Biological warfare (BW) — also known as a germ warfare, biological weapons and bioweaponry — is the use of any pathogen (bacterium, virus or other disease-causing organism) as a weapon of war. A pathogen (from Greek πάθος pathos "suffering passion" and γἰγνομαι (γεν- gignomai (gen- "I give birth to" infectious The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable A weapon is a Tool used either in Hunting, or attack or defence in Combat for the purpose of subduing enemy personnel or to destroy enemy weapons War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units Using nonliving toxic products, even if produced by living organisms (e. g. , toxins), is considered chemical warfare under the provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention. Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of Chemical substances to kill injure or incapacitate an enemy. The Chemical Weapons Convention ( CWC) is an Arms control agreement which outlaws the production stockpiling and use of chemical weapons Its full name is A BW weapon may be intended to kill, incapacitate or seriously impede on an individual as well as entire cities or places. It may also be defined as the material or defense against such employment. BW is a military technique that can be used by nation-states or non-national group. For the online game see Jennifer Government NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of State that derives its legitimacy In the latter case, or if a nation-state uses it clandestinely, it may also be considered bioterrorism. For the use of biological agents in warfare see Biological warfare.

Contents 1 Overview 2 History 2.1 The ancient world 2.2 Medieval biological warfare 2.3 Modern times 2.3.1 The 17th century 2.3.2 The 18th century 2.3.3 The 19th century 2.3.4 The 20th century 2.3.4.1 1937-1945 2.3.4.2 1946 to 1972 2.3.4.3 The Biological Weapons Convention 3 Biological weapons characteristics 3.1 Anti-personnel BW 3.2 Anti-agriculture BW 4 Biodefense 4.1 Role of public health departments and disease surveillance 4.2 Identification of bioweapons 5 List of BW institutions and programs by country 5.1 United States 5.2 United Kingdom 5.3 Soviet Union and Russia 5.4 Japan 5.5 Iraq 6 Treaties banning or restricting BW 7 List of people associated with BW 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links

Overview

The creation and stockpiling of biological weapons ("offensive BW") was outlawed by the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), signed by over 100 countries. The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction (usually referred to as the The BWC remains in force, and it prohibits storage, stockpiling, and usage of these weapons. The rationale behind the agreement is to avoid the devastating impact of a successful biological attack which could conceivably result in millions, possibly even billions of deaths and cause severe disruptions to societies and economies. However, the consensus among military analysts is that, except in the context of bioterrorism, BW is of little military use. For the use of biological agents in warfare see Biological warfare. Many countries pursue "defensive BW" research (defensive or protective applications) which are not prohibited by the BWC. As a tactical weapon, the main military problem with a BW attack is that it would take days to be effective, and therefore, unlike a nuclear or chemical attack, would not immediately stop an opposing force. Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of Chemical substances to kill injure or incapacitate an enemy. As a strategic weapon, BW is again militarily problematic, although with a possible exception with the Soviets, the weaponized biological agents did not spread from person to person. Spread is less of a concern for terrorists, but it was very much a concern for post-WWII BW development by major powers.

History

War Military History

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Biological warfare has been practiced repeatedly throughout history. War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units Military history is a Humanities discipline within the scope of general historical recording of armed conflict in the history of humanity Prehistoric warfare is War conducted in the era before Writing, and before the establishments of large social entities like States Historical warfare sets Ancient warfare is War as conducted from the beginnings of recorded History to the end of the ancient period Medieval Warfare is the warfare of the Middle Ages. In Europe technological cultural and social developments had forced a dramatic transformation in the character Early Modern warfare is associated with the start of the widespread use of Gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive Industrial warfare is a period in the History of warfare ranging roughly from the start of the Industrial Revolution to the beginning of the Information Age Modern warfare, although present in every Historical period of Military history, is generally used to refer to the concepts, methods and Battlespace is a unified strategy to integrate and combine Armed forces for the Military theatre of operations, including air, information Air power redirects here for electrical and mechanical energy supplied by air movement see Wind power Information warfare is the use and management of information in pursuit of a competitive advantage over an opponent Land warfare, sometimes also called ground combat is the term used to describe military operations eventuating in Combat that take place predominantly on the land surface of Naval warfare is Combat in and on Seas Oceans or any other major bodies of water such as large Lakes and wide Rivers History Space warfare is combat that takes place in Outer space, ie outside the Atmosphere. A weapon is a Tool used either in Hunting, or attack or defence in Combat for the purpose of subduing enemy personnel or to destroy enemy weapons Armoured warfare or tank warfare is the use of Armoured fighting vehicles in Modern warfare. Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine The Cavalry (from French cavalerie) is the second oldest of the Combat Arms, and as Soldiers or Warriors who fought mounted on Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of Chemical substances to kill injure or incapacitate an enemy. Electronic warfare ( EW) is the use of the Electromagnetic spectrum to effectively deny the use of this medium by an adversary while optimizing its use by friendly The Infantry is the oldest and most numerous of the Combat Arms in the Armed forces, and consists A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. The US Department of Defense defines psychological warfare ( PSYWAR) as" The planned use of Propaganda and other Psychological actions Military tactics ( Greek: Taktikē, the art of organizing an army are the techniques for using weapons or military units in combination for engaging and defeating This article is about the military strategy For the Israeli-Egyptian conflict see War of Attrition, for the game theoretical model see War of attrition (game Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc Maneuver warfare, also spelled manoeuvre warfare, is the term used by military theorists for a concept of Warfare that advocates attempting to Total war is a conflict of unlimited scope in which a Belligerent engages in a total mobilization of all available resources at his disposal Trench warfare is a form of warfare where both combatants have fortified positions and fighting lines are static Military strategy is a National defence policy implemented by Military organisations to pursue desired strategic goals Derived from the Greek Economic warfare is the term for economic policies followed as a part of Military operations during Wartime The purpose of economic warfare is to capture Grand strategy is military Strategy at the level of movement and use of an entire Nation state or Empire 's resources A military organization is a way of structuring the armed forces of a State as a need to offer Military capability required by the National defence policy A military organization is a way of structuring the armed forces of a State as a need to offer Military capability required by the National defence policy Military rank is a system of hierarchical relationships in Armed forces or civil institutions organized along military lines A military organization is a way of structuring the armed forces of a State as a need to offer Military capability required by the National defence policy Military Logistics is the art and science of planning and carrying out the movement and maintenance of military forces This article lists military technology items devices and methods Materiel (from the French "matériel" for equipment or hardware related to the word Material) is a term used in English to refer to the Military supply chain management is a cross-functional approach to procuring, producing and delivering products and services The broad This is an index to articles listing Battles. List of battles (alphabetical gives a global list See also Military History Antiquity Albania Agron ( 250 BC - 230 BC) The first king to unite the Illyrian This is a list of missions operations and projects Missions in support of other missions are not listed independently A Siege is a prolonged Military Assault and Blockade on a City or Fortress with the intent of conquering by force or Attrition See also List of military writers. Friedrich von Bernhardi Ivan Bloch John Boyd, inventor of the OODA Loop This is a listing of lists of Wars, sorted by country date region and type of conflict This article lists and summarizes War crimes committed since the Hague Convention of 1907. There is a bewildering array of Weapons far more than would be useful in list form This is a list of military writers, alphabetical by last name Before the 20th century, the use of biological agents took three major forms:

• Deliberate poisoning of food and water with infectious material
• Use of microorganisms, toxins or animals, living or dead, in a weapon system
• Use of biologically inoculated fabrics

The ancient world

During the 16th century B. A biological agent is an Infectious disease or Toxin that can be used in Bioterrorism or Biological warfare. In the context of Biology, poisons are substances that can cause damage, Illness, or Death to Organisms usually by Food is any substance usually composed primarily of Carbohydrates Fats water and/or Proteins that can be eaten or drunk by an Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. C, the Assyrians poisoned enemy wells with ergot, a fungus that would make the enemy delusional, and Solon of Athens used the poisonous herb Veratrum to poison the water supply of Phocaea during his siege of the city. The Assyrians are an Ethnic group whose origins lie in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria. The term enemy combatant has historically referred to members of the armed forces of the state with which another state is at war Ergot is the common name of a Fungus in the Genus Claviceps that is parasitic on certain grains and grasses A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Solon ( ancient Greek:, c 638 BC&ndash558 BC was an Athenian Statesman, Lawmaker and Lyric poet. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Veratrum is a genus of coarse highly Poisonous perennial Herbs of the Melanthiaceae family. This article is about the ancient city For the modern city see Foça Phocaea, or Phokaia, (Φώκαια (modern-day Foça During the 4th century B. C. Scythian archers used arrows with tips covered with animal feces to cause wounds to become infected. In Classical Antiquity, Scythia ( Greek Skuthia) was the area in Eurasia inhabited by the Scythians, from the 8th Feces, faeces, or fæces (see spelling differences) is a waste product from an animal's digestive tract expelled through the Anus An infection is the detrimental Colonization of a host Organism by a foreign Species. ^[1] In 204 B. C, Hannibal of Carthage had clay pots filled with venomous snakes and instructed his soldiers to throw the pots onto the decks of Pergamene ships^[2]. Hannibal (Pronounced in Phoenician: Hanniba'al means " Ba'al is my grace " or " Ba'al has given me grace " 247 BC &ndash A venomous snake is a Snake that uses modified saliva venom, usually delivered through highly specialized teeth such as hollow fangs for the purpose of Prey

Medieval biological warfare

The Mongol Empire established commercial and political connections between the Eastern and Western areas of the world, its Mongol armies and merchant caravans probably inadvertently brought bubonic plague from central Asia to the Middle East and Europe. The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire Bubonic plague is the best-known manifestation of the bacterial disease plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis (formerly known as The Black Death swept through Eurasia, killing approximately one third to one half of the population and changing the course of Asian and European history. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four.

During the Middle Ages victims of the bubonic plague were used for biological attacks, often by flinging their corpses and excrement over castle walls using catapults. Bubonic plague is the best-known manifestation of the bacterial disease plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis (formerly known as A catapult is any one of a number of non-handheld mechanical devices used to throw a Projectile a great distance without the aid of an explosive substance—particularly various In 1346 the bodies of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city of Kaffa (now Theodosia). This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band. It has been speculated that this operation may have been responsible for the advent of the Black Death in Europe. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia ^[3]

At the siege of Thun l’Eveque in 1340, the attackers catapulted decomposing animals into the besieged area. ^[4]

In 1422 during the siege of the Bohemian castle of Karlstein Hussite attackers used catapults to throw dead (but not plague-infected) bodies and 2000 carriage-loads of dung over the walls. A Siege is a prolonged Military Assault and Blockade on a City or Fortress with the intent of conquering by force or Attrition Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the See other locations named Karlštejn. Karlštejn (Karlstein is a large Gothic Castle founded in the 14th century The Hussites were a Christian movement following the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus or John Huss (c ^[1] The last known incident of using plague corpses for biological warfare occurred in 1710, when Russian forces attacked the Swedes by flinging plague-infected corpses over the city walls of Reval (Tallinn). Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. ^[5] However, during the 1785 siege of La Calle, Tunisian forces flung diseased clothing into the city. El Kala (القالة French: formerly La Calle) is a seaport of Algeria, in El Tarf Province, 56 miles (90 km by rail east of Annaba Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. ^[1]

Modern times

The 17th century

Though not deliberate germ warfare, which implies the deliberate use of germs against an enemy, the inadvertent spread of diseases across the Atlantic during the European age of exploration did tremendous damage to the indigenous populations of North and South America. An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic The effects of the "Columbian exchange" of diseases upon the Native Americans was catastrophic, reducing the population of affected tribes by as much as 50-90%. The Columbian Exchange has been one of the most significant events in the history of world Ecology, Agriculture, and Culture. ^{[6] [7]} When the Pilgrims arrived in the New World in 1620, the native population of the Plymouth area had already been virtually eliminated by diseases that arrived with European fishing expeditions to the waters of the Northeast. Pilgrims, or Pilgrim Fathers (or Pilgrim Mothers) is a name commonly applied to the early settlers of the Plymouth Colony in present-day Plymouth The Spanish conquest of the Aztecs in Mexico and the English predominance in North America might not have occurred if not for the devastating effect of diseases that had been previously unknown in the Americas and against which the local populations had not built up any immunities. Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political ^[8]

The 18th century

In September 1710, during Queen Anne's War, Iroquois Indian tribes used biological warfare against the British. ^[4] Native Americans were concerned that the British were becoming too strong compared to the French, and poisoned water sources with freshly killed animal hides, which would have presumably infected the water with E. coli and other enteric bacteria. ^[4] This caused an estimated 1000+ soldiers' deaths and is the first recorded instance of biological warfare in North America.

The Native American population was decimated after contact with the Old World due to the introduction of many different fatal diseases. For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans Asians and Africans in the 15th century There is, however, only one documented case of alleged germ warfare, involving British commander Lord Jeffrey Amherst and Swiss-British officer Colonel Henry Bouquet, whose correspondence included a reference to the idea of giving smallpox-infected blankets to Indians as part of an incident known as Pontiac's Rebellion which occurred during the Siege of Fort Pitt (1763) late in the French and Indian War. Field Marshal Jeffery Amherst 1st Baron Amherst of Montreal KB (sometimes spelled Geoffrey, or Jeffrey, he himself spelled his name as Henry Bouquet (1719 &ndash September 2, 1765) was a prominent British Army officer in the French and Indian War and Pontiac's War Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Pontiac's Rebellion was a war launched in 1763 by North American Indians who were dissatisfied with British policies in the Great Lakes region after For the 1885 action in the Canadian North-West Rebellion see the Battle of Fort Pitt The Siege of Fort Pitt took place in 1763 in what The French and Indian War (1754&ndash1763 was the North American chapter of the Seven Years' War. Any smallpox transmitted by Native American tribes was due to the transfer of the disease to blankets during transportation. Historians have been unable to establish whether or not this plan was implemented, particularly in light of the fact that smallpox was already present in the region. The roots of many diseases that killed millions of indigenous peoples in the Americas can be traced back to Eurasians living for millennia in close proximity with domesticated animals. Without long contact with domesticated animals, indigenous Americans had no resistance to plague, measles, tuberculosis, smallpox or most influenza strains. ^{[9] [10]} (Attempts by missionaries to provide inoculation to local tribespeople were usually met with suspicion, thus leaving the native population completely vulnerable to epidemics. ) Despite the lack of historical evidence, the claim that British and American soldiers used germ warfare against North American tribes has remained fairly strong in certain oral traditions and in popular culture. Such oral histories of smallpox infested blankets being used are especially strong in the oral traditions of native nations along the west coast of Canada.

The 19th century

In 1834 Cambridge Diarist Richard Henry Dana (Two Years Before the Mast; available in Project Gutenberg) visited San Francisco on a merchant ship. Richard Henry Dana Jr ( August 1, 1815 - January 6, 1882) was an American Lawyer and Politician, and author The City and County of San Francisco is the fourth most populous city His ship traded many items including blankets with Mexicans and Russians who had established outposts on the northern side of the San Francisco Bay. Local histories document that the California smallpox epidemic began at the Russian fort soon after they left. Blankets were a popular trading item, and the cheapest source of them was second-hand blankets which were often contaminated.

During the American Civil War, General Sherman reported that Confederate forces shot farm animals in ponds upon which the Union depended for drinking water. Causes of the war See also Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The coexistence of a slave-owning South The Confederate States of America (also called the Confederacy, the Confederate States, and CSA) formed as the government set up from 1861 This would have made the water unpleasant to drink, although the actual health risks from dead bodies of humans and animals which did not die of disease are minimal. After Disasters with extensive loss of life due to trauma &mdashearthquakes storms human conflict etc

The 20th century

The Geneva Protocol of 1925 prohibited the use of chemical weapons and biological weapons, but said nothing about production, storage or transfer; later treaties did cover these aspects. The Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating Poisonous or other Gases and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, usually called the Geneva Protocol Twentieth-century advances in microbiology enabled the first pure-culture biological agents to be developed by WWII. There was a period of development by many nations, and Japanese Unit 731, based primarily at Pingfan in occupied China and commanded by Shirō Ishii, did research on BW, conducted forced human experiments, often fatal, on prisoners, and provided biological weapons for attacks in China. was a covert biological and Chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during Pingfang (平房 today a district in the outskirts of Harbin, China (in the 1930s and 1940s a part of the Japanese puppet state Manchukuo) Pingfang was China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National was a Microbiologist and the Lieutenant general of Unit 731, a Biological warfare unit of the Imperial Japanese Army during the Second ^[11]. Biological experiments, often using twins with one subject to the procedure and the other as a control, were carried out by Nazi Germany on concentration camp inmates, particularly by Joseph Mengele. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people commonly in large groups without trial Dr Josef Mengele ( March 16, 1911 – February 7, 1979) was a German SS officer and a Physician in the

1937-1945

During the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) and World War II, Unit 731 of the Imperial Japanese Army conducted human experimentation on thousands, mostly Chinese and Korean. The Second Sino-Japanese War ( July 7, 1937 to September 9, 1945) was a major war fought between the Republic of China and the World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including was a covert biological and Chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during The Imperial Japanese Army ( IJA) ( Kyūjitai: 大日本帝國陸軍 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国陸軍 Romaji: Dai-Nippon Teikoku Human subject research (HSR or human subject use (HSU involves the use of human beings as research subjects China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. In military campaigns, the Japanese army used biological weapons on Chinese soldiers and civilians. This employment was often ineffective due to inefficient delivery systems, using disease-bearing insects rather than dispersing the agent as an aerosol cloud^[11]. Technically an aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas

During the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials the accused, such as Major General Kiyashi Kawashima, testified that as early as 1941 some 40 members of Unit 731 air-dropped plague-contaminated fleas on Changde. Khabarovsk War Crime Trials were a series of hearings held between December 25 - 31st 1949 in the Russian industrial city of Khabarovsk, (Хабáровск situated Plague is a deadly Infectious disease caused by the enterobacteria Yersinia pestis (Pasteurella pestis. Changde (常德 is a city in the north of Hunan Province China, with a population of around 6000000 These operations caused epidemic plague outbreaks. ^[12]. Some other firsthand accounts testify the Japanese infected civilians through the distribution of foodstuffs, such as dumplings and vegetables, contaminated with plague. There are also reports of contaminated water supplies. Three veterans of Unit 731 testified, in a 1989 interview to the Asahi Shimbun, that they were part of a mission to contaminate the Horustein river with typhoid near the Soviet troops during the Battle of Khalkhin Gol. was a covert biological and Chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during The is the second most circulated out of the five national Newspapers in Japan; the other four are the Yomiuri Shimbun, the Mainichi Shimbun Typhoid fever, also known as enteric fever, bilious fever, Yellow Jack or commonly just typhoid, is an illness caused by the Bacterium The Battle of Khalkhyn Gol (бои на реке Халхин-Гол Халхын голын байлдаан Japanese ノモンハン事件 Nomonhan jiken --i ^[13]

Such estimates report over 580,000 victims, largely due to plague and cholera outbreaks. Repeated seasonal outbreaks after the end of the war brought the death toll much higher.

In response to biological weapons development in Germany and Japan, the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada initiated a BW development program in 1941 that resulted in the weaponization of tularemia, anthrax, brucellosis, and botulism toxin. Tularemia (also known as "rabbit fever" "deer-fly fever" "Ohara fever" and "Francis disease" is a serious Infectious disease Anthrax is an acute Disease in humans and animals caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis which is highly lethal in some forms Brucellosis, also called undulant fever, or Malta fever, is a highly contagious Zoonosis caused by ingestion of unsterilized Milk Botulism ( Latin, botulus, "sausage" is a rare but serious Paralytic illness caused by Botulin Toxin. The center for U. S. military BW research was Fort Detrick, Maryland, where USAMRIID is currently based; the first director was pharmaceutical executive George W. Merck. Fort Detrick is a US Army Medical Command installation located in Frederick Maryland, USA The US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID pronounced you-SAM-rid is the U George W Merck (1894 - 1957 the son of George Merck, was an American scientist and president of Merck & Co Some biological and chemical weapons research and testing was also conducted at Dugway Proving Grounds" in Utah, at a munition manufacturing complex in Terre Haute, Indiana, and at a tract on Horn Island, Mississippi ^[14]. Dugway Proving Ground ( DPG) is a US Army facility located approximately 85 miles (140 km southwest of Salt Lake City Utah in southern Tooele County The State of Utah (ˈjuːtɔː or) is a western state of the United States. Terre Haute ( is a city in Vigo County, Indiana near the state's western border with Illinois. The State of Indiana ( was the 19th US state admitted into the union Horn Island is the name of Cape Horn, in Antártica Chilena Province of Magallanes y Antártica Chilena Region, Chile. Mississippi ( is a state located in the Deep South of the United States

Much of the British work was carried out at Porton Down. Porton Down is a UK government and military Science park. It is situated slightly northeast of Porton near Salisbury in Wiltshire, Field testing carried out in the United Kingdom during World War II left Gruinard island in Scotland contaminated with anthrax for the next 48 years. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Gruinard Island ('Eilean Ghruinneard' is a small oval-shaped Scottish island approximately 2 kilometres long by 1 km wide located in Gruinard Bay, about Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain.

1946 to 1972

During the 1948 Palestine war, Red Cross reports raised suspicion that the Jewish Haganah militia had released Salmonella typhi bacteria into the water supply for the city of Acre, causing an outbreak of typhoid among the inhabitants. The 1948 Palestine war refers to the events that happened in Palestine between the vote on the partition plan of Palestine on November 30, 1947 Haganah ( Hebrew: "The Defense" ההגנה was a Jewish Paramilitary organization in what was then the British Mandate of Palestine Salmonella enterica is a rod shaped Flagellated Gram-negative Bacterium, and a member of the Genus Salmonella Egyptian troops later captured disguised Haganah soldiers near wells in Gaza, whom they executed for allegedly attempting another attack. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Gaza Strip (قطاع غزة, רצועת עזה Retzu'at 'Azza) is a coastal strip of land along the Mediterranean Sea, bordering Egypt on the south-west Israel denies these allegations. ^[15][16]

During the Cold War US conscientious objectors were used as consenting test subjects for biological agents in a program known as Operation Whitecoat. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the A conscientious objector (CO is an individual who on religious moral or ethical grounds refuses to participate as a combatant in war or in some cases to take any role that would support Operation Whitecoat was the name given to a secret operation carried out by the US Army during the period 1954-1973 which included conducting medical experiments on volunteers ^[17] There were also many unpublicized tests carried out on the public during the Cold War. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the ^[18]

Considerable research on the topic was performed by the United States (see US Biological Weapon Testing), the Soviet Union, and probably other major nations throughout the Cold War era, though it is generally believed that biological weapons were never used after World War II. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including This view was challenged by China and North Korea, who accused the United States of large-scale field testing of biological weapons, including the use of disease-carrying insects against them during the Korean War (1950-1953). North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, Cuba also accused the US of spreading human and animal disease on their island. ^{[19] [20]} Recently revealed documents^[21][22] indicate that this was disinformation produced by Soviet intelligence. Disinformation is the deliberate dissemination of false Information.

At the time of the Korean War the US had only weaponized one agent, brucellosis (agent US), which is caused by Brucella suis. Brucellosis, also called undulant fever, or Malta fever, is a highly contagious Zoonosis caused by ingestion of unsterilized Milk The original weaponized form used the M114 bursting bomblet in M33 cluster bombs. While the specific form of the biological bomb was classified until some years after the Korean War, in the various exhibits of biological weapons that Korea alleged were dropped on their country nothing resembled an M114 bomblet. There were ceramic containers that had some similarity to Japanese weapons used against the Chinese in WWII, developed by Unit 731. ^[11] Some of the Unit 731 personnel were imprisoned by the Soviets, and would have been a potential source of information on Japanese weaponization.

The Korean War allegations also stressed the use of disease vectors, such as fleas, which, again, were probably a legacy of Japanese biological warfare efforts. Flea is the Common name for any of the small wingless Insects of the order Siphonaptera (some authorities use the name Aphaniptera The United States initiated its weaponization efforts with disease vectors in 1953, focused on plague-fleas, EEE-mosquitoes, and yellow fever - mosquitoes (OJ-AP). Flea is the Common name for any of the small wingless Insects of the order Siphonaptera (some authorities use the name Aphaniptera

The United States Air Force was not satisfied with the operational qualities of the M114/US and labeled it an interim item until the US Army Chemical Corps could deliver a superior weapon. The Air Force also changed its plans and wanted lethal biologicals. The Chemical Corps then initiated a crash program to weaponize anthrax (N) in the E61 1/2-lb hour-glass bomblet. Though the program was successful in meeting its development goals, the lack of validation on the infectivity of anthrax stalled standardization.

Around 1950 the Chemical Corps also initiated a program to weaponize tularemia (UL). Tularemia (also known as "rabbit fever" "deer-fly fever" "Ohara fever" and "Francis disease" is a serious Infectious disease Shortly after the E61/N failed to make standardization, tularemia was standardized in the 3. 4" M143 bursting spherical bomblet. This was intended for delivery by the MGM-29 Sergeant missile warhead and could produce 50% infection over a 7-square-mile (18 km²) area. The MGM-29 Sergeant was an American short-range solid fuel, Surface-to-surface missile developed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Unlike anthrax, tularemia had a demonstrated infectivity with human volunteers(Operation Whitecoat). Operation Whitecoat was the name given to a secret operation carried out by the US Army during the period 1954-1973 which included conducting medical experiments on volunteers Furthermore, although tularemia is treatable by antibiotics, treatment does not shorten the course of the disease.

In addition to the use of bursting bomblets for creating biological aerosols, the Chemical Corps started investigating aerosol-generating bomblets in the 1950s. The E99 was the first workable design, but was too complex to be manufactured. By the late 1950s the 4. 5" E120 spraying spherical bomblet was developed; a B-47 bomber with a SUU-24/A dispenser could infect 50% or more of the population of a 16-square-mile (41 km²) area with tularemia with the E120. The E120 was later superseded by dry-type agents.

Dry-type biologicals resemble talcum powder, and can be disseminated as aerosols using gas expulsion devices instead of a burster or complex sprayer. The Chemical Corps developed Flettner rotor bomblets and later triangular bomblets for wider coverage due to improved glide angles over Magnus-lift spherical bomblets. Weapons of this type were in advanced development by the time the program ended.

Richard Nixon signed an executive order on November 1969, which stopped production of biological weapons in the U. S. and allowed only scientific research of lethal biological agents and defensive measures such as immunization and biosafety. Immunization, or immunisation, is the process by which an individual's Immune system becomes fortified against an agent (known as the Biosafety: prevention of large-scale loss of Biological integrity, focusing both on Ecology and Human health The biological munition stockpiles were destroyed, and approximately 2,200 researchers became redundant^[14].

United States special forces and the CIA also had an interest in biological warfare, and a series of special munitions was created for their operations. The covert weapons developed for the military (M1, M2, M4, M5, and M32 - or Big Five Weapons) were destroyed in accordance with Nixon's executive order to end the offensive program. The Big Five was a series of biological weapons developed by the United States Army Chemical Corps' Special Operations Division (SOD at Fort Detrick Biological Warfare Laboratory (BWL for use by The CIA maintained its collection of biologicals well into 1975 when it became the subject of the senate Church Committee. The Church Committee is the common term referring to the United States Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, a

The Biological Weapons Convention

Main article: Soviet program of biological weapons

In 1972, the U. History 1928 - Revolutionary Military Council signed a decree about weaponization of Typhus. S. signed the Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention, which banned the "development, production and stockpiling of microbes or their poisonous products except in amounts necessary for protective and peaceful research. The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction (usually referred to as the " By 1996, 137 countries had signed the treaty; however it is believed that since the signing of the Convention the number of countries capable of producing such weapons has increased.

The Soviet Union continued research and production of offensive biological weapons in a program called biopreparat, despite having signed the convention. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Biopreparat ( Russian: Биопрепарат English "Biological substance preparation" was the Soviet Union 's major Biological warfare agency The United States was unaware of the program until Dr. Vladimir Pasechnik defected in 1989, and Dr. Kanatjan Alibekov, the first deputy director of Biopreparat defected in 1992. Colonel Kanatjan Alibekov (Канатжан Алибеков Қанатжан Әлібеков born 1950 — known as Ken Alibek since 1992 — is a former Biopreparat ( Russian: Биопрепарат English "Biological substance preparation" was the Soviet Union 's major Biological warfare agency

After the 1991 Persian Gulf War, Iraq admitted to the United Nations inspection team to having produced 19,000 l of concentrated botulinum toxin, of which approximately 10,000 l were loaded into military weapons; the 19,000 l have never been fully accounted for. This is approximately 3 times the amount needed to kill the entire current human population by inhalation,^[23] although in practice it would be impossible to distribute it so efficiently, and, unless it is protected from oxygen, it deteriorates in storage. ^[24]

On September 18, 2001 and for a few days after several letters were received by members of the U. Events 96 - Nerva is proclaimed Roman Emperor after Domitian is assassinated Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. S. Congress and media outlets containing anthrax spores: the attack killed five people. The identity of the perpetrator remains unknown as of 2008. See 2001 anthrax attacks. The 2001 Anthrax attacks in the United States, also known as Amerithrax from its Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI case name occurred over ^[25]

Biological weapons characteristics

Anti-personnel BW

Ideal characteristics of biological weapons targeting humans are high infectivity, high potency, availability of vaccines, and delivery as an aerosol.

Diseases most likely to be considered for use as biological weapons are contenders because of their lethality (if delivered efficiently), and robustness (making aerosol delivery feasible). Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas

The biological agents used in biological weapons can often be manufactured quickly and easily. The primary difficulty is not the production of the biological agent but delivery in an effective form to a vulnerable target.

For example, anthrax is considered an effective agent for several reasons. First, it forms hardy spores, perfect for dispersal aerosols. Second, pneumonic (lung) infections of anthrax usually do not cause secondary infections in other people. Thus, the effect of the agent is usually confined to the target. A pneumonic anthrax infection starts with ordinary "cold" symptoms and quickly becomes lethal, with a fatality rate that is 80% or higher. Finally, friendly personnel can be protected with suitable antibiotics.

A mass attack using anthrax would require the creation of aerosol particles of 1. 5 to 5 micrometres. Too large and the aerosol would be filtered out by the respiratory system. Too small and the aerosol would be inhaled and exhaled. Also, at this size, nonconductive powders tend to clump and cling because of electrostatic charges. This hinders dispersion. So the material must be treated to insulate and discharge the charges. The aerosol must be delivered so that rain and sun does not rot it, and yet the human lung can be infected. There are other technological difficulties as well.

Diseases considered for weaponization, or known to be weaponized include anthrax (TR), ebola, Marburg virus, plague (LE), cholera (HO), tularemia (SR & JT), brucellosis (US, AB, & AM), Q fever (OU), machupo, Coccidioides mycosis (OC), Glanders (LA), Melioidosis (HI), Shigella (Y), Rocky Mountain spotted fever(UY), typhus (YE), Psittacosis(SI), yellow fever (UT), Japanese B encephalitis (AN), Rift Valley fever (FA), and smallpox (ZL)^[14]. Anthrax is an acute Disease in humans and animals caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis which is highly lethal in some forms Ebola is the common term for a group of Viruses belonging to genus Ebolavirus, family Filoviridae, and for the disease which they The Marburg virus is the causative agent of Marburg haemorrhagic fever (also known as green monkey disease) Plague is a deadly Infectious disease caused by the enterobacteria Yersinia pestis (Pasteurella pestis. Cholera, sometimes known as Asiatic cholera or epidemic cholera, is an infectious Gastroenteritis caused by the Bacterium Tularemia (also known as "rabbit fever" "deer-fly fever" "Ohara fever" and "Francis disease" is a serious Infectious disease Brucellosis, also called undulant fever, or Malta fever, is a highly contagious Zoonosis caused by ingestion of unsterilized Milk Q fever is a disease caused by infection with Bolivian hemorrhagic fever ( BHF) also known as black typhus or Machupo virus, is a Hemorrhagic fever and zoonotic Infectious Coccidioidomycosis (also known as Valley fever, San Joaquin Valley Fever, California valley fever, desert fever and (incorrectly Glanders (from Middle English glaundres or Old French glandres, both meaning glands ( Latin: Malleus German Melioidosis (also called Whitmore disease or Nightcliff gardener's disease) is an Infectious disease caused by a Gram-negative Bacterium This article is about the bacteria For the disease see Shigellosis Shigella is a Genus of Gram-negative Rocky Mountain spotted fever is the most severe and most frequently reported Rickettsial illness in the United States. Typhus is any of several similar diseases caused by Louse -borne bacteria In Medicine ( Pulmonology) psittacosis &mdash also known as parrot disease, parrot fever, and ornithosis &mdash is a zoonotic Yellow fever (also called yellow jack, black vomit or sometimes American Plague) is an acute viral disease Japanese encephalitis ( Japanese: 日本脳炎 Nihon-nōen; previously known as Japanese B encephalitis to distinguish it from von Economo Rift Valley Fever (RVF is a viral Zoonosis (affects primarily domestic Livestock, but can be passed to humans causing Fever. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Naturally-occurring toxins that can be used as weapons include ricin (WA), SEB (UC), botulism toxin (XR), saxitoxin (TZ), and many mycotoxins. Ricin (ˈraɪ sɨn is a Protein Toxin that is extracted from the castor bean ( Ricinus communis) Staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB is the Toxin commonly associated with Food poisoning. Botulinum toxin is a Neurotoxin Protein produced by the Bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Saxitoxin ( STX) is a neurotoxin naturally produced by certain species of marine Dinoflagellates ( Alexandrium sp Mycotoxin (from the Greek μύκης (mykes mukos "fungus" is a Toxin produced by an organism of the Fungus kingdom which includes Mushrooms The organisms causing these diseases are known as select agents. In United States law, select agents are Pathogens or biological Toxins which have been declared by the U Their possession, use, and transfer are regulated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Select Agent Program. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services based in unincorporated

Anti-agriculture BW

Biological warfare can also specifically target plants to destroy crops or defoliate vegetation. The United States and Britain discovered plant growth regulators (i. e. , herbicides) during the Second World War, and initiated an Herbicidal Warfare program that was eventually used in Malaya and Vietnam in counter insurgency. A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed Herbicidal warfare is a form of warfare in which the objective is to destroy the plant-based ecosystem of an area for the purpose of disrupting agricultural food production or destroying British Malaya loosely described a set of states on the Malay Peninsula that were colonized by the British from the 18th and the 19th until the 20th century Agent Orange is the code name for a powerful Herbicide and Defoliant used by the U Though herbicides are chemicals, they are often grouped with biological warfare as bioregulators in a similar manner as biotoxins. A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed Scorched earth tactics or destroying livestock and farmland were carried out in the Vietnam war and Eelam War in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan Civil War is an Ongoing conflict on the Island -nation of Sri Lanka.

The United States developed an anti-crop capability during the Cold War that used plant diseases (bioherbicides, or mycoherbicides) for destroying enemy agriculture. A bioherbicide (or biopesticide is a Herbicide that is based on a living organism such as Fungi, bacteria or Protozoa, which eats or renders A mycoherbicide is a Bioherbicide based on a Fungus. In the United States In the United State House of Representatives, the Office It was believed that destruction of enemy agriculture on a strategic scale could thwart Sino-Soviet aggression in a general war. Diseases such as wheat blast and rice blast were weaponized in aerial spray tanks and cluster bombs for delivery to enemy water sheds in agricultural regions to initiate epiphytotics (epidemics among plants). Magnaporthe grisea, also known as rice blast fungus, rice rotten neck, rice seedling blight, blast of rice, oval leaf spot Magnaporthe grisea, also known as rice blast fungus, rice rotten neck, rice seedling blight, blast of rice, oval leaf spot When the United States renounced its offensive biological warfare program in 1969 and 1970, the vast majority of its biological arsenal was composed of these plant diseases.

In 1980s Soviet Ministry of Agriculture had successfully developed variants of foot-and-mouth disease and rinderpest against cows, African swine fever for pigs, and psittacosis to kill chicken. Foot-and-mouth disease ( FMD) or hoof-and-mouth disease ( Aphtae epizooticae) is a highly contagious and sometimes fatal viral Rinderpest is an infectious viral Disease of Cattle, domestic buffalo, and some Species of Wildlife. Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family African swine fever virus (ASFV is the causative agent of African swine fever Pigs, also called hogs or' swine', are Ungulates which have been domesticated as sources of food leather and similar products since ancient times In Medicine ( Pulmonology) psittacosis &mdash also known as parrot disease, parrot fever, and ornithosis &mdash is a zoonotic The chicken ( Gallus gallus, sometimes G gallus domesticus) is a domesticated Fowl which is traditionally believed to have descended from These agents were prepared to spray them down from tanks attached to airplanes over hundreds of miles. The secret program was code-named "Ecology". ^[14]

Attacking animals is another area of biological warfare intended to eliminate animal resources for transportation and food. In the First World War German agents were arrested attempting to inoculate draft animals with anthrax, and they were believed to be responsible for outbreaks of glanders in horses and mules. Glanders (from Middle English glaundres or Old French glandres, both meaning glands ( Latin: Malleus German The British tainted small feed cakes with anthrax in the Second World War as a potential means of attacking German cattle for food denial, but never employed the weapon. In the 1950s the United States had a field trial with hog cholera. Classical swine fever ( CSF) or hog cholera (also sometimes called pig plague based on the German word Schweinepest) is a highly contagious

Unconnected with inter-human wars, humans have deliberately introduced the rabbit disease Myxomatosis, originating in South America, to Australia and Europe, with the intention of reducing the rabbit population - which had a devastating but temporary results, with wild rabbit populations reduced to a fraction of their former size but survivors developing immunity and increasing again. Myxomatosis (commonly called 'myxi' is a disease which affects Rabbits It is caused by the Myxoma virus.

Biodefense

Main article: Biodefense

Role of public health departments and disease surveillance

It is important to note that all of the classical and modern biological weapons organisms are animal diseases, the only exception being smallpox. Biodefense refers to short term local usually Military measures to restore Biosecurity to a given group of persons in a given area &mdash in the Civilian Thus, in any use of biological weapons, it is highly likely that animals will become ill either simultaneously with, or perhaps earlier than humans. Indeed, in the largest biological weapons accident known -- the anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg) in the Soviet Union in 1979, sheep became ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the release point of the organism from a military facility in the southeastern portion of the city (known as Compound 19 and still off limits to visitors today, see Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak). Between 1924 and 1991 Yekaterinburg Russia was also known as Sverdlovsk and in railway timetables it still is Yekaterinburg (Екатеринбу́рг also romanized Ekaterinburg, formerly Sverdlovsk) is a major city in the central part of Russia The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Sverdlovsk anthrax leak is an incident when Spores of Anthrax were accidentally released from a military facility in the city of Sverdlovsk (formerly and now

Thus, a robust surveillance system involving human clinicians and veterinarians may identify a bioweapons attack early in the course of an epidemic, permitting the prophylaxis of disease in the vast majority of people (and/or animals) exposed but not yet ill. For example in the case of anthrax, it is likely that by 24 - 36 hours after an attack, some small percentage of individuals (those with compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the organism due to proximity to the release point) will become ill with classical symptoms and signs (including a virtually unique chest X-ray finding, often recognized by public health officials if they receive timely reports). A chest X-ray, commonly abbreviated CXR, is a projection radiograph ( X-ray) taken by a Radiographer, of the Thorax which is used By making these data available to local public health officials in real time, most models of anthrax epidemics indicate that more than 80% of an exposed population can receive antibiotic treatment before becoming symptomatic, and thus avoid the moderately high mortality of the disease.

Identification of bioweapons

The goal of biodefense is to integrate the sustained efforts of the national and homeland security, medical, public health, intelligence, diplomatic, and law enforcement communities. Biodefense refers to short term local usually Military measures to restore Biosecurity to a given group of persons in a given area &mdash in the Civilian Health care providers and public health officers are among the first lines of defense. In some countries private, local, and state (province) capabilities are being augmented by and coordinated with federal assets, to provide layered defenses against biological weapons attacks. The traditional approach toward protecting agriculture, food, and water: focusing on the natural or unintentional introduction of a disease being strengthened by focused efforts to address current and anticipated future biological weapons threats that may be deliberate, multiple, and repetitive.

The growing threat of biowarfare agents and bioterrorism has led to the development of specific field tools that perform on-the-spot analysis and identification of encountered suspect materials. For the use of biological agents in warfare see Biological warfare. One such technology, being developed by researchers from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), employs a "sandwich immunoassay", in which fluorescent dye-labeled antibodies aimed at specific pathogens are attached to silver and gold nanowires. The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ( LLNL) in Livermore California is a scientific research laboratory founded by the University of California in 1952 ^[26] Researchers at Ben Gurion University in Israel are developing a different device called the BioPen, essentially a "Lab-in-a-Pen", which can detect known biological agents in under 20 minutes using an adaptation of the ELISA, a similar widely employed immunological technique, that in this case incorporates fiber optics. Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (אוניברסיטת בן גוריון בנגב was founded in 1969, in Beersheba, Israel. Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay, also called ELISA, Enzyme ImmunoAssay or EIA, is a biochemical technique used mainly in Immunology ^[27]

List of BW institutions and programs by country

According to the United States Office of Technology Assessment, since disbanded, seventeen countries were believed to possess biological weapons in 1995: Libya, North Korea, South Korea, Iraq, Taiwan, Syria, Israel, Iran, China, Egypt, Vietnam, Laos, Cuba, Bulgaria, India, South Africa, and Russia. The Office of Technology Assessment ( OTA) was an office of the United States Congress from 1972 to 1995 Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially Laos (ˈlɑːoʊs or /ˈlaʊs/ officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a Landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending ^[14][28]

United States

Main article: US Biological Weapon Testing

• Fort Detrick, Maryland
  • United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID)
  • National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC)
  • Building 470
  • One-Million-Liter Test Sphere
  • Project Bacchus
  • Project Clear Vision
• Operation Whitecoat
• Project SHAD

United Kingdom

Main article: United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction#Biological weapons

• Porton Down
• Gruinard Island
• Nancekuke

Soviet Union and Russia

Main article: Soviet program of biological weapons

• Biopreparat
• Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak
• Stepnagorsk Scientific and Technical Institute for Microbiology, a bioweapons facility at Stepnogorsk, northern Kazakhstan
• Vector State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology, known as Vector
• Vozrozhdeniya Island
• Kirov bioweapons production facility, Kirov, Kirov Oblast
• Zagorsk smallpox production facility, Zagorsk
• Berdsk bioweapons production facility, Berdsk
• Institute of Applied Biochemistry, Omutninsk
• Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services

Japan

Main article: Japanese war crimes#Experiments on humans and biological warfare

• Unit 731
• Zhongma Fortress
• Unit 100
• Unit 2646
• Unit 8604
• Unit Ei 1644

Iraq

Main article: Iraq and weapons of mass destruction

(passim)

• Al Hakum
• Salman Pak facility

Treaties banning or restricting BW

• Geneva Protocol
• Biological Weapons Convention

List of people associated with BW

Bioweaponeers:

• Anton Dilger
• Paul Fildes
• Rihab Rashid Taha
• William C. Patrick III
• Kenneth Alibek
• Yuri Ovchinnikov

Writers and activists:

• Matthew Meselson
• Jeanne Guillemin
• Richard Preston

See also

• AIDS conspiracy theories
• Antibiotic resistance
• Asymmetric warfare
• Biological agent
• Biological hazard
• Biosecurity
• Causes of hypothetical future disasters
• Chemical warfare
• Ethnic bioweapon
• Exotic pollution
• Just a Couple of Days, a satirical novel involving biological weaponry
• List of infectious diseases
• Mortality from infectious diseases
• Pandemic
• Ten Threats identified by the United Nations
• Viruses in the Resident Evil series
• Weapons of mass destruction

References

Further reading

• Alibek, K. and S. Colonel Kanatjan Alibekov (Канатжан Алибеков Қанатжан Әлібеков born 1950 — known as Ken Alibek since 1992 — is a former Handelman. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World -- Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it. Delta (2000) ISBN 0-385-33496-6
• Crosby, Alfred W. , Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (New York, 1986).
• Endicott, Stephen and Edward Hagerman, The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea, Indiana University Press (1998). ISBN 0253334721
• Keith, Jim (1999). Jim Keith ( September 22, 1949 &ndash September 7, 1999) was an American author Biowarfare In America. Illuminet Press. ISBN 1-881532-21-6.  
• Knollenberg, Bernhard, "General Amherst and Germ Warfare," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 41 (1954-1955), 489-494.
• Mangold, Tom and Goldberg, Jeff (1999). Plague Wars: a true story of biological warfare. Macmillan, London. ISBN 0-333-71614-0.  
• Orent, Wendy (2004). Plague, The Mysterious Past and Terrifying Future of the World's Most Dangerous Disease. Simon & Schuster, Inc. , New York, NY. ISBN 0-7432-3685-8.  
• Pala, Christopher (19??), Anthrax Island
• Preston, Richard (2002), The Demon in the Freezer, New York: Random House. Richard Preston (b August 5, 1954) is a New Yorker writer and bestselling Author best-known for his alarming books about Infectious The Demon in the Freezer (2002 subtitled A True Story, is a non-fiction book on the Biological weapons (BW agents Smallpox and
• Woods, Lt Col Jon B. (ed. ), USAMRIID’s Medical Management of Biological Casualties Handbook, 6th edition, U.S. Army Medical Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland (April 2005). The US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID pronounced you-SAM-rid is the U
• Zelicoff, Alan and Bellomo, Michael (2005). Microbe: Are we Ready for the Next Plague?. AMACOM Books, New York, NY. ISBN 0-8144-0865-6.  

External links

• The Sunshine Project
• WHO: Health Aspects of Biological and Chemical Weapons
• Green Goo - Life In The Era Of Humane Genocide by Nick Szabo
• Encyclopaedia Britannica, Biological Weapon
• Center for Biosecurity of UPMC
• Council for Responsible Genetics
• Info on chemical and biological weapons for emergency and security personnel
• Potomac Institute Course Notes
• The Terrorist Threat, Parts I, II & III
• US Army Treatment Summary Sheet
• Failed establishment of an international Organisation for the Prohibition of Biological Weapons
• Monterey Institute of International Studies article on the Yellow Rain controversy
• Lewis, Susan K. The Monterey Institute of International Studies (MIIS pronounced 'Miss' an affiliate of Middlebury College, is a Graduate school in Monterey California History of Biowarfare, NOVA Online, 2001 (2003–04–24)
• DECONference: Yearly conference on decontamination, including a decontamination drill
• Drug Preparedness and Response to Terrorism
• alt.war.biological Usenet - Google
• Rapport counter measures of Coalition in War of Gulf
• Russian Biological and Chemical Weapons, a useful page about non-state weapons transfers with a lot of links to information from CRS, the GAO and NGOs. The Government Accountability Office ( GAO) is the Audit, Evaluation, and investigative arm of the United States Congress.
• Biological Weapons Effects Lists all known biological weapons
• Hidden history of US germ testing, BBC, 13 February 2006
• Uncovering bioterrorism Bert Weinstein on bioweapons on LLNL
• BioPen Senses BioThreats - Researchers at Ben Gurion University in Israel are working on a new tool for identifying BioThreats - November 2006 TFOT article

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