Sugar cane can be used as a biofuel or food. Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae

Renewable energy
Biofuels Biomass Geothermal Hydro power Solar power Tidal power Wave power Wind power

Biofuel (if cultivated, then also called agrofuel or agrifuel) can be broadly defined as solid, liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or derived from recently dead biological material, most commonly plants. Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production Geothermal power (from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth and therme, meaning heat is energy generated by heat stored in the earth or the collection Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by Hydropower, ie the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling water Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of Hydropower that converts the energy of Tides into electricity or other useful forms of power Wave power refers to the Energy of Ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to do useful work — including Electricity generation, Wind Power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form such as electricity using Wind turbines At the end of 2007 worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was Fuel is any material that is burned or altered in order to obtain energy Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. This distinguishes it from fossil fuel, which is derived from long dead biological material. Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust.

Biofuel can be theoretically produced from any (biological) carbon source. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles The most common by far is photosynthetic plants that capture solar energy. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life Many different plants and plant-derived materials are used for biofuel manufacture.

Biofuels are used globally and biofuel industries are expanding in Europe, Asia and the Americas. The most common use for biofuels is as liquid fuels for automotive transport. The use of renewable biofuels provides increased independence from petroleum and enhances energy security. The environmental benefits of Renewable energy technologies are widely recognised but the contribution thatthey can make to Energy security is less well known ^[1]

There are various current issues with biofuel production and use, which are presently being discussed in the popular media and scientific journals. These include: the effect of moderating oil prices, the "food vs fuel" debate, carbon emissions levels, sustainable biofuel production, deforestation and soil erosion, impact on water resources, human rights issues, poverty reduction potential, biofuel prices, energy balance and efficiency, and centralised versus decentralised production models. This article is about the price of crude oil see Gasoline usage and pricing for information about derivative motor fuels Food vs fuel is the dilemma regarding the risk of diverting farmland or crops for Biofuels production in detriment of the Food Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared Biofuels – transport fuels derived from plant materials – are entering the market driven by factors such as rising oil prices and the need for increased Deforestation is the conversion of Forested areas to non-forest land for use such as Arable land, Pasture, urban use logged area or wasteland Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Water resources are sources of Water that are useful or potentially useful to Humans Uses of water include Agricultural, industrial, Household Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled Poverty reduction (or poverty alleviation) is any process which seeks to reduce the level of Poverty in a community or amongst a group of people or countries

One of the greatest technical challenges is to develop ways to convert biomass energy specifically to liquid fuels for transportation. To achieve this, the two most common strategies are:

1. To grow sugar crops (sugar cane, sugar beet, and sweet sorghum^[2]), or starch (corn/maize), and then use yeast fermentation to produce ethanol (ethyl alcohol). Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae Sugar beet ( Beta vulgaris L a member of the Chenopodiaceae family is a plant whose root contains a high concentration of Sucrose. Sweet sorghum is any of the many varieties of Sorghum which have a high sugar content Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described
2. To grow plants that (naturally) produce oils, such as oil palm, soybean, algae, or jatropha. The oil palms ( Elaeis) comprise two species of the Arecaceae, or palm family Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms Jatropha is a Genus of approximately 175 Succulent plants Shrubs and Trees (some are Deciduous, like Jatropha When these oils are heated, their viscosity is reduced, and they can be burned directly in a diesel engine, or the oils can be chemically processed to produce fuels such as biodiesel. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a Fluid which is being deformed by either Shear stress or Extensional stress. A diesel engine is an Internal combustion engine which operates using the Diesel cycle (named after Dr Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based Diesel fuel consisting of short chain Alkyl ( Methyl or ethyl) Esters made by

Wood and its byproducts can be converted into biofuels such as woodgas, methanol or ethanol fuel. Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol, wood naphtha or wood spirits, is a Chemical compound Ethanol fuel is Ethanol (ethyl alcohol the same type of Alcohol found in Alcoholic beverages. Some researchers are working to improve these processes.

History and policy

Humans have used biomass fuels in the form of solid biofuels for heating and cooking since the discovery of fire. Following the discovery of electricity, it became possible to use biofuels to generate electrical power as well. However, the discovery and use of fossil fuels: coal, gas and oil, have dramatically reduced the amount of biomass fuel used in the developed world for transport, heat and power. Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit /biofuels-p2. html National Geographic, Green Dreams, Oct 2007]</ref> However, when large supplies of crude oil were discovered in Pennsylvania and Texas, petroleum based fuels became inexpensive, and soon were widely used. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania ( often colloquially referred to as PA (its abbreviation by natives and Northeasterners is a state located in the Northeastern Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Cars and trucks began using fuels derived from mineral oil/petroleum: gasoline/petrol or diesel. Mineral oil or liquid Petroleum is a By-product in the Distillation of Petroleum to produce Gasoline and other petroleum Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Diesel or Diesel fuel (ˈdiːzəl in general is any Fuel used in Diesel engines The most common is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum

Nevertheless, before World War II, and during the high demand wartime period, biofuels were valued as a strategic alternative to imported oil. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Wartime Germany experienced extreme oil shortages, and many energy innovations resulted. This include the powering of some of its vehicles using a blend of gasoline with alcohol fermented from potatoes, called Reichskraftsprit. In Britain, grain alcohol was blended with petrol by the Distillers Company Limited under the name Discol, and marketed through Esso's affiliate Cleveland. The Distillers Company Limited was a company formed in 1877 by a combination of six Scotch whisky distilleries Macfarlane & Co Esso (SO is an international trade name for ExxonMobil and its related companies

During the peacetime post-war period, inexpensive oil from the Middle East contributed in part to the lessened economic and geopolitical interest in biofuels. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Then in 1973 and 1979, geopolitical conflict in the Middle East caused OPEC to cut exports, and non-OPEC nations experienced a very large decrease in their oil supply. The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC) is a Cartel of thirteen countries made up of Algeria, Angola, Ecuador This "energy crisis" resulted in severe shortages, and a sharp increase in high demand oil-based products, notably petrol/gasoline. An energy crisis is any great bottleneck (or price Rise) in the supply of energy resources to an economy. Supply and demand is an Economic model describing effects on price and quantity in a Market. There was also increased interest from governments and academics in energy issues and biofuels. Throughout history, the fluctuations of supply and demand, energy policy, military conflict, and the environmental impacts, have all contributed to a highly complex and volatile market for energy and fuel. Supply and demand is an Economic model describing effects on price and quantity in a Market. See also Nuclear energy policy Energy policy is the manner in which a given entity (often governmental has decided to address issues of Energy development A military is an Organization authorized by its Nation to use force usually including use of Weapons in defending its Country (or by attacking

In the year 2000 and beyond, renewed interest in biofuels has been seen. The drivers for biofuel research and development include rising oil prices, concerns over the potential oil peak, greenhouse gas emissions (causing global warming and climate change), rural development interests, and instability in the Middle East. The phrase research and development (also R and D or more often R&D) according to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, refers Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences

Biomass

Main article: Biomass

Biomass is material derived from recently living organisms. Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production This includes plants, animals and their by-products. For example, manure, garden waste and crop residues are all sources of biomass. It is a renewable energy source based on the carbon cycle, unlike other natural resources such as petroleum, coal, and nuclear fuels. Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the Biosphere, Pedosphere, Geosphere, Hydrosphere, and Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified ( natural) form Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor is a device in which Nuclear chain reactions are initiated controlled

Animal waste is a persistent and unavoidable pollutant produced primarily by the animals housed in industrial sized farms. Researchers from Washington University have figured out a way to turn manure into biomass. Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production In April 2008 with the help of imaging technology they noticed that vigorous mixing helps microorganisms turn farm waste into alternative energy, providing farmers with a simple way to treat their waste and convert it into energy. ^[3]

There are also agricultural products specifically grown for biofuel production include corn, switchgrass, and soybeans, primarily in the United States; rapeseed, wheat and sugar beet primarily in Europe; sugar cane in Brazil; palm oil and miscanthus in South-East Asia; sorghum and cassava in China; and jatropha in India. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Panicum virgatum, commonly known as switchgrass, is a warm season Grass and is one of the dominant Species of the central North American Rapeseed ( Brassica napus) also known as rape, oilseed rape, rapa, rapaseed and (in the case of one particular group of Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Sugar beet ( Beta vulgaris L a member of the Chenopodiaceae family is a plant whose root contains a high concentration of Sucrose. Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae Palm oil is an edible plant oil derived from the Fruit of the Arecaceae Elaeis Oil palm. Miscanthus is a Genus of about 15 species of Perennial grasses native to subtropical and tropical regions of Africa and southern Sorghum is a genus of numerous species of grasses, some of which are raised for grain and many of which are used as Fodder plants either cultivated or as part The cassava, yuca, manioc, or mandioca ( Manihot esculenta) is a woody Shrub of the Euphorbiaceae (spurge family native Jatropha is a Genus of approximately 175 Succulent plants Shrubs and Trees (some are Deciduous, like Jatropha Hemp has also been proven to work as a biofuel. This article is about the cultivation and uses of industrial hemp not its psychoactive cousin Cannabis (drug. Biodegradable outputs from industry, agriculture, forestry and households can be used for biofuel production, either using anaerobic digestion to produce biogas, or using second generation biofuels; examples include straw, timber, manure, rice husks, sewage, and food waste. Biodegradation is the process by which organic substances are broken down by the enzymes produced by living organisms Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in which Microorganisms break down Biodegradable material in the absence of Oxygen. See also Natural gas, Biofuel Biogas typically refers to a Gas produced by the biological breakdown of Organic matter in the See also Biofuel Biofuel technologies are able to manufacture Biofuels from Biomass. The use of biomass fuels can therefore contribute to waste management as well as fuel security and help to prevent climate change, though alone they are not a comprehensive solution to these problems.

Bioenergy from waste

Using waste biomass to produce energy can reduce the use of fossil fuels, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and reduce pollution and waste management problems. A recent publication by the European Union highlighted the potential for waste-derived bioenergy to contribute to the reduction of global warming. The report concluded that 19 million tons of oil equivalent is available from biomass by 2020, 46% from bio-wastes: municipal solid waste (MSW), agricultural residues, farm waste and other biodegradable waste streams. ^[4][5]

Landfill sites generate gases as the waste buried in them undergoes anaerobic digestion. Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in which Microorganisms break down Biodegradable material in the absence of Oxygen. These gases are known collectively as landfill gas (LFG). See also Natural gas, Biofuel Biogas typically refers to a Gas produced by the biological breakdown of Organic matter in the This can be burned and is considered a source of renewable energy, even though landfill disposal are often non-sustainable. Landfill gas can be burned either directly for heat or to generate electricity for public consumption. Electric power is defined as the rate at which Electrical energy is transferred by an Electric circuit. Landfill gas contains approximately 50 percent methane, the same gas that is found in natural gas. Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane,

If landfill gas is not harvested, it escapes into the atmosphere: this is not desirable because methane is a greenhouse gas, with more global warming potential than carbon dioxide. Global warming potential (GWP is a measure of how much a given mass of Greenhouse gas is estimated to contribute to Global warming. ^[6][7] Over a time span of 100 years, methane has a global warming potential of 23 relative to CO₂. ^[6] Therefore, during this time, one ton of methane produces the same greenhouse gas (GHG) effect as 23 tons of CO₂. When methane burns the formula is CH₄ + 2O₂ = CO₂ + 2H₂O So by harvesting and burning landfill gas, its global warming potential is reduced a factor of 23, in addition to providing energy for heat and power. Energy recycling Cogeneration (also combined heat and power, CHP) is the use of a Heat engine or a Power station to simultaneously generate both

Frank Keppler and Thomas Rockmann discovered that living plants also produce methane CH₄. ^[8] The amount of methane produced by living plants is 10 to 100 times greater than that produced by dead plants (in an aerobic environment) but does not increase global warming because of the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the Biosphere, Pedosphere, Geosphere, Hydrosphere, and

Anaerobic digestion can be used as a distinct waste management strategy to reduce the amount of waste sent to landfill and generate methane, or biogas. Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in which Microorganisms break down Biodegradable material in the absence of Oxygen. See also Natural gas, Biofuel Biogas typically refers to a Gas produced by the biological breakdown of Organic matter in the Any form of biomass can be used in anaerobic digestion and will break down to produce methane, which can be harvested and burned to generate heat, power or to power certain automotive vehicles. Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in which Microorganisms break down Biodegradable material in the absence of Oxygen. Methane is a Chemical compound with the molecular formula. It is the simplest Alkane, and the principal component of Natural gas.

A 3 MW landfill power plant would power 1,900 homes. It would eliminate 6,000 tons per year of methane from getting into the environment. It would eliminate 18,000 tons per year of CO₂ from fossil fuel replacement. This is the same as removing 25,000 cars from the road, or planting 36,000 acres (146 km²) of forest, or not using 305,000 barrels of oil per year.

Liquid fuels for transportation

Most transportation fuels are liquids, because vehicles usually require high energy density, as occurs in liquids and solids. Energy density is the amount of Energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit Volume, or per unit Mass, depending on the context although Liquid is one of the principal States of matter. A liquid is a Fluid that has the particles loose and can freely form a distinct surface at the boundaries of A solid' object is in the States of matter characterized by resistance to Deformation and changes of Volume. Vehicles usually need high power density as can be provided most inexpensively by an internal combustion engine. In Engineering, the term specific power can refer to power either per unit of Mass, Volume or Area, although power per unit of The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the Combustion of Fuel and an Oxidizer (typically air occurs in a confined space called a These engines require clean burning fuels, in order to keep the engine clean and minimize air pollution. Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort The fuels that are easier to burn cleanly are typically liquids and gases. This page is about the physical properties of gas as a state of matter Thus only liquids meet the requirements of being both portable and clean burning. Also, liquids can be pumped, which means handling is easily mechanized, and thus less laborious. For information on Wikipedia project-related discussions see WikipediaVillage pump.

First generation biofuels

'First-generation biofuels' refer to biofuels made from sugar, starch, vegetable oil, or animal fats using conventional technology. Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide Animal fat s are rendered tissue fats that can be obtained from a variety of Animals Human nutrition Animal fats are often claimed to be ^[9] The basic feedstocks for the production of first generation biofuels are often seeds or grains such as wheat , which yields starch that is fermented into bioethanol, or sunflower seeds, which are pressed to yield vegetable oil that can be used in biodiesel. These feedstocks could also enter the animal or human food chain, and as the global population has risen their use in producing biofuels has been criticised for diverting food away from the human food chain, leading to food shortages and price rises.

The most common first generation biofuels are listed below.

Vegetable oil

Main article: Vegetable oil used as fuel

Vegetable oil can be used for either food or fuel; the quality of the oil may be lower for fuel use. For engines designed to burn #2 diesel fuel the Viscosity of vegetable oil must be lowered to allow for proper Atomization of fuel otherwise incomplete combustion Vegetable oil can be used in many older diesel engines (equipped with indirect injection systems), but only in warm climates. In an Internal combustion engine, the term indirect injection refers to a Fuel injection where fuel is not directly injected into the Combustion chamber In most cases, vegetable oil is used to manufacture biodiesel, which is compatible with most diesel engines when blended with conventional diesel fuel. MAN B&W Diesel, Wartsila and Deutz AG offer engines that are compatible with straight vegetable oil. MAN Diesel (formerly MAN B&W Diesel is is the world’s leading provider of large-bore Diesel enginess for Marine propulsion systems and Power plant applications Wärtsilä is a Finnish manufacturer of large ( Diesel) engines and Power plants The core business of Wärtsilä is marine diesel engines Deutz AG ( is a German engine manufacturer History The company was founded by Nikolaus Otto, Used vegetable oil is increasingly being processed into biodiesel, and at a smaller scale, cleaned of water and particulates and used as a fuel.

Biodiesel

Main articles: Biodiesel and Biodiesel around the world

Biodiesel is the most common biofuel in Europe. Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based Diesel fuel consisting of short chain Alkyl ( Methyl or ethyl) Esters made by This page describes the use and availability of Biodiesel in various countries around the world It is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is a liquid similar in composition to mineral diesel. In Organic chemistry, transesterification is the process of exchanging the Alcohol group of an Ester compound with another Alcohol. Its chemical name is fatty acid methyl (or ethyl) ester (FAME). A f atty a cid m ethyl e ster (FAME can be created by an Alkali catalyzed reaction between Fats or Fatty acids and Methanol Oils are mixed with sodium hydroxide and methanol (or ethanol) and the chemical reaction produces biodiesel (FAME) and glycerol. 1 part glycerol is produced for every 10 parts biodiesel.

Biodiesel can be used in any diesel engine when mixed with mineral diesel. A diesel engine is an Internal combustion engine which operates using the Diesel cycle (named after Dr In some countries manufacturers cover their diesel engines under warranty for 100% biodiesel use, although Volkswagen of Germany, for example, asks drivers to make a telephone check with the VW environmental services department before switching to 100% biodiesel (see biodiesel use). Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based Diesel fuel consisting of short chain Alkyl ( Methyl or ethyl) Esters made by Many people have run their vehicles on biodiesel without problems, although it can become thick/viscous at lower temperatures, depending on the feedstock used, and vehicles may require fuel line heaters. However, the majority of vehicle manufacturers limit their recommendations to 15% biodiesel blended with mineral diesel. Many newer diesel engines are made so that they can run with 100% biodiesel fuel without altering the engine itself, although this can be dependent on the fuel rail design. Since biodiesels burn cleaner than regular mineral diesel, filters may need to be replaced more often, especially as the biofuel dissolves old deposits in the fuel tank and pipes. In many European countries, a 5% biodiesel blend is widely used and is available at thousands of gas stations. ^[10][11]

In the USA, more than 80% of commercial trucks and city buses run on diesel. Therefore "the nascent U. S. market for biodiesel is growing at a staggering rate—from 25 million gallons per year in 2004 to 78 million gallons by the beginning of 2005. By the end of 2006 biodiesel production was estimated to increase fourfold to more than 1 billion gallons," energy expert Will Thurmond writes in an article for the July-August 2007 issue of THE FUTURIST magazine.

Bioalcohols

Main article: Alcohol fuel

Biologically produced alcohols, most commonly ethanol, and less commonly propanol and butanol, are produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation of sugars or starches (easiest), or cellulose (which is more difficult). Although Fossil fuels have become the dominant Energy resource for the modern world Alcohol has been used as a fuel throughout history In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon Propan-1-ol is a primary Alcohol with the formula CH3CH2CH2OH Butanol or butyl alcohol (sometimes also called biobutanol when produced biologically is a Primary alcohol with a 4 Carbon structure and the Molecular A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins Biobutanol (also called biogasoline) is often claimed to provide a direct replacement for gasoline, because it can be used directly in a gasoline engine (in a similar way to biodiesel in diesel engines). Butanol may be used as a Fuel in an Internal combustion engine.

Butanol is formed by ABE fermentation (acetone, butanol, ethanol) and experimental modifications of the process show potentially high net energy gains with butanol as the only liquid product. Butanol or butyl alcohol (sometimes also called biobutanol when produced biologically is a Primary alcohol with a 4 Carbon structure and the Molecular Clostridium acetobutylicum, included in the genus Clostridium, is a commercially valuable Bacterium. Butanol will produce more energy and allegedly can be burned "straight" in existing gasoline engines (without modification to the engine or car),^[12] and is less corrosive and less water soluble than ethanol, and could be distributed via existing infrastructures. DuPont and BP are working together to help develop Butanol. E I du Pont de Nemours and Company (,) is an American chemical company that was founded in July 1802 as a Gunpowder mill by Eleuthère Irénée BP plc, previously known as British Petroleum, is the third largest global Energy company, a multinational oil company (" Oil major

Ethanol fuel is the most common biofuel worldwide, particularly in Brazil. Ethanol fuel is Ethanol (ethyl alcohol the same type of Alcohol found in Alcoholic beverages. Brazil is the world's second largest producer of Ethanol and the world's largest exporter and it is considered to have the world's first Sustainable Alcohol fuels are produced by fermentation of sugars derived from wheat, corn, sugar beets, sugar cane, molasses and any sugar or starch that alcoholic beverages can be made from (like potato and fruit waste, etc. Although Fossil fuels have become the dominant Energy resource for the modern world Alcohol has been used as a fuel throughout history Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Sugar beet ( Beta vulgaris L a member of the Chenopodiaceae family is a plant whose root contains a high concentration of Sucrose. Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae Molasses or Treacle is a thick Syrup by-product from the processing of the Sugarcane or Sugar beet into Sugar. The potato is a Starchy Tuberous crop Vegetable from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. ). The ethanol production methods used are enzyme digestion (to release sugars from stored starches, fermentation of the sugars, distillation and drying. Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins See also Fermentation (biochemistry Ethanol fermentation is the biological process by which sugars such as Glucose, Fructose, and Sucrose Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Drying is a Mass transfer process resulting in the removal of water Moisture or moisture from another Solvent, by Evaporation from a Solid The distillation process requires significant energy input for heat (often unsustainable natural gas fossil fuel, but cellulosic biomass such as bagasse, the waste left after sugar cane is pressed to extract its juice, can also be used more sustainably). Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. Bagasse (sometimes spelled bagass) is the Biomass remaining after Sugarcane or Sorghum stalks are crushed to extract their juice and is

Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline; it can be mixed with gasoline to any percentage. Most existing automobile petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15% bioethanol with petroleum/gasoline. Gasoline with ethanol added has higher octane, which means that your engine can typically burn hotter and more efficiently. Octane is a straight-chain Alkane with the Chemical formula CH3(CH26CH3 In high altitude (thin air) locations, some states mandate a mix of gasoline and ethanol as a winter oxidizer to reduce atmospheric polloution emissions. An oxidizing agent or oxidising agent (also called an oxidant, oxidizer or oxidiser) can be defined as either a Chemical compound

Ethanol fuel has less BTU energy content, which means it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to go the same distance. Ethanol fuel is Ethanol (ethyl alcohol the same type of Alcohol found in Alcoholic beverages. More-expensive premium fuels contain less, or no, ethanol. In high-compression engines, less ethanol, slower-burning premium fuel is required to avoid harmful pre-ignition (knocking). Knocking (also called knock, detonation or spark knock, pinking in UK English or pinging in US English in spark-ignition Very-expensive aviation gasoline (Avgas) is 100 octane made from 100% petroleum. The high price of zero-ethanol Avgas does not include federal-and-state road-use taxes.

Ethanol is very corrosive to fuel systems, rubber hoses-and-gaskets, aluminum, and combustion chambers. WikipediaNaming A combustion chamber is the part of an Engine in which Fuel is burned It is therefore illegal to use fuels containing alcohol in aircraft (although at least one model of ethanol-powered aircraft has been developed, the Embraer EMB 202 Ipanema). WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Ethanol is incompatible with marine fiberglass fuel tanks (it makes them leak). For higher ethanol percentage blends, and 100% ethanol vehicles, engine modifications are required.

Corrosive ethanol cannot be transported in petroleum pipelines, so more-expensive over-the-road stainless-steel tank trucks increase the cost and energy consumption required to deliver ethanol to the customer at the pump.

In the current alcohol-from-corn production model in the United States, considering the total energy consumed by farm equipment, cultivation, planting, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides made from petroleum, irrigation systems, harvesting, transport of feedstock to processing plants, fermentation, distillation, drying, transport to fuel terminals and retail pumps, and lower ethanol fuel energy content, the net energy content value added and delivered to consumers is very small. Agricultural machinery is any kind of Machinery used on a Farm to help with Farming. Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed Fungicides are Chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill or inhibit fungi or fungal spores Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Ethanol fuel is Ethanol (ethyl alcohol the same type of Alcohol found in Alcoholic beverages. And, the net benefit (all things considered) does little to reduce un-sustainable imported oil and fossil fuels required to produce the ethanol. Sustainability, in a general sense is the capacity to maintain a certain process or state indefinitely ^[13]

Many car manufacturers are now producing flexible-fuel vehicles (FFV's), which can safely run on any combination of bioethanol and petrol, up to 100% bioethanol. A flexible-fuel vehicle (FFV or dual-fuel vehicle ( Colloquially called a flex-fuel vehicle) is an alternative fuel Automobile or They dynamically sense exhaust oxygen content, and adjust the engine's computer systems, spark, and fuel injection accordingly. This adds initial cost and ongoing increased vehicle maintenance. Efficiency falls and pollution emissions increase when FFV system maintenance is needed (regardless of the 0%-to-100% ethanol mix being used), but not performed (as with all vehicles). FFV internal combustion engines are becoming increasingly complex, as are multiple-propulsion-system FFV hybrid vehicles, which impacts cost, maintenance, reliability, and useful lifetime longevity. The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the Combustion of Fuel and an Oxidizer (typically air occurs in a confined space called a A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to propel the vehicle The word longevity is sometimes used as a synonym for " Life expectancy " in Demography.

Alcohol mixes with both petroleum and with water, so ethanol fuels are often diluted after the drying process by absorbing environmental moisture from the atmosphere. Ethanol fuel is Ethanol (ethyl alcohol the same type of Alcohol found in Alcoholic beverages. Water in alcohol-mix fuels reduces efficiency, makes engines harder to start, causes intermittent operation (sputtering), and oxidizes aluminum (carburetors) and steel components (rust). A carburetor (North American spelling or carburettor ( Commonwealth spelling) is a device that blends air and Fuel for an Internal Rust is a general term for a series of Iron oxides, usually red oxides formed by the reaction of Iron with Oxygen in the presence of water or air

Even dry ethanol has roughly one-third lower energy content per unit of volume compared to gasoline, so larger / heavier fuel tanks are required to travel the same distance, or more fuel stops are required. With large current un-sustainable, non-scalable subsidies, ethanol fuel still costs much more per unit of distance traveled than current high gasoline prices in the United States. Sustainability, in a general sense is the capacity to maintain a certain process or state indefinitely In Telecommunications and Software engineering, scalability is a desirable property of a system a network or a process which indicates its ability to either Ethanol fuel is Ethanol (ethyl alcohol the same type of Alcohol found in Alcoholic beverages. ^[14]

Methanol is currently produced from natural gas, a non-renewable fossil fuel. Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol, wood naphtha or wood spirits, is a Chemical compound Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, A natural resource qualifies as a renewable resource if it is replenished by natural processes at a rate comparable or faster than its rate of consumption by humans or other users Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. It can also be produced from biomass as biomethanol. Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production The methanol economy is an interesting alternative to the hydrogen economy, compared to today's hydrogen produced from natural gas, but not hydrogen production directly from water and state-of-the-art clean solar thermal energy processes. The methanol economy is a suggested future Economy in which Methanol replaces Fossil fuels as a mean of energy storage fuel and raw material for synthetic The hydrogen economy is a proposed method of deriving the Energy needed for Motive power (cars boats airplanes buildings or portable electronics by reacting Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, Hydrogen is commonly produced by extraction from Hydrocarbon Fossil fuels via a chemical path This article is about the Amiga demo for other uses see State of the art (disambiguation. Solar thermal energy ( STE) is a technology for harnessing Solar energy for Thermal energy ( Heat) ^[15]

BioGas

Main article: biogas

Biogas is produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by anaerobes. See also Natural gas, Biofuel Biogas typically refers to a Gas produced by the biological breakdown of Organic matter in the Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in which Microorganisms break down Biodegradable material in the absence of Oxygen. Organic matter (or organic material) is Matter that has come from a once-living Organism; is capable of An anaerobic organism is any Organism that does not require Oxygen for growth and may even die in its presence It can be produced either from biodegradable waste materials or by the use of energy crops fed into anaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields. An energy crop is a Plant grown as a low cost and low maintenance Harvest used to make Biofuels or directly exploited for its energy content Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in which Microorganisms break down Biodegradable material in the absence of Oxygen. The solid byproduct, digestate, can be used as a biofuel or a fertilizer. Digestate is solid material remaining after the anaerobic digestion of a Biodegradable feedstock In the UK, the National Coal Board experimented with microorganisms that digested coal in situ converting it directly to gases such as methane.

Biogas contains methane and can be recovered from industrial anaerobic digesters and mechanical biological treatment systems. Methane is a Chemical compound with the molecular formula. It is the simplest Alkane, and the principal component of Natural gas. A mechanical biological treatment system is a form of waste processing facility that combines a sorting facility with a form of biological treatment such as Composting or Landfill gas is a less clean form of biogas which is produced in landfills through naturally occurring anaerobic digestion. For other uses see Water treatment and Land reclamation. A landfill, also known as a dump (and historically as If it escapes into the atmosphere it is a potent greenhouse gas. Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared

Oils and gases can be produced from various biological wastes:

• Thermal depolymerization of waste can extract methane and other oils similar to petroleum. Thermal depolymerization ( TDP) is a process using Hydrous pyrolysis for the reduction of complex Organic materials (usually Waste products of
• GreenFuel Technologies Corporation developed a patented bioreactor system that uses nontoxic photosynthetic algae to take in smokestacks flue gases and produce biofuels such as biodiesel, biogas and a dry fuel comparable to coal. GreenFuel Technologies Corporation (GFT is a Startup that has developed a process of growing algae using emissions from Fossil fuel combustion and ^[16]

Solid biofuels

Examples include wood, grass cuttings, domestic refuse, charcoal, and dried manure. Manure is Organic matter used as Organic fertilizer in Agriculture.

Syngas

Main article: Gasification

Syngas is produced by the combined processes of pyrolysis, combustion, and gasification. Gasification is a process that converts carbonaceous materials such as Coal, Petroleum, or Biomass, into Carbon monoxide and Hydrogen Syngas (from syn thesis gas) is the name given to a gas mixture that contains varying amounts of Carbon monoxide and Hydrogen. Pyrolysis is the Chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of Oxygen or any other reagents except possibly Steam Gasification is a process that converts carbonaceous materials such as Coal, Petroleum, or Biomass, into Carbon monoxide and Hydrogen Biofuel is converted into carbon monoxide and energy by pyrolysis. Carbon monoxide, with the chemical formula CO is a colorless odorless tasteless yet highly toxic Gas. A limited supply of oxygen is introduced to support combustion. Gasification converts further organic material to hydrogen and additional carbon monoxide.

The resulting gas mixture, syngas, is itself a fuel. Using the syngas is more efficient than direct combustion of the original biofuel; more of the energy contained in the fuel is extracted.

Syngas may be burned directly in internal combustion engines. The wood gas generator is a wood-fueled gasification reactor mounted on an internal combustion engine. A wood gas generator often known as a gasifier is a wood-fueled Gasification reactor mounted on an Internal combustion engine, to provide a Wood gas Syngas can be used to produce methanol and hydrogen, or converted via the Fischer-Tropsch process to produce a synthetic petroleum substitute. Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol, wood naphtha or wood spirits, is a Chemical compound Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 The Fischer-Tropsch process (or Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis is a catalyzed chemical reaction in which synthesis gas ( Syngas) a mixture of Carbon monoxide Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Gasification normally relies on temperatures >700°C. Lower temperature gasification is desirable when co-producing biochar. Biochar is a Charcoal produced from Biomass that can store carbon

Second generation biofuels

Main article: Second generation biofuels

Supporters of biofuels claim that a more viable solution is to increase political and industrial support for, and rapidity of, second-generation biofuel implementation from non food crops, including cellulosic biofuels. See also Biofuel Biofuel technologies are able to manufacture Biofuels from Biomass. The term non food crop applies to the use of agricultural crop for uses other than human (as food) or animal consumption (as feed) Cellulosic ethanol also know by the name Ceetol, is a Biofuel produced from wood grasses or the non-edible parts of plants ^[17] Second-generation biofuel production processes can use a variety of non food crops. The term non food crop applies to the use of agricultural crop for uses other than human (as food) or animal consumption (as feed) These include waste biomass, the stalks of wheat, corn, wood, and special-energy-or-biomass crops (e. g. Miscanthus). Miscanthus is a Genus of about 15 species of Perennial grasses native to subtropical and tropical regions of Africa and southern Second generation (2G) biofuels use biomass to liquid technology, including cellulosic biofuels from non food crops. Biomass to liquid ( BTL) or BMTL is a (multi step process to produce liquid Biofuels from Biomass: The process uses the whole plant to improve the Cellulosic ethanol also know by the name Ceetol, is a Biofuel produced from wood grasses or the non-edible parts of plants The term non food crop applies to the use of agricultural crop for uses other than human (as food) or animal consumption (as feed) ^[18] Many second generation biofuels are under development such as biohydrogen, biomethanol, DMF, Bio-DME, Fischer-Tropsch diesel, biohydrogen diesel, mixed alcohols and wood diesel. Biohydrogen is Hydrogen produced via Biological processes Fermentation Biohydrogen gas can be extracted from Biomass through Dark fermentation Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol, wood naphtha or wood spirits, is a Chemical compound A derivative of Furan, 25-Dimethylfuran is a Heterocyclic compound of the formula C6H8O The Fischer-Tropsch process (or Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis is a catalyzed chemical reaction in which synthesis gas ( Syngas) a mixture of Carbon monoxide

Cellulosic ethanol production uses non food crops or inedible waste products and does not divert food away from the animal or human food chain. Cellulosic ethanol also know by the name Ceetol, is a Biofuel produced from wood grasses or the non-edible parts of plants The term non food crop applies to the use of agricultural crop for uses other than human (as food) or animal consumption (as feed) Lignocellulose is the "woody" structural material of plants. Lignocellulosic biomass refers to plant Biomass that is composed of Cellulose, Hemicellulose, and Lignin. This feedstock is abundant and diverse, and in some cases (like citrus peels or sawdust) it is a significant disposal problem.

Producing ethanol from cellulose is a difficult technical problem to solve. Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4 In nature, Ruminant livestock (like cattle) eat grass and then use slow enzymatic digestive processes to break it into glucose (sugar). Physiologically a ruminant is a Mammal of the order Artiodactyla that digests plant-based food by initially softening it within the animal's first stomach known Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. In cellulosic ethanol laboratories, various experimental processes are being developed to do the same thing, and then the sugars released can be fermented to make ethanol fuel. Cellulosic ethanol also know by the name Ceetol, is a Biofuel produced from wood grasses or the non-edible parts of plants

Scientists also work on experimental recombinant DNA genetic engineering organisms that could increase biofuel potential. Recombinant DNA is a form of synthetic DNA that is engineered through the combination or insertion of one or more DNA strands thereby combining DNA sequences Genetic engineering, Recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct

Third generation biofuels

Main article: Algae fuel

Algae fuel, also called oilgae or third generation biofuel, is a biofuel from algae. See also Algology Algae fuel, also called algal fuel, oilgae, algaeoleum or third generation biofuel, is a Biofuel Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms Algae are low-input/high-yield (30 times more energy per acre than land) feedstocks to produce biofuels^[19] and algae fuel are biodegradable:

• With the higher prices of fossil fuels (petroleum), there is much interest in algaculture (farming algae). Biodegradation is the process by which organic substances are broken down by the enzymes produced by living organisms Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit See also Algae Algaculture is a form of Aquaculture involving the farming of species of Algae.

• One advantage of many biofuels over most other fuel types is that they are biodegradable, and so relatively harmless to the environment if spilled. Biodegradation is the process by which organic substances are broken down by the enzymes produced by living organisms ^[20][21][22]

• The United States Department of Energy estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require 15,000 square miles (38,849 square kilometers), which is a few thousand miles larger than Maryland. The United States Department of Energy ( DOE) is a Cabinet -level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy Square Kilometre ( US spelling square kilometer) symbol km2, is a decimal multiple of the SI unit of ^[19]

Second and third generation biofuels are also called advanced biofuels.

On the other hand, an appearing fourth generation is based in the conversion of vegoil and biodiesel into gasoline. For engines designed to burn #2 diesel fuel the Viscosity of vegetable oil must be lowered to allow for proper Atomization of fuel otherwise incomplete combustion Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based Diesel fuel consisting of short chain Alkyl ( Methyl or ethyl) Esters made by ^[23]

Fourth generation biofuels

Craig Venter's company Synthetic Genomics is genetically engineering microorganisms to produce fuel directly from carbon dioxide on an industrial scale. J Craig Venter (born John Craig Venter October 14, 1946, Salt Lake City Utah) is an American Biologist, and businessman Synthetic Genomics is a company dedicated to using modified or synthetically produced Microorganisms to produce the Alternative fuels Ethanol and Hydrogen Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single ^[24]

Biofuels by country

Recognizing the importance of implementing bioenergy, there are international organizations such as IEA Bioenergy,^[25] established in 1978 by the OECD International Energy Agency (IEA), with the aim of improving cooperation and information exchange between countries that have national programs in bioenergy research, development and deployment. The International Energy Agency ( IEA, or AIE in Romance languages) is a Paris -based intergovernmental organization founded by the Organisation The U.N. International Biofuels Forum is formed by Brazil, China, India, South Africa, the United States and the European Commission. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The European Commission (formally the Commission of the European Communities) is the executive branch of the European Union. ^[26] The world leaders in biofuel development and use are Brazil, United States, France, Sweden and Germany.

See also: Biodiesel around the world

China

In China, the government is making E10 blends mandatory in five provinces that account for 16% of the nation's passenger cars. This page describes the use and availability of Biodiesel in various countries around the world China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National In Southeast Asia, Thailand has mandated an ambitious 10% ethanol mix in gasoline starting in 2007. The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj For similar reasons, the palm oil industry plans to supply an increasing portion of national diesel fuel requirements in Malaysia and Indonesia. For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. In Canada, the government aims for 45% of the country’s gasoline consumption to contain 10% ethanol by 2010. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page

India

Main article: Biofuels in India

In India, a bioethanol program calls for E5 blends throughout most of the country targeting to raise this requirement to E10 and then E20. Analysis from Frost & Sullivan, Strategic Analysis of the Indian Biofuels Industry, reveals that the market is an emerging one and has a long way to go before it catches

Europe

The European Union in its biofuels directive (updated 2006) has set the goal that for 2010 that each member state should achieve at least 5. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in The Directive on the Promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport, officially 2003/30/EC and popularly better known as the biofuels directive 75% biofuel usage of all used traffic fuel. By 2020 the figure should be 10%. As of January 2008 these aims are being reconsidered in light of certain environmental and social concerns associated with biofuels such as rising food prices and deforestation. ^[27]

France

France is the second largest biofuel consumer among the EU States in 2006. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. According to the Ministry of Industry, France's consumption increased by 62. 7% to reach 682,000 toe (i. The tonne of oil equivalent ( toe) is a unit of energy: the amount of energy released by burning one Tonne of Crude oil, approximately 42 e. 1. 6% of French fuel consumption). Biodiesel represents the largest share of this (78%, far ahead of bioethanol with 22%). The unquestionable biodiesel leader in Europe is the French company Diester Industrie. Bunge Limited (formerly Bunge International and prior to that Bunge Y Born) is a Bermudan food conglomerate with its headquarters in White Plains In bioethanol, the French agro-industrial group Téréos is increasing its production capacities. Germany itself remained the largest European biofuel consumer, with a consumption estimate of 2. 8 million tons of biodiesel (equivalent to 2,408,000 toe), 0. 71 million ton of vegetable oil (628. 492 toe) and 0. 48 million ton of bioethanol (307,200 toe).

Germany

The biggest biodiesel German company is ADM Ölmühle Hamburg AG, which is a subsidiary of the American group Archer Daniels Midland Company. The Archer Daniels Midland Company ( is a conglomerate based in Decatur Illinois. Among the other large German producers, MUW (Mitteldeutsche Umesterungswerke GmbH & Co KG) and EOP Biodiesel AG. MUW may refer to Mississippi University for Women, Columbus Mississippi Medical University of Vienna (German Medizinische Universität A major contender in terms of bioethanol production is the German sugar corporation, Südzucker. Südzucker AG ( is a German company the largest Sugar producer in Europe with an annual production of around 4 ^[28]

Spain

The Spanish group Abengoa, via its American subsidiary Abengoa Bioenergy, is the European leader in production of bioethanol. Abengoa ( is a Spanish Multinational corporation, which includes companies in the domains of Energy, Telecommunications, Transportation

Sweden

Main article: Biofuel in Sweden

The government in Sweden has together with BIL Sweden, the national association for the automobile industry, that are the automakers in Sweden started the work to end oil dependency. Sweden has achieved the largest E85 Flexible-fuel vehicle fleet in Europe, with a sharp growth from 717 vehicles in 2001 to 116695 by July 2008 One-fifth of cars in Stockholm can run on alternative fuels, mostly ethanol fuel. Ethanol fuel is Ethanol (ethyl alcohol the same type of Alcohol found in Alcoholic beverages. Also Stockholm will introduce a fleet of Swedish-made hybrid ethanol-electric buses. ('stɔkhɔlm is Sweden 's Capital and its largest City. It is the site of the national Swedish government, the parliament, and the In 2005, oil phase-out in Sweden by 2020 was announced. In 2005 the Government of Sweden announced their intention to make Sweden the first country to break its dependence on Petroleum, Natural gas ^[29]

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation (RTFO) (announced 2005) is the requirement that by 2010 5% of all road vehicle fuel is renewable. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation (RTFO in the United Kingdom is a requirement on transport fuel suppliers to ensure that by 2010, 5% of all road vehicle fuel In 2008 a critical report by the Royal Society stated that biofuels risk failing to deliver significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from transport and could even be environmentally damaging unless the Government puts the right policies in place. The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660 ^[30][31]

Brazil

Main article: Biofuel in Brazil

In Brazil, the government hopes to build on the success of the Proálcool ethanol program by expanding the production of biodiesel which must contain 2% biodiesel by 2008, increasing to 5% by 2013. Brazil is the world's second largest producer of Ethanol and the world's largest exporter and it is considered to have the world's first Sustainable

Colombia

Colombia mandates the use of 10% ethanol in all gasoline sold in cities with populations exceeding 500,000. Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. ^[32] In Venezuela, the state oil company is supporting the construction of 15 sugar cane distilleries over the next five years, as the government introduces a E10 (10% ethanol) blending mandate. Venezuela (ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə) officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish República Bolivariana de Venezuela) is a country on the

USA

Main article: Biofuel in the United States

In 2006, the United States president George W. Bush said in a State of the Union speech that the US is "addicted to oil" and should replace 75% of imported oil by 2025 by alternative sources of energy including biofuels. See also Renewable energy in the United States In today’s climate of rising automobile fuel prices and Oil peak some people have began to implement this The United States of America —commonly referred to as the George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States. The 2006 State of the Union Address was delivered by United States President George W

Essentially all of the ethanol fuel in the US is produced from corn. Ethanol fuel is Ethanol (ethyl alcohol the same type of Alcohol found in Alcoholic beverages. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Corn is a very energy intensive crop, which requires one unit of fossil-fuel energy to create just 0. 9 to 1. 3 energy units of ethanol. ^[33] A senior member of the House Energy and Commerce Committee Congressman Fred Upton has introduced legislation to use at least E10 fuel by 2012 in all cars in the USA. The US House Commerce Committee on Energy and Commerce is one of the oldest standing committees of the U For the cofounder of Whirlpool Corporation, see Frederick and Louis Upton.

The 2007-12-19 U. S. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 requires American “fuel producers to use at least 36 billion gallons of biofuel in 2022. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 ( originally named the CLEAN Energy Act of 2007) is an Act of Congress concerning the Energy policy of the This is nearly a fivefold increase over current levels. ”^[34] This is causing a significant agricultural resource shift away from food production to biofuels. American food exports have decreased (increasing grain prices worldwide), and US food imports have increased significantly.

Most biofuels are not currently cost-effective without significant subsidies. "America's ethanol program is a product of government subsidies. There are more than 200 different kinds, as well as a 54 cents-a-gallon tariff on imported ethanol. This prices Brazilian ethanol out of an otherwise competitive market. Brazil makes ethanol from sugarcane rather than corn (maize), which has a better EROEI. In Physics, Energy economics and ecological energetics, EROEI (Energy Returned on Energy Invested ERoEI, EROI (Energy Return On Federal subsidies alone cost $7 billion a year (equal to around $1. 90 a gallon). "^[35]

General Motors is starting a project to produce E85 fuel from cellulose ethanol for a projected cost of $1 a gallon. E85 is an Alcohol fuel mixture that typically contains a mixture of up to 85% denatured fuel ethanol and Gasoline or other hydrocarbon (HC by Cellulosic ethanol also know by the name Ceetol, is a Biofuel produced from wood grasses or the non-edible parts of plants This is optimistic however, because $1/gal equates to $10/MBTU which is comparable to woodchips at $7/MBTU or cord wood at $6-$12/MBTU, and this does not account for conversion losses and plant operating and capital costs which are significant. Woodchips are a Solid fuel made from woody Biomass. They are made in the process of Woodchipping with a Woodchipper. Firewood was the primary source of fuel until the 1800s when it was displaced by coal and later by oil The raw materials can be as simple as corn stalks and scrap petroleum-based vehicle tires,^[36] but used tires are an expensive feedstock with other more-valuable uses. GM has over 4 million E85 cars on the road now, and by 2012 half of the production cars for the U. S. will be capable of running on E85 fuel, however by 2012 the supply of ethanol will not even be close to supplying this much E85. Coskata Inc. is building two new plants for the ethanol fuel. Theoretically, the process is claimed to be five times more energy efficient than corn based ethanol, however it is still in development and has not been proven to be cost effective in a free market.

The greenhouse gas emissions are reduced by 86% for cellulose compared to corn’s 29% reduction.

Biofuels in developing countries

Biofuel industries are becoming established in many developing countries. Many developing countries have extensive biomass resources that are becoming more valuable as demand for biomass and biofuels increases. The approaches to biofuel development in different parts of the world varies. Countries such as India and China are developing both bioethanol and biodiesel programs. India is extending plantations of jatropha, an oil-producing tree that is used in biodiesel production. Jatropha is a Genus of approximately 175 Succulent plants Shrubs and Trees (some are Deciduous, like Jatropha The Indian sugar ethanol program sets a target of 5% bioethanol incorporation into transport fuel. ^[37] China is a major bioethanol producer and aims to incorporate 15% bioethanol into transport fuels by 2010. Costs of biofuel promotion programs can be very high, though. ^[38]

Amongst rural populations in developing countries, biomass provides the majority of fuel for heat and cooking. Wood, animal dung and crop residues are commonly burned. Figures from the International Energy Agency show that biomass energy provides around 30% of the total primary energy supply in developing countries; over 2 billion people depend on biomass fuels as their primary energy source. ^[39]

The use of biomass fuels for cooking indoors is a source of health problems and pollution. 1. 3 million deaths were attributed to the use of biomass fuels with inadequate ventilation by the International Energy Agency in its World Energy Outlook 2006. The International Energy Agency ( IEA, or AIE in Romance languages) is a Paris -based intergovernmental organization founded by the Organisation Proposed solutions include improved stoves and alternative fuels. However, fuels are easily damaged, and alternative fuels tend to be expensive. Very low cost, fuel efficient, low pollution biomass stove designs have existed since 1980 or earlier. ^[40] Issues are a lack of education, distribution, excess corruption, and very low levels of foreign aid. People in developing countries are often unable to afford these solutions without assistance or financing such as microloans. Developing countries are countries that haven't reached Western-style standards of democratic government free market economy industrialization social programs and human rights guaranties This article is specific to small loans For financial services to the poor see Microfinance. Organizations such as Intermediate Technology Development Group work to make improved facilities for biofuel use and better alternatives accessible to those who cannot get them. Practical Action is a development charity registered in the United Kingdom which works directly in four regions of the developing world – Latin America

Current issues in biofuel production and use

Biofuels are proposed as having such benefits as: reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, reduction of fossil fuel use, increased national energy security, increased rural development and a sustainable fuel supply for the future. Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. Access to cheap energy has become essential to the functioning of modern economies Note This article provides definition of Rural development See Rural Development for Rural Development Agency of the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA

However, biofuel production is questioned from a number of angles. The chairman of the International Panel on Climate Change, Rajendra Pachauri, notably observed in March 2008 that questions arise on the emissions implications of that route, and that biofuel production has clearly raised prices of corn, with an overall implication for food security. Rajendra Kumar Pachauri (born August 20, 1940, Nainital, India) is an Economist and environmental scientist who has ^{[41] [42]}

Biofuels are also seen as having limitations. The feedstocks for biofuel production must be replaced rapidly and biofuel production processes must be designed and implemented so as to supply the maximum amount of fuel at the cheapest cost, while providing maximum environmental benefits. Broadly speaking, first generation biofuel production processes cannot supply us with more than a few percent of our energy requirements sustainably. The reasons for this are described below. Second generation processes can supply us with more biofuel, with better environmental gains. The major barrier to the development of second generation biofuel processes is their capital cost: establishing second generation biodiesel plants has been estimated at €500million. ^[43]

Recently, an inflexion point about advantages/disadvantages of biofuels seems to be gaining momentum. The March 27, 2008 TIME magazine cover features the subject under the title "The Clean Energy Myth":

Politicians and Big Business are pushing biofuels like corn-based ethanol as alternatives to oil. Time (trademarked in capitals as TIME) is a weekly American Newsmagazine, similar to Newsweek and All they’re really doing is driving up world food prices, helping to destroy the Amazon jungle, and making global warming worse. ^[44]

In the June, 2008 issue of the journal Conservation Biology, scientists argue that because such large amounts of energy are required to grow corn and convert it to ethanol, the net energy gain of the resulting fuel is modest. Using a crop such as switchgrass, common forage for cattle, would require much less energy to produce the fuel, and using algae would require even less. Changing direction to biofuels based on switchgrass or algae would require significant policy changes, since the technologies to produce such fuels are not fully developed. ^[45]

Oil price moderation

The International Energy Agency's World Energy Outlook 2006 concludes that rising oil demand, if left unchecked, would accentuate the consuming countries' vulnerability to a severe supply disruption and resulting price shock. The International Energy Agency ( IEA, or AIE in Romance languages) is a Paris -based intergovernmental organization founded by the Organisation The report suggested that biofuels may one day offer a viable alternative, but also that "the implications of the use of biofuels for global security as well as for economic, environmental, and public health need to be further evaluated". ^[46]

Economists disagree on the extent that biofuel production affects crude oil prices. According to the Francisco Blanch, a commodity strategist for Merrill Lynch, crude oil would be trading 15 per cent higher and gasoline would be as much as 25 per cent more expensive, if it were not for biofuels. ^[47] Gordon Quaiattini, president of the Canadian Renewable Fuels Association, argued that a healthy supply of alternative energy sources will help to combat gasoline price spikes. ^[48] However, the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas concluded that "Biofuels are too limited in scale and currently too costly to make much difference to crude oil pricing. "^[49]

Rising food prices — the "food vs. fuel" debate

Main article: food vs fuel

This topic is internationally controversial. Food vs fuel is the dilemma regarding the risk of diverting farmland or crops for Biofuels production in detriment of the Food There are those, such as the National Corn Growers Association, who say biofuel is not the main cause. Some say the problem is a result of government actions to support biofuels. Others say it is just due to oil price increases. The impact of food price increases is greatest on poorer countries. ^[50] Some have called for a freeze on biofuels. Some have called for more funding of second generation biofuels which should not compete with food production so much. ^[51][52] In May 2008 Olivier de Schutter, the United Nations food adviser, called for a halt on biofuel investment. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security In an interview in Le Monde he stated: "The ambitious goals for biofuel production set by the United States and the European Union are irresponsible. Le Monde (The World is a I am calling for a freeze on all investment in this sector. " 100 million people are currently at risk due to the food price increases. ^[53]

Carbon emissions

Biofuels and other forms of renewable energy aim to be carbon neutral or even carbon negative. Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal Being carbon neutral, or carbon neutrality, refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered Carbon neutral means that the carbon released during the use of the fuel, e. g. through burning to power transport or generate electricity, is reabsorbed and balanced by the carbon absorbed by new plant growth. These plants are then harvested to make the next batch of fuel. Carbon neutral fuels lead to no net increases in human contributions to atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, reducing the human contributions to global warming. Being carbon neutral, or carbon neutrality, refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the A carbon negative aim is achieved when a portion of the biomass is used for carbon sequestration. ^[54] Calculating exactly how much greenhouse gas (GNG) is produced in burning biofuels is a complex and inexact process, which depends very much on the method by which the fuel is produced and the assumptions made in the calculation. Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared

The carbon emissions (Carbon footprint) produced by biofuels are calculated using a technique called Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). A carbon footprint is a "measure of the impact human activities have on the environment in terms of the amount of Greenhouse gases produced measured in units of carbon This uses a "cradle to grave" or "well to wheels" approach to calculate the total amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases emitted during biofuel production, from putting seed in the ground to using the fuel in cars and trucks. Many different LCAs have been done for different biofuels, with widely differing results. The majority of LCA studies show that biofuels provide significant greenhouse gas emissions savings when compared to fossil fuels such as petroleum and diesel. Therefore, using biofuels to replace a proportion of the fossil fuels that are burned for transportation can reduce overall greenhouse gas emissions. The well-to-wheel analysis for biofuels has shown that first generation biofuels can save up to 60% carbon emission and second generation biofuels can save up to 80% as opposed to using fossil fuels. ^[55] However these studies do not take into account emissions from nitrogen fixation, deforestation, land use, or any indirect emissions.

In October 2007, a study was published by scientists from Britain, U. S. , Germany and Austria, including Professor Paul Crutzen, who won a Nobel Prize for his work on ozone. Paul Jozef Crutzen (born December 3, 1933, Amsterdam) is a Dutch Nobel prize winning atmospheric chemist. They reported that the burning of biofuels derived from rapeseed and corn (maize) can contribute as much or more to global warming by nitrous oxide emissions than cooling by fossil fuel savings. Rapeseed ( Brassica napus) also known as rape, oilseed rape, rapa, rapaseed and (in the case of one particular group of Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Nitrous oxide, commonly known as " laughing gas," is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula N 2 O. Nitrous oxide is both a potent greenhouse gas and a destroyer of atmospheric ozone. But they also reported that crops with lower requirements for nitrogen fertilizers, such as grasses and woody coppicing will result in a net absorption of greenhouse gases. Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant Coppicing is a traditional method of Woodland management in which young tree stems are cut down to near ground level ^{[56] [57]}

In February 2008, two articles were published in Science which investigated the GHG emissions effects of the large amount of natural land that is being converted to cropland globally to support biofuels development. Science is the Academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and is considered one of the world's most prestigious Scientific ^[58] The first of these studies, conducted at the University of Minnesota,^[59] found that:

. The University of Minnesota Twin Cities ( U of M or The U) is the oldest and largest part of the University of Minnesota system. . . converting rainforests, peatlands, savannas, or grasslands to produce food-based biofuels in Brazil, Southeast Asia, and the United States creates a ‘biofuel carbon debt’ by releasing 17 to 420 times more CO₂ than the annual greenhouse gas (GHG) reductions these biofuels provide by displacing fossil fuels.

This study not only takes into account removal of the original vegetation (as timber or by burning) but also the biomass present in the soil, for example roots, which is released on continued plowing. It also pointed out that:

. . . biofuels made from waste biomass or from biomass grown on degraded and abandoned agricultural lands planted with perennials incur little or no carbon debt and can offer immediate and sustained GHG advantages. ^[59]

The second study, conducted at Princeton University,^[60] used a worldwide agricultural model to show that:

. Princeton University is a private Coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. . . corn-based ethanol, instead of producing a 20% savings, nearly doubles greenhouse emissions over 30 years and increases greenhouse gases for 167 years.

Both of the Science studies highlight the need for sustainable biofuels, using feedstocks that minimize competition for prime croplands. Biofuels – transport fuels derived from plant materials – are entering the market driven by factors such as rising oil prices and the need for increased These include farm, forest and municipal waste streams; energy crops grown on marginal lands, and algaes. These second generation biofuels feedstocks "are expected to dramatically reduce GHGs compared to first generation biofuels such as corn ethanol". In short, biofuels done unsustainably could make the climate problem worse, while biofuels done sustainably could play a leading role in solving the carbon challenge. ^[61]

Sustainable biofuel production

Main article: Sustainable biofuel

Responsible policies and economic instruments would help to ensure that biofuel commercialization, including the development of new cellulosic technologies, is sustainable. Biofuels – transport fuels derived from plant materials – are entering the market driven by factors such as rising oil prices and the need for increased Cellulosic ethanol also know by the name Ceetol, is a Biofuel produced from wood grasses or the non-edible parts of plants Sustainability, in a general sense is the capacity to maintain a certain process or state indefinitely Sustainable biofuel production practices would not hamper food and fibre production, nor cause water or environmental problems, and would actually enhance soil fertitlity. ^[62] Responsible commercialization of biofuels represents an opportunity to enhance sustainable economic prospects in Africa, Latin America and impoverished Asia. ^[63]

Soil erosion, deforestation, and biodiversity

It is important to note that carbon compounds in waste biomass that is left on the ground are consumed by other microorganisms. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually They break down biomass in the soil to produce valuable nutrients that are necessary for future crops. Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production A nutrient is food or chemicals that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment On a larger scale, plant biomass waste provides small wildlife habitat, which in turn ripples up through the food chain. A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species. The widespread human use of biomass (which would normally compost the field) would threaten these organisms and natural habitats. Compost (ˈkɒmpɒst or US /ˈkɒmpoʊst/ also known as brown manure is the aerobically decomposed remnants of Organic matter. When cellulosic ethanol is produced from feedstock like switchgrass and saw grass, the nutrients that were required to grow the lignocellulose are removed and cannot be processed by microorganisms to replenish the soil nutrients. Cellulosic ethanol also know by the name Ceetol, is a Biofuel produced from wood grasses or the non-edible parts of plants Panicum virgatum, commonly known as switchgrass, is a warm season Grass and is one of the dominant Species of the central North American Cladium ( Fen-sedge, Sawgrass or Twig-sedge) is a genus of large sedges with a world-wide distribution in tropical and temperate Lignocellulosic biomass refers to plant Biomass that is composed of Cellulose, Hemicellulose, and Lignin. The soil is then of poorer quality. Loss of ground cover root structures accelerates unsustainable soil erosion. Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind ^[64]

Significant areas of native Amazon rainforest have been cleared by slash and burn techniques to make room for sugar cane production, which is used in large part for ethanol fuel in Brazil, and growing ethanol exports. The Amazon Rainforest (Brazilian Portuguese: Floresta Amazônica or Amazônia; Spanish: Selva Amazónica or Amazonía Slash and burn consists of cutting and burning of Forests or Woodlands to create fields for Agriculture or Pasture for Livestock, or Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae Brazil is the world's second largest producer of Ethanol and the world's largest exporter and it is considered to have the world's first Sustainable Large-scale deforestation of mature trees (which help remove CO₂ through photosynthesis — much better than does sugar cane or most other biofuel feedstock crops do) contributes to un-sustainable global warming atmospheric greenhouse gas levels, loss of habitat, and a reduction of valuable biodiversity. Deforestation is the conversion of Forested areas to non-forest land for use such as Arable land, Pasture, urban use logged area or wasteland Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae Sustainability, in a general sense is the capacity to maintain a certain process or state indefinitely Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species. Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. ^[65] Demand for biofuel has led to clearing land for Palm Oil plantations^[66]. Palm oil is an edible plant oil derived from the Fruit of the Arecaceae Elaeis Oil palm.

A portion of the biomass should be retained onsite to support the soil resource. Normally this will be in the form of raw biomass, but processed biomass is also an option. If the exported biomass is used to produce syngas, the process can be used to co-produce biochar, a low-temperature charcoal used as a soil amendment to increase soil organic matter to a degree not practical with less recalcitrant forms of organic carbon. Syngas (from syn thesis gas) is the name given to a gas mixture that contains varying amounts of Carbon monoxide and Hydrogen. Biochar is a Charcoal produced from Biomass that can store carbon For co-production of biochar to be widely adopted, the soil amendment and carbon sequestration value of co-produced charcoal must exceed its net value as a source of energy. ^[67]

Impact on water resources

Increased use of biofuels puts increasing pressure on water resources in at least two ways: water use for the irrigation of crops used as feedstocks for biodiesel production; and water use in the production of biofuels in refineries, mostly for boiling and cooling.

In many parts of the world supplemental or full irrigation is needed to grow feedstocks. For example, if in the production of corn (maize) half the water needs of crops are met through irrigation and the other half through rainfall, about 860 liters of water are needed to produce one liter of ethanol. ^[68]

In the United States, the number of ethanol factories has almost tripled from 50 in 2000 to about 140 in 2008. A further 60 or so are under construction, and many more are planned. Projects are being challenged by residents at courts in Missouri (where water is drawn from the Ozark Aquifer), Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas (all of which draw water from the non-renewable Ogallala Aquifer), central Illinois (where water is drawn from the Mahomet Aquifer) and Minnesota. The Ogallala Aquifer, also known as the High Plains Aquifer, is a vast yet shallow underground Water table Aquifer located beneath the Great Plains The Mahomet Aquifer is the most important Aquifer in east-central Illinois. ^[69]

Social and Water impact in Indonesia

In some locations such as Indonesia deforestation for Palm Oil plantations is leading to displacement of Indigenous peoples. Also, extensive use of pesticide for biofuel crops is reducing clean water supplies. ^[70]

Environmental organizations stance

Some mainstream environmental groups support biofuels as a significant step toward slowing or stopping global climate change. However, biofuel production can threaten the environment if it is not done sustainably. This finding has been backed by reports of the UN,^[71] the IPCC,^[72] and some other smaller environmental and social groups as the EEB^[73] and the Bank Sarasin,^[74] which generally remain negative about biofuels. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security

As a result, governmental^[75] and environmental organisations are turning against biofuels made at a non-sustainable way (hereby preferring certain oil sources as jatropha and lignocellulose over palm oil)^[76] and are asking for global support for this. Jatropha is a Genus of approximately 175 Succulent plants Shrubs and Trees (some are Deciduous, like Jatropha Cellulosic ethanol also know by the name Ceetol, is a Biofuel produced from wood grasses or the non-edible parts of plants Palm oil is an edible plant oil derived from the Fruit of the Arecaceae Elaeis Oil palm. ^[77][78] Also, besides supporting these more sustainable biofuels, environmental organisations are redirecting to new technologies that do not use internal combustion engines such as hydrogen and compressed air. The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the Combustion of Fuel and an Oxidizer (typically air occurs in a confined space called a Zero emission refers to an Engine, Motor, or other energy source that emits no waste products that pollutes the environment or disrupts the climate ^[79]

The "Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels" is an international initiative which brings together farmers, companies, governments, non-governmental organizations, and scientists who are interested in the sustainability of biofuels production and distribution. During 2008, the Roundtable is developing a series of principles and criteria for sustainable biofuels production through meetings, teleconferences, and online discussions. Biofuels – transport fuels derived from plant materials – are entering the market driven by factors such as rising oil prices and the need for increased ^[80]

The increased manufacture of biofuels will require increasing land areas to be used for agriculture. Second and third generation biofuel processes can ease the pressure on land, because they can use waste biomass, and existing (untapped) sources of biomass such as crop residues and potentially even marine algae.

In some regions of the world, a combination of increasing demand for food, and increasing demand for biofuel, is causing deforestation and threats to biodiversity. The best reported example of this is the expansion of oil palm plantations in Malaysia and Indonesia, where rainforest is being destroyed to establish new oil palm plantations. It is an important fact that 90% of the palm oil produced in Malaysia is used by the food industry;^[81] therefore biofuels cannot be held solely responsible for this deforestation. There is a pressing need for sustainable palm oil production for the food and fuel industries; palm oil is used in a wide variety of food products. The Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels is working to define criteria, standards and processes to promote sustainably produced biofuels. ^[82] Palm oil is also used in the manufacture of detergents, and in electricity and heat generation both in Asia and around the world (the UK burns palm oil in coal-fired power stations to generate electricity).

Significant area is likely to be dedicated to sugar cane in future years as demand for ethanol increases worldwide. The expansion of sugar cane plantations will place pressure on environmentally-sensitive native ecosystems including rainforest in South America. ^[83] In forest ecosystems, these effects themselves will undermine the climate benefits of alternative fuels, in addition to representing a major threat to global biodiversity. ^[84]

Although biofuels are generally considered to improve net carbon output, biodiesel and other fuels do produce local air pollution, including nitrogen oxides, the principal cause of smog. The term nitrogen oxide typically refers to any Binary compound of Oxygen and Nitrogen, or to a mixture of such compounds Nitric Smog is a kind of Air pollution; the word "smog" is a Portmanteau of Smoke and Fog.

Potential for poverty reduction

Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have argued that biofuels could help to reduce poverty in the developing world, through increased employment, wider economic growth multipliers and energy price effects. The Overseas Development Institute (ODI is the United Kingdom 's leading independent Think tank on International development and humanitarian issues Employment is a Contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. Economic growth is the increase in the amount of the goods and services produced by an economy over time However, this potential is described as 'fragile', and is reduced where feedstock production tends to be large scale, or causes pressure on limited agricultural resources: capital investment, land, water, and the net cost of food for the poor.

With regards to the potential for poverty reduction or exacerbation, biofuels rely on many of the same policy, regulatory or investment shortcomings that impede agriculture as a route to poverty reduction. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Poverty reduction (or poverty alleviation) is any process which seeks to reduce the level of Poverty in a community or amongst a group of people or countries Since many of these shortcomings require policy improvements at a country level rather than a global one, they argue for a country-by-country analysis of the potential poverty impacts of biofuels. This would consider, among other things, land administration systems, market coordination and prioritising investment in biodiesel, as this 'generates more labour, has lower transportation costs and uses simpler technology'. Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based Diesel fuel consisting of short chain Alkyl ( Methyl or ethyl) Esters made by ^[85]

Biofuel prices

Retail, at the pump prices, including U. S. subsidies, Federal and state motor taxes, B2/B5 prices for low-level Biodiesel (B2-B5) are lower than petroleum diesel by about 12 cents, and B20 blends are the same per unit of volume as petrodiesel. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit ^[86]

Due to the 1/3 lower energy content of ethanol fuel, even the heavily-subsidized net cost to drive a specific distance in flexible-fuel vehicles is higher than current gasoline prices. Ethanol fuel is Ethanol (ethyl alcohol the same type of Alcohol found in Alcoholic beverages. A flexible-fuel vehicle (FFV or dual-fuel vehicle ( Colloquially called a flex-fuel vehicle) is an alternative fuel Automobile or

Energy efficiency and energy balance of biofuels

Production of biofuels from raw materials requires energy (for farming, transport and conversion to final product, and the production / application of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides), and has environmental consequences. In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed Fungicides are Chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill or inhibit fungi or fungal spores ^[87]

The energy balance of a biofuel is determined by the amount of energy put into the manufacture of fuel compared to the amount of energy released when it is burned in a vehicle. This varies by feedstock and according to the assumptions used. Biodiesel made from sunflowers may produce only 0. 46 times the input rate of fuel energy. ^[88] Biodiesel made from soybeans may produce 3. 2 times the input rate of fossil fuels. ^[89] This compares to 0. 805 for gasoline and 0. 843 for diesel made from petroleum. ^[90] Biofuels may require higher energy input per unit of BTU energy content produced than fossil fuels: petroleum can be pumped out of the ground and processed more efficiently than biofuels can be grown and processed. Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. However, this is not necessarily a reason to use oil instead of biofuels, nor does it have an impact on the environmental benefits provided by a given biofuel.

Studies have been done that calculate energy balances for biofuel production. Some of these show large differences depending on the biomass feedstock used and location. ^[91]

To explain one specific example, a June 17, 2006 editorial in the Wall. Events 1462 - Vlad III the Impaler attempts to assassinate Mehmed II ( The Night Attack) forcing him to retreat Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. St. Journal stated, "The most widely cited research on this subject comes from Cornell's David Pimental and Berkeley's Ted Patzek. They've found that it takes more than a gallon of fossil fuel to make one gallon of ethanol — 29% more. That's because it takes enormous amounts of fossil-fuel energy to grow corn (using fertilizer and irrigation), to transport the crops and then to turn that corn into ethanol. "^[92]

Life cycle assessments of biofuel production show that under certain circumstances, biofuels produce only limited savings in energy and greenhouse gas emissions. Fertiliser inputs and transportation of biomass across large distances can reduce the GHG savings achieved. The location of biofuel processing plants can be planned to minimize the need for transport, and agricultural regimes can be developed to limit the amount of fertiliser used for biomass production. A European study on the greenhouse gas emissions found that well-to-wheel (WTW) CO₂ emissions of biodiesel from seed crops such as rapeseed could be almost as high as fossil diesel. Rapeseed ( Brassica napus) also known as rape, oilseed rape, rapa, rapaseed and (in the case of one particular group of It showed a similar result for bio-ethanol from starch crops, which could have almost as many WTW CO₂ emissions as fossil petrol. This study showed that second generation biofuels have far lower WTW CO₂ emissions. ^[93]

Other independent LCA studies show that biofuels save around 50% of the CO₂ emissions of the equivalent fossil fuels. This can be increased to 80-90% GHG emissions savings if second generation processes or reduced fertiliser growing regimes are used. Further GHG savings can be achieved by using by-products to provide heat, such as using bagasse to power ethanol production from sugarcane. Bagasse (sometimes spelled bagass) is the Biomass remaining after Sugarcane or Sorghum stalks are crushed to extract their juice and is ^[94]

Collocation of synergistic processing plants can enhance efficiency. Within the area of Corpus linguistics, collocation is defined as a sequence of words or terms which co-occur more often than would be expected by chance Synergy (from the Greek el-Latn syn-ergo, el συνεργός meaning working together is the term used to describe a situation where the final outcome One example is to use the exhaust heat from an industrial process for ethanol production, which can then recycle cooler processing water, instead of evaporating hot water that warms the atmosphere. Recycling involves processing used materials into new products in order to prevent the waste of potentially useful materials reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials reduce ^[95]

Biofuels and solar energy efficiency

Biofuels from plant materials convert energy that was originally captured from solar energy via photosynthesis. Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. A comparison of conversion efficiency from solar to usable energy (taking into account the whole energy budgets) shows that photovoltaics are 100 times more efficient than corn ethanol^[96] and 10 times more efficient than the best biofuel. Photovoltaics ( PV) is the field of technology and research related to the application of Solar cells for Energy by converting Sunlight directly Corn ethanol is Ethanol produced from Corn as a Biomass through industrial fermentation chemical processing and distillation ^[97]

Centralised vs. decentralised production

There is debate around the best model for production.

One side sees centralised vegetable oil fuel production offering

   * efficiency   * greater potential for fuel standardisation   * ease of administrating taxes   * possibility for rapid expansion

The other side of the argument points to

   * increased fuel security   * rural job creation   * less of a 'monopolistic'  or 'oligopolistic' market due to the increased number of producers   * benefits to local economy as a greater part of any profits stay in the local economy   * decreased transportation and greenhouse gases of feedstock and end product   * consumers close to and able to observe the effects of production

The majority of established biofuel markets have followed the centralised model with a few small or micro producers holding a minor segment of the market. In Economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos, alone or single + polein, to sell exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient An oligopoly is a Market form in which a Market or Industry is dominated by a small number of sellers (oligopolists Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared A noticeable exception to this has been the pure plant oil (PPO) market in Germany which grew exponentially until the beginning of 2008 when increasing feedstock prices and the introduction of fuel duty combined to stifle the market. Fuel was produced in hundreds of small oil mills distributed throughout Germany often run as part of farm businesses.

Initially fuel quality could be variable but as the market matured new technologies were developed that made significantly improvements. As the technologies surrounding this fuel improved usage and production rapidly increased with rapeseed oil PPO forming a significant segment of transportation biofuels consumed in 2007.

see-

PRODUCTION OF VEGETABLE OILS IN DECENTRAL PLANTS AND ASPECTS OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT - INVESTIGATIONS ON PLANTS IN PRACTICE TO OPTIMISE THE PROCESS Bernhard Widmann Biomass for Energy and Industry 10th European Conference. (1998)

Rapeseel oil fuel from decentralized oil seed processing - Lectures of the community conference, 16 and 17 June 2005

Danish Folkecenter Publications about decentralised pure plant oil fuel production

Befraging von Betreibern dezentraler Olsaatenverarbeitungsanlagen

Processing in Decentralised Oil Mills also Decentralised Biodiesel Production in Agriculture

http://www.oaklandinstitute.org/pdfs/BIOCOMBUSTIBLES-English.pdf

http://oaklandinstitute.org/pdfs/biofuels_report.pdf

See also

References

External links

• World Bank, Biofuels: The Promise and the Risks. World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development
• Biofuels at the Open Directory Project
• IEEE Spectrum: How Much Water Does It Take to Make Electricity? -- Natural gas requires the least water to produce energy, biofuels the most, according to a new study