkably, widely different organisms, including bacteria, plants, animals, and fungi, all share the same basic machinery that copies and transcribes DNA into proteins. For example, bacteria with inserted human DNA will correctly yield the corresponding human protein.

The total complement of genes in an organism or cell is known as its genome, which is stored on one or more chromosomes. In classical genetics the genome of a Diploid Organism including Eukarya refers to a full set of chromosomes or genes in a Gamete, thereby A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and Protein that is found in cells. A chromosome is a single, long DNA strand on which thousands of genes, depending on the organism, are encoded. When a gene is active, the DNA code is transcribed into an RNA copy of the gene's information. Transcription is the synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA A ribosome then translates the RNA into a structural protein or catalytic protein. Ribosomes ( from ribo nucleic acid and "Greek soma ( meaning body") are complexes of RNA and Protein that Translation is the first stage of Protein biosynthesis (part of the overall process of Gene expression) Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins

Homeostasis

Main article: Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the ability of an open system to regulate its internal environment to maintain a stable condition by means of multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. Homeostasis (from Greek: ὅμος hómos, "equal" and ιστημι istēmi, "to stand" lit An open system is a state of a System, in which a system continuously interacts with its environment A dynamic equilibrium occurs when two opposing Processes proceed at the same rate All living organisms, whether unicellular or multicellular, exhibit homeostasis. A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually Multicellular organisms are Organisms consisting of more than one cell, and having Differentiated cells that perform specialized functions Homeostasis exists at the cellular level, for example cells maintain a stable internal acidity (pH); and at the level of the organism, for example warm-blooded animals maintain a constant internal body temperature. pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a Solution. In Biology, a warm-blooded Animal species is one whose members maintain thermal Homeostasis; that is they keep their body temperature at a roughly constant Homeostasis is a term that is also used in association with ecosystems, for example, the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide on Earth has been regulated by the concentration of plant life on Earth because plants remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during the daylight hours than they emit to the atmosphere at night. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Tissues and organs can also maintain homeostasis. Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument

Punnent Square made by Reginald Punnet in 1905 which is the shorthand way to show the expressed trait

See also: Health. Health is a state of complete physical mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity

Research

Main article: List of biology disciplines

Structural

Schematic of typical animal cell depicting the various organelles and structures.
Schematic of typical animal cell depicting the various organelles and structures. This is a list of Biology disciplines. A Aerobiology -- Anatomy -- Arachnology -- Astrobiology The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called In Cell biology, an organelle (pronunciation /ɔː(rgəˡnɛl/ is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function and is usually separately enclosed
Main articles: Molecular biology, Cell biology, Genetics, and Developmental biology

Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level See also List of basic cell biology topics. Cell biology (also called cellular biology or formerly cytology, from the Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Developmental Biology is the official journal of the Society for Developmental Biology. Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level In Chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two Atoms in a definite arrangement held together by This field overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly with genetics and biochemistry. Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interrelationship of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated.

Cell biology studies the physiological properties of cells, as well as their behaviors, interactions, and environment. See also List of basic cell biology topics. Cell biology (also called cellular biology or formerly cytology, from the Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level. A microscope ( Greek: ( micron) = small + ( skopein) = to look or see is an instrument for viewing objects that are In Chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two Atoms in a definite arrangement held together by Cell biology researches both single-celled organisms like bacteria and specialized cells in multicellular organisms like humans. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus

Understanding cell composition and how they function is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. Appreciating the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly important in the fields of cell and molecular biology. These fundamental similarities and differences provide a unifying theme, allowing the principles learned from studying one cell type to be extrapolated and generalized to other cell types.

Genetics is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding History See also History of genetics The existence of genes was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822-1884 who in the 1860s studied inheritance Genes encode the information necessary for synthesizing proteins, which in turn play a large role in influencing (though, in many instances, not completely determining) the final phenotype of the organism. History See also History of genetics The existence of genes was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822-1884 who in the 1860s studied inheritance A phenotype is any observable characteristic of an Organism, such as its morphology, Development, biochemical or physiological properties In modern research, genetics provides important tools in the investigation of the function of a particular gene, or the analysis of genetic interactions. Epistasis is the Interaction between genes Epistasis takes place when the action of one Gene is modified by one or several other genes which are sometimes called Within organisms, genetic information generally is carried in chromosomes, where it is represented in the chemical structure of particular DNA molecules. A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and Protein that is found in cells. A DNA sequence or genetic sequence is a succession of letters representing the Primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA Molecule Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known In Chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two Atoms in a definite arrangement held together by

Developmental biology studies the process by which organisms grow and develop. Originating in embryology, modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation, and "morphogenesis," which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs, and anatomy. Embryology (from Greek grc ἔμβρυον embryon, "unborn embryo" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the development The term cell growth is used in two different ways in Biology. In Developmental biology, cellular differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized Cell type. MOrphogenesis is an EP by Industrial Black metal band.And Oceans. Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Model organisms for developmental biology include the round worm Caenorhabditis elegans, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, the zebrafish Brachydanio rerio, the mouse Mus musculus, and the weed Arabidopsis thaliana. A model organism is a Species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological Phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made Caenorhabditis elegans (ˌsiːnoʊræbˈdaɪtɪs ˈɛlɪgænz is a free-living Nematode (roundworm about 1  mm in length which Drosophila melanogaster (from the Greek for black-bellied dew-lover) is a two-winged insect that belongs to the Diptera, the order The zebrafish or zebra danio, Danio rerio, a Tropical Freshwater Fish belonging to the minnow family ( Cyprinidae) The House Mouse ( Mus musculus) is one of the most numerous species of the genus Mus commonly termed a Mouse. Arabidopsis thaliana ( A-ra-bi-dóp-sis tha-li-á-na; thale cress, mouse-ear cress or Arabidopsis) is a small

Physiological

Main articles: Physiology and Anatomy

Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration The theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but the principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied. Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of Botany concerned with the function or Physiology, of Plants Closely related fields include Plant morphology Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical For example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of human physiology to non-human species. Human physiology is the science of the mechanical physical and biochemical functions of Humans in good health their organs and the cells of which they are composed In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. Plant physiology also borrows techniques from both fields.

Anatomy is an important branch of physiology and considers how organ systems in animals, such as the nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and circulatory systems, function and interact. Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor The endocrine system is an integrated system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as Hormones The endocrine system is instrumental In living organisms a respiratory system functions to allow Gas exchange. This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" The study of these systems is shared with medically oriented disciplines such as neurology and immunology. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical Science that covers the study of all aspects of the Immune system in all Organisms It deals with

Evolution

In population genetics the evolution of a population of organisms is sometimes depicted as if travelling on a fitness landscape. The arrows indicate the preferred flow of a population on the landscape, and the points A, B, and C are local optima. The red ball indicates a population that moves from a very low fitness value to the top of a peak.
In population genetics the evolution of a population of organisms is sometimes depicted as if travelling on a fitness landscape. Population genetics is the study of the Allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four evolutionary forces Natural selection, Genetic eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology In Evolutionary biology, fitness landscapes or adaptive landscapes are used to visualize the relationship between Genotypes (or Phenotypes and The arrows indicate the preferred flow of a population on the landscape, and the points A, B, and C are local optima. The red ball indicates a population that moves from a very low fitness value to the top of a peak.
Main articles: Evolutionary biology, Evolution, Evolutionary synthesis, and Natural selection

Evolution is concerned with the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many taxonomically-oriented disciplines. Evolutionary biology is a sub-field of Biology concerned with the origin of Species from a Common descent, and Descent of species eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. Taxonomy, sometimes alpha taxonomy, is the Science of finding describing and categorising Organisms thus giving rise to taxonomic groups or taxa For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, botany, or herpetology, but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution. Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Reptiles, or members of the class Reptilia are air-breathing Cold-blooded Vertebrates that have skin covered in scales as opposed to hair or feathers Evolutionary biology is mainly based on paleontology, which uses the fossil record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of evolution, as well as the developments in areas such as population genetics and evolutionary theory. Palaeontology redirects here For the Scientific journal, see Palaeontology (journal. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. Population genetics is the study of the Allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four evolutionary forces Natural selection, Genetic In the 1980s, developmental biology re-entered evolutionary biology from its initial exclusion from the modern synthesis through the study of evolutionary developmental biology. The 1980s was the decade spanning from January 1 1980 to December 31 1989. Developmental Biology is the official journal of the Society for Developmental Biology. Evolutionary developmental biology ( evolution of development or informally evo-devo) is a field of Biology that compares the developmental processes Related fields which are often considered part of evolutionary biology are phylogenetics, systematics, and taxonomy. Biological systematics is the study of the diversity of Life on the planet Earth both past and present and the relationships among living things through time Taxonomy, sometimes alpha taxonomy, is the Science of finding describing and categorising Organisms thus giving rise to taxonomic groups or taxa

Up into the 19th century, it was believed that life forms were being continuously created under certain conditions (see spontaneous generation). The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar In the Natural sciences, Abiogenesis, or origin of life, is the study of how Life on Earth emerged from Inanimate Organic This misconception was challenged by William Harvey's diction that "all life [is] from [an] egg" (from the Latin "Omne vivum ex ovo"), a foundational concept of modern biology. William Harvey ( April 1, 1578 – June 3, 1657) was an English Physician who is credited with being the first in Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Biogenesis is the process of Lifeforms producing other lifeforms e It simply means that there is an unbroken continuity of life from its initial origin to the present time.

A group of organisms shares a common descent if they share a common ancestor. An ancestor is a Parent or ( recursively) the parent of an ancestor (i All organisms on the Earth have been and are descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral gene pool. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 In Population genetics, a gene pool is the complete set of unique Alleles in a Species or Population. This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about 3.5 billion years ago. This timeline of the evolution of life outlines the major events in the development Biologists generally regard the universality of the genetic code as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent (UCD) for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes (see: origin of life). The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material ( DNA or RNA sequences is translated into Proteins The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex In the Natural sciences, Abiogenesis, or origin of life, is the study of how Life on Earth emerged from Inanimate Organic

The two major traditional taxonomically-oriented disciplines are botany and zoology. Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of Botany is the scientific study of plants. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study the growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, and evolution of plant life. Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. MOrphogenesis is an EP by Industrial Black metal band.And Oceans. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Zoology involves the study of animals, including the study of their physiology within the fields of anatomy and embryology. Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Embryology (from Greek grc ἔμβρυον embryon, "unborn embryo" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the development The common genetic and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants is studied in molecular biology, molecular genetics, and developmental biology. Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Molecular genetics is the field of Biology which studies the structure and function of Genes at a molecular level Developmental Biology is the official journal of the Society for Developmental Biology. The ecology of animals is covered under behavioral ecology and other fields. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Behavioral ecology is the study of the ecological and evolutionary basis for Animal behavior, and the roles of behavior in enabling an animal to adapt to [6]

Taxonomy

A phylogenetic tree of all living things, based on rRNA gene data, showing the separation of the three domains bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes as described initially by Carl Woese. Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, presumably owing to rapid rRNA evolution. The exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated.
A phylogenetic tree of all living things, based on rRNA gene data, showing the separation of the three domains bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes as described initially by Carl Woese. A phylogenetic tree, also called an evolutionary tree, is a tree showing the Evolutionary relationships among various biological Species or other A phylogenetic tree, also called an evolutionary tree, is a tree showing the Evolutionary relationships among various biological Species or other Ribosomal RNA ( rRNA) is the central component of the Ribosome, the protein manufacturing machinery of all living cells. History See also History of genetics The existence of genes was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822-1884 who in the 1860s studied inheritance The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex Carl Richard Woese (born July 15 1928, Syracuse New York) is an American Microbiologist who attended Deerfield Academy Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, presumably owing to rapid rRNA evolution. The exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated.
Main article: Taxonomy

Classification is the province of the disciplines of systematics and taxonomy. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos Biological systematics is the study of the diversity of Life on the planet Earth both past and present and the relationships among living things through time Taxonomy, sometimes alpha taxonomy, is the Science of finding describing and categorising Organisms thus giving rise to taxonomic groups or taxa Taxonomy places organisms in groups called taxa, while systematics seeks to define their relationships with each other. A taxon (plural taxa) or taxonomic unit, is a name designating an organism or a group of Organisms In Biological nomenclature according to This classification technique has evolved to reflect advances in cladistics and genetics, shifting the focus from physical similarities and shared characteristics to phylogenetics. Cladistics is the hierarchical classification of Species based on evolutionary ancestry Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is

Traditionally, living things have been divided into five kingdoms:[7]

Monera -- Protista -- Fungi -- Plantae -- Animalia

However, many scientists now consider this five-kingdom system to be outdated. Monera are bacteria and other mostly tiny single-celled organisms whose genetic material is loose in the cell Protists (ˈproʊtɨst are a diverse group of eukaryotic Microorganisms Historically protists were treated as the kingdom Protista but this A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Modern alternative classification systems generally begin with the three-domain system:[8]

Archaea (originally Archaebacteria) -- Bacteria (originally Eubacteria) -- Eukarya

These domains reflect whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the cell exteriors. The three-domain system is a Biological classification introduced by Carl Woese in 1990 that divides cellular life forms into Archaea, The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex

Further, each kingdom is broken down continuously until each species is separately classified. The order is:

  1. Domain
  2. Kingdom
  3. Phylum
  4. Class
  5. Order
  6. Family
  7. Genus
  8. Species

The scientific name of an organism is obtained from its genus and species. In biological Taxonomy, a domain (also superregnum, superkingdom, or empire) is the highest Taxonomic rank of Organisms In biological Taxonomy, a kingdom or regnum is a Taxonomic rank in either (historically the highest rank or (in the new three-domain system A phylum ( Plural: phyla) is a Taxonomic rank between Kingdom and above Class. A class is the Taxonomic rank in the Biological classification of organisms in Biology below phylum and above order. This article is about the taxonomic rank for the sequence of species in a taxonomic list see Taxonomic order In scientific classification used In Biological classification, family ( Latin A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. For example, humans would be listed as Homo sapiens. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Homo would be the genus and sapiens is the species. Whenever writing the scientific name of an organism, it is proper to capitalize the first letter in the genus and put all of the species in lowercase; in addition the entire term would be put in italics or underlined. The term used for classification is called taxonomy. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos

There is also a series of intracellular parasites that are progressively "less alive" in terms of metabolic activity:

Viruses -- Viroids -- Prions

The dominant classification system is called Linnaean taxonomy, which includes ranks and binomial nomenclature. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable Viroids are Plant Pathogens that consist of a short stretch (a few hundred nucleobases) of highly complementary circular single-stranded A prion (ˈpriːɒn is thought to be an infectious agent that according to current scientific consensus is comprised entirely of a propagated, mis-folded Linnaean taxonomy is a method of classifying living things originally devised by (and named for Carolus Linnaeus, although it has changed considerably since his time How organisms are named is governed by international agreements such as the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN), the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), and the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB). The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature ( ICBN) is the set of rules and recommendations dealing with the formal Botanical names that are given to The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature is a set of rules in Zoology that have one fundamental aim to provide the maximum universality and continuity in the naming The International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria ( ICNB) governs the scientific names for Bacteria. A fourth Draft BioCode was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize naming in these three areas, but it has yet to be formally adopted. The Virus International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN) remains outside the BioCode. Virus classification involves naming and placing Viruses into a taxonomic system

Environmental

Main articles: Ecology, Ethology, Behavior, and Biogeography

Ecology studies the distribution and abundance of living organisms, and the interactions between organisms and their environment. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Ethology ( from Greek ἦθος ethos, "character" and λόγος logos, "knowledge") is the scientific study of Animal Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually Biogeography is the study of the distribution of Biodiversity over Space and Time. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and The environment of an organism includes both its habitat, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as climate and ecology, as well as the other organisms that share its habitat. Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Ecological systems are studied at several different levels, from individuals and populations to ecosystems and the biosphere. In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. As can be surmised, ecology is a science that draws on several disciplines.

Ethology studies animal behavior (particularly of social animals such as primates and canids), and is sometimes considered a branch of zoology. Ethology ( from Greek ἦθος ethos, "character" and λόγος logos, "knowledge") is the scientific study of Animal Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually A primate is a member of the biological order Primates ( Latin: "prime first rank" the group that contains Lemurs the Aye-aye The Canidae (ˈkænədiː ′kanə′dē family is a part of the order Carnivora within the Mammals (Class Mammalia Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the evolution of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of natural selection. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of In one sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose book "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals" influenced many ethologists. Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals is a book by the British naturalist Charles Darwin published in 1872, on how Humans

Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms on the Earth, focusing on topics like plate tectonics, climate change, dispersal and migration, and cladistics. Biogeography is the study of the distribution of Biodiversity over Space and Time. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences Cladistics is the hierarchical classification of Species based on evolutionary ancestry

Every living thing interacts with other organisms and its environment. See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and One reason that biological systems can be difficult to study is that so many different interactions with other organisms and the environment are possible, even on the smallest of scales. A microscopic bacterium responding to a local sugar gradient is responding to its environment as much as a lion is responding to its environment when it searches for food in the African savannah. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have The lion ( Panthera leo) is a member of the family Felidae and one of four Big cats in the Genus Panthera. A savanna or savannah is a Tropical or Subtropical Grassland or Woodland Ecosystem. For any given species, behaviors can be co-operative, aggressive, parasitic or symbiotic. Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually Distinguish from Corporation. Cooperation, co-operation, or coöperation is the process of working or acting together In Psychology and other social and Behavioral sciences aggression refers to behavior that is intended to cause harm Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek Matters become more complex when two or more different species interact in an ecosystem. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( Studies of this type are the province of ecology. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of

History

Main articles: History of biology and History of medicine

Although the concept of biology as a single coherent field arose in the 19th century, the biological sciences emerged from traditions of medicine and natural history reaching back to Galen and Aristotle in the ancient Greco-Roman world, which were then further developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians such as al-Jahiz,[9] Avicenna,[10] Avenzoar[11] and Ibn al-Nafis. The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times All human societies have medical beliefs that provide explanations for birth, Death, and Disease. All human societies have medical beliefs that provide explanations for birth, Death, and Disease. Natural history is the Scientific research of Plants or Animals leaning more towards the Observational than Experimental methods Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. The Greco-Roman or Graeco-Roman World, as understood by medieval and modern scholars geographers and miscellaneous writers refers to those geographical regions and countries Al-Jāḥiẓ (in Arabic الجاحظ (real name Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri) (born in Basra, c TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( [12] During the European Renaissance and early modern period, biological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism and the discovery of many novel organisms. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Prominent in this movement were Vesalius and Harvey, who used experimentation and careful observation in physiology, and naturalists such as Linnaeus and Buffon who began to classify the diversity of life and the fossil record, as well as the development and behavior of organisms. Andreas Vesalius ( Brussels, December 31, 1514 - Zakynthos, October 15, 1564) was an anatomist, Physician William Harvey ( April 1, 1578 – June 3, 1657) was an English Physician who is credited with being the first in Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for Georges-Louis Leclerc fr Comte de Buffon ( September 7, 1707 April 16, 1788) was a French naturalist, mathematician biologist FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. Microscopy revealed the previously unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view samples or objects Cell Theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, encouraged the growth of natural history. Natural theology is a branch of Theology based on Reason and ordinary Experience, explaining the gods rationally as part of the physical world In Philosophy, mechanism is a Theory that all natural phenomena can be explained by physical causes [13][14]

Over the 18th and 19th centuries, biological sciences such as botany and zoology became increasingly professional scientific disciplines. Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of An academic discipline or field of study is a branch of Knowledge which is taught or Researched at the college or university level Lavoisier and other physical scientists began to connect the animate and inanimate worlds through physics and chemistry. Explorer-naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography—laying the foundations for biogeography, ecology and ethology. (September 14 1769 &ndash May 6 1859 was a German naturalist and explorer, and the younger brother of the Prussian minister philosopher and linguist Biogeography is the study of the distribution of Biodiversity over Space and Time. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Ethology ( from Greek ἦθος ethos, "character" and λόγος logos, "knowledge") is the scientific study of Animal Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and the mutability of species. In Philosophy, essentialism is the view that for any specific kind of Entity, there is a set of Characteristics or Properties all of which In Biology and Ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a Species or group of taxa. Evolutionary thought, the idea that species change over time has roots in antiquity in the ideas of the Greeks, Romans, Chinese and Muslims Cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. Cell Theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. Embryology (from Greek grc ἔμβρυον embryon, "unborn embryo" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the development Palaeontology redirects here For the Scientific journal, see Palaeontology (journal. Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation and the rise of the germ theory of disease, though the mechanism of inheritance remained a mystery. In the Natural sciences, Abiogenesis, or origin of life, is the study of how Life on Earth emerged from Inanimate Organic The germ theory, also called the pathogenic theory of medicine, is a Theory that proposes that Microorganisms are the cause of many Diseases. [6][15][13]

In the early 20th century, the rediscovery of Mendel's work led to the rapid development of genetics by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his students, and by the 1930s the combination of population genetics and natural selection in the "neo-Darwinian synthesis". Gregor Johann Mendel ( July 20, 1822 &ndash January 6, 1884) was Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Thomas Hunt Morgan ( September 25, 1866 &ndash December 4, 1945) was an American geneticist and embryologist. Population genetics is the study of the Allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four evolutionary forces Natural selection, Genetic New disciplines developed rapidly, especially after Watson and Crick proposed the structure of DNA. Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004 Ph Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Following the establishment of the Central Dogma and the cracking of the genetic code, biology was largely split between organismal biology—the fields that deal with whole organisms and groups of organisms—and the fields related to cellular and molecular biology. The central dogma of molecular biology was first enunciated by Francis Crick in 1958 and re-stated in a Nature paper published in 1970 The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material ( DNA or RNA sequences is translated into Proteins See also List of basic cell biology topics. Cell biology (also called cellular biology or formerly cytology, from the Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level By the late 20th century, new fields like genomics and proteomics were reversing this trend, with organismal biologists using molecular techniques, and molecular and cell biologists investigating the interplay between genes and the environment, as well as the genetics of natural populations of organisms. Genomics is the study of an organism's entire Genome. The field includes intensive efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale Genetic Proteomics is the large-scale study of Proteins particularly their structures and functions. [16][17][18][19]

See also

References

  1. ^ King, TJ & Roberts, MBV (1986). Biology is the Study of Life and its processes Biologists study all aspects of living things including all of the many life forms on earth and the processes This is a list of notable Biologists. It includes zoologists botanists ornithologists malacologists naturalists and other specialities Biology: A Functional Approach. Thomas Nelson and Sons. ISBN 978-0174480358.  
  2. ^ Avila, Vernon L. (1995). Biology: investigating life on earth. Boston: Jones and Bartlett, 11—18. ISBN 0-86720-942-9.  
  3. ^ Mazzarello, P (1999). "A unifying concept: the history of cell theory". Nature Cell Biology 1: E13–E15. doi:10.1038/8964. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
  4. ^ Darwin, Charles (1859). On the Origin of Species, 1st, John Murray
  5. ^ Lynn, Richard; Van Court, Marilyn (2004). "New evidence of dysgenic fertility for intelligence in the United States". Intelligence 32 (2): p. 193. Ablex Pub. . doi:10.1016/j.intell.2003.09.002. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. ISSN 0160-2896. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.  
  6. ^ a b Futuyma, DJ (2005). Evolution. Sinauer Associates. ISBN 978-0878931873.  
  7. ^ Margulis, L; Schwartz, KV (1997). Lynn Margulis (born March 5, 1938) is an American Biologist and University Professor in the Department of Geosciences Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth, 3rd edition, WH Freeman & Co. ISBN 978-0716731832.  
  8. ^ Woese C, Kandler O, Wheelis M (1990). "Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 87 (12): 4576–9. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. ISSN 0027-8424. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication. PMID 2112744.  
  9. ^ Conway Zirkle (1941), Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 84 (1): 71-123.
  10. ^ D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67 (5), p. 447-450 [449].
  11. ^ Islamic medicine, Hutchinson Encyclopedia. The Hutchinson Encyclopedia is an English-language general Encyclopedia.
  12. ^ S. A. Al-Dabbagh (1978). "Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation", The Lancet 1, p. This article is about the journal For other uses of the term "lancet" see Lancet (disambiguation. 1148.
  13. ^ a b Mayr, E (1985). Ernst Walter Mayr ( July 5, 1904, Kempten, Germany &ndash February 3, 2005, Bedford Massachusetts U The Growth of Biological Thought. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0674364462.  
  14. ^ Magner, LN (2002). A History of the Life Sciences. TF-CRC. ISBN 978-0824708245.  
  15. ^ Coleman, W (1978). Biology in the Nineteenth Century: Problems of Form, Function and Transformation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521292931.  
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  19. ^ Smocovitis, VB (1996). Unifying Biology. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691033433.  

Further reading

External links

Biology at the Open Directory Project

Journal links

Dictionary

biology

-noun

  1. The science that studies all living matter in all its forms, with respect to the living organism or groups of organisms.
  2. The forms of life in a place, their behavior and interaction, and the study thereof.
  3. The structure, function, and behavior of an organism or type of organism.
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