Bus run by biodiesel

Space-filling model of methyl linoleate, or linoleic acid methyl ester, a common methyl ester produced from soybean or canola oil and methanol.

Space-filling model of ethyl stearate, or stearic acid ethyl ester, an ethyl ester produced from soybean or canola oil and ethanol.

Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based diesel fuel consisting of short chain alkyl (methyl or ethyl) esters, made by transesterification of vegetable oil, which can be used (alone, or blended with conventional petrodiesel) in unmodified diesel-engine vehicles. Diesel or Diesel fuel (ˈdiːzəl in general is any Fuel used in Diesel engines The most common is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum An alkyl is a Univalent radical consisting of Carbon and Hydrogen atoms arranged in a chain In Chemistry, a methyl group is a Hydrophobic Alkyl Functional group named after Methane (4 Esters are a class of Chemical compounds and Functional groups Esters consist of an inorganic or organic Acid in which at least In Organic chemistry, transesterification is the process of exchanging the Alcohol group of an Ester compound with another Alcohol. A diesel engine is an Internal combustion engine which operates using the Diesel cycle (named after Dr Biodiesel is distinguished from the straight vegetable oil (SVO) (aka "waste vegetable oil", "WVO", "used vegetable oil", "UVO", "unwashed biodiesel", "pure plant oil", "PPO") used (alone, or blended) as fuels in some converted diesel vehicles. For engines designed to burn #2 diesel fuel the Viscosity of vegetable oil must be lowered to allow for proper Atomization of fuel otherwise incomplete combustion "Biodiesel" is standardized as mono-alkyl ester and other kinds of diesel-grade fuels of biological origin are not included. ^[1]

Blends

Blends of biodiesel and conventional hydrocarbon-based diesel are products most commonly distributed for use in the retail diesel fuel marketplace. Much of the world uses a system known as the "B" factor to state the amount of biodiesel in any fuel mix: fuel containing 20% biodiesel is labeled B20, while pure biodiesel is referred to as B100. It is common to see B99, since 1% petrodiesel is sufficiently toxic to retard mold. Blends of 20 percent biodiesel with 80 percent petroleum diesel (B20) can generally be used in unmodified diesel engines. Biodiesel can also be used in its pure form (B100), but may require certain engine modifications to avoid maintenance and performance problems. Blending B100 with petro diesel may be accomplished by:

• Mixing in tanks at manufacturing point prior to delivery to tanker truck
• Splash mixing in the tanker truck (adding specific percentages of Biodiesel and Petro Diesel)
• In-line mixing, two components arrive at tanker truck simultaneously.

Origin

On August 31, 1937, G. Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne Year 1937 ( MCMXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Chavanne of the University of Brussels (Belgium) was granted a patent for a 'Procedure for the transformation of vegetable oils for their uses as fuels' (fr. 'Procédé de Transformation d’Huiles Végétales en Vue de Leur Utilisation comme Carburants') Belgian Patent 422,877. This patent described the alcoholysis (often referred to as transesterification) of vegetable oils using ethanol (and mentions methanol) in order to separate the fatty acids from the glycerol by replacing the glycerol with short linear alcohols. This appears to be the first account of the production of what is known as 'biodiesel' today. ^[2]

Applications

Biodiesel can be used in pure form (B100) or may be blended with petroleum diesel at any concentration in most modern diesel engines. Biodiesel has different solvent properties than petrodiesel, and will degrade natural rubber gaskets and hoses in vehicles (mostly found in vehicles manufactured before 1992), although these tend to wear out naturally and most likely will have already been replaced with FKM, which is nonreactive to biodiesel. A solvent is a liquid or gas that dissolves a solid liquid or gaseous Solute, resulting in a Solution. A gasket is a mechanical seal that fills the space between two objects generally to prevent leakage between the two objects while under compression. A hose is a hollow tube designed to carry Fluids from one location to another FKM is the designation for about 80% of fluorinated Elastomers as defined in ASTM D1418 Biodiesel has been known to break down deposits of residue in the fuel lines where petrodiesel has been used. ^[3] As a result, fuel filters may become clogged with particulates if a quick transition to pure biodiesel is made. A fuel filter is a filter in the fuel line that screens out dirt and Rust particles from the fuel Therefore, it is recommended to change the fuel filters on engines and heaters shortly after first switching to a biodiesel blend.

Distribution

Biodiesel use and production are increasing rapidly. Fueling stations make biodiesel readily available to consumers across Europe, and increasingly in the USA and Canada. Consumers refers to individuals or households that use goods and services generated within the economy. A growing number of transport fleets use it as an additive in their fuel. Biodiesel is often more expensive to purchase than petroleum diesel but this is expected to diminish due to economies of scale and agricultural subsidies versus the rising cost of petroleum as reserves are depleted. An agricultural subsidy is a governmental Subsidy paid to Farmers and Agribusinesses to supplement their income manage the supply of agricultural

Vehicular use and manufacturer acceptance

In 2005, DaimlerChrysler released Jeep Liberty CRD diesels from the factory into the American market with 5% biodiesel blends, indicating at least partial acceptance of biodiesel as an acceptable diesel fuel additive. ^[4] In 2007, DiamlerChrysler indicated intention to increase warranty coverage to 20% biodiesel blends if biofuel quality in the United States can be standardized. ^[5]

Railroad use

The British businessman Richard Branson's Virgin Voyager train, number 220007 Thames Voyager ^[6], billed as the world's first "biodiesel train" was converted to run on 80% petrodiesel and only 20% biodiesel, and it is claimed it will save 14% on direct emissions. Sir Richard Charles Nicholas Branson (born 18 July 1950 is an English Business magnate, best known for his Virgin brand of over 360 companies The Class 220 Voyager is a class of Diesel-electric high-speed multiple-unit Trains built by Bombardier Transportation

Aircraft use

Aircraft manufacturers are understandably even more cautious, but a test flight has been performed by an ex Soviet Aircraft (completely powered on biofuel);^[7] testing has been announced by Rolls Royce plc, Air New Zealand and Boeing (one engine out of four on a Boeing 747);^[8] and commercial passenger jet testing has also been announced^[9] by Virgin Atlantic's Richard Branson. Rolls-Royce plc ( is a British Aircraft engine maker and the second-largest in the world behind GE Aviation. Air New Zealand Limited (, Air New Zealand is a scheduled passenger Airline based in Auckland, New Zealand, and the national Flag carrier The Boeing Company is a major Aerospace and defense corporation originally founded by William E WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Virgin Atlantic Airways Ltd (operating as Virgin Atlantic) is a British airline which is owned by Richard Branson 's Virgin Group (51% and Sir Richard Charles Nicholas Branson (born 18 July 1950 is an English Business magnate, best known for his Virgin brand of over 360 companies

The world's first biofuel-powered commercial aircraft took off from London's Heathrow Airport on February 24, 2008 and touched down in Amsterdam on a demonstration flight hailed as a first step towards "cleaner" flying. Events 303 - Galerius, Roman Emperor, publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Amsterdam (pronounced) is the capital and largest city of the Netherlands, located in the province of North Holland in the west The "BioJet" fuel for this flight was produced by Seattle based Imperium Renewables, Inc. ^[10]

As a heating oil

Biodiesel can also be used as a heating fuel in domestic and commercial boilers, sometimes known as bioheat. Bioheat is a blend of Biofuel and Heating oil (or No 2 Fuel Oil for off-road non-taxable heating applications Older furnaces may contain rubber parts that would be affected by biodiesel's solvent properties, but can otherwise burn biodiesel without any conversion required. Care must be taken at first, however, given that varnishes left behind by petrodiesel will be released and can clog pipes- fuel filtering and prompt filter replacement is required. Another approach is to start using biodiesel as blend, and decreasing the petroleum proportion over time can allow the varnishes to come off more gradually and be less likely to clog. Thanks to its strong solvent properties, however, the furnace is cleaned out and generally becomes more efficient. A technical research paper ^[11] describes laboratory research and field trials project using pure biodiesel and biodiesel blends as a heating fuel in oil fired boilers. During the Biodiesel Expo 2006 in the UK, Andrew J. Robertson presented his biodiesel heating oil research from his technical paper and suggested that B20 biodiesel could reduce UK household CO₂ emissions by 1. 5 million tonnes per year

Historical background

Transesterification of a vegetable oil was conducted as early as 1853 by scientists E. In Organic chemistry, transesterification is the process of exchanging the Alcohol group of an Ester compound with another Alcohol. Duffy and J. Patrick, many years before the first diesel engine became functional. A diesel engine is an Internal combustion engine which operates using the Diesel cycle (named after Dr Rudolf Diesel's prime model, a single 10 ft (3 m) iron cylinder with a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the first time in Augsburg, Germany, on August 10, 1893. Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (ˈʁuːdɔlf ˈkʁɪstjan ˈkaʁl ˈdiːzəl March 18, 1858 – last seen alive September 29, 1913) was a Augsburg is an independent City in the south-west of Bavaria. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Events 612 BC - Killing of Sinsharishkun, King of Assyrian Empire Year 1893 ( MDCCCXCIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common In remembrance of this event, August 10 has been declared "International Biodiesel Day". Events 612 BC - Killing of Sinsharishkun, King of Assyrian Empire

Rudolf Diesel demonstrated a Diesel engine running on peanut oil (at the request of the French government) built by the French Otto Company at the World Fair in Paris, France in 1900, where it received the Grand Prix (highest prize). Expo (short for "exposition" and also known as World Fair and World's Fair) is the name given to various large public exhibitions held since the Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. ^[12]

This engine stood as an example of Diesel's vision because it was powered by peanut oil — a biofuel, though not biodiesel, since it was not transesterified. The peanut, or Groundnut ( Arachis hypogaea) is a species in the Legume family Fabaceae native to South America, Mexico He believed that the utilization of biomass fuel was the real future of his engine. In a 1912 speech Diesel said, "the use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant today but such oils may become, in the course of time, as important as petroleum and the coal-tar products of the present time. Coal tar is a brown or black liquid of high Viscosity, which smells of Naphthalene and Aromatic hydrocarbons Coal tar is among the by-products when coal "

During the 1920s, diesel engine manufacturers altered their engines to utilize the lower viscosity of petrodiesel (a fossil fuel), rather than vegetable oil (a biomass fuel). Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a Fluid which is being deformed by either Shear stress or Extensional stress. Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. The petroleum industries were able to make inroads in fuel markets because their fuel was much cheaper to produce than the biomass alternatives. Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production The result, for many years, was a near elimination of the biomass fuel production infrastructure. Infrastructure typically refers to the technical structures that support a society such as Roads Water supply, Wastewater, Power grids Only recently, have environmental impact concerns and a decreasing price differential made biomass fuels such as biodiesel a growing alternative.

Despite the widespread use of fossil petroleum-derived diesel fuels, interest in vegetable oils as fuels in internal combustion engines is reported in several countries during the 1920s and 1930's and later during World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Belgium, France, Italy, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Germany, Brazil, Argentina, Japan and China have been reported to have tested and used vegetable oils as diesel fuels during this time. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Some operational problems were reported due to the high viscosity of vegetable oils compared to petroleum diesel fuel, which result in poor atomization of the fuel in the fuel spray and often leads to deposits and coking of the injectors, combustion chamber and valves. In Atomic spectroscopy, atomization stands for the conversion of a vaporized sample into atomic components Attempts to overcome these problems included heating of the vegetable oil, blending it with petroleum-derived diesel fuel or ethanol, pyrolysis and cracking of the oils. Pyrolysis is the Chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of Oxygen or any other reagents except possibly Steam

On August 31, 1937, G. Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne Year 1937 ( MCMXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Chavanne of the University of Brussels (Belgium) was granted a patent for a "Procedure for the transformation of vegetable oils for their uses as fuels" (fr. 'Procédé de Transformation d’Huiles Végétales en Vue de Leur Utilisation comme Carburants') Belgian Patent 422,877. This patent described the alcoholysis (often referred to as transesterification) of vegetable oils using methanol and ethanol in order to separate the fatty acids from the glycerol by replacing the glycerol by short linear alcohols. This appears to be the first account of the production of what is known as "biodiesel" today.

More recently, in 1977, Brazilian scientist Expedito Parente produced biodiesel using transesterification with ethanol, and again filed a patent for the same process. This process is classified as biodiesel by international norms, conferring a "standardized identity and quality. No other proposed biofuel has been validated by the motor industry. "^[13] Currently, Parente's company Tecbio is working with Boeing and NASA to certify bioquerosene (bio-kerosene), another product produced and patented by the Brazilian scientist. Jet fuel is a type of Aviation fuel designed for use in Aircraft powered by gas-turbine engines. The Boeing Company is a major Aerospace and defense corporation originally founded by William E The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA, ˈnæsə is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program ^[14]

Research into the use of transesterified sunflower oil, and refining it to diesel fuel standards, was initiated in South Africa in 1979. Sunflower oil is the non-volatile oil expressed from Sunflower ( Helianthus annuus) seeds Diesel or Diesel fuel (ˈdiːzəl in general is any Fuel used in Diesel engines The most common is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa By 1983, the process for producing fuel-quality, engine-tested biodiesel was completed and published internationally. ^[15] An Austrian company, Gaskoks, obtained the technology from the South African Agricultural Engineers; the company erected the first biodiesel pilot plant in November 1987, and the first industrial-scale plant in April 1989 (with a capacity of 30,000 tons of rapeseed per annum). Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich A pilot plant is a small chemical processing system which is operated to generate information about the behavior of the system for use in Design of larger facilities Rapeseed ( Brassica napus) also known as rape, oilseed rape, rapa, rapaseed and (in the case of one particular group of

Throughout the 1990s, plants were opened in many European countries, including the Czech Republic, Germany and Sweden. The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. France launched local production of biodiesel fuel (referred to as diester) from rapeseed oil, which is mixed into regular diesel fuel at a level of 5%, and into the diesel fuel used by some captive fleets (e. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. g. public transportation) at a level of 30%. Renault, Peugeot and other manufacturers have certified truck engines for use with up to that level of partial biodiesel; experiments with 50% biodiesel are underway. This is about the company for other uses see Renault (disambiguation. For the article about the bicycle manufacturer see Cycles Peugeot. During the same period, nations in other parts of the world also saw local production of biodiesel starting up: by 1998, the Austrian Biofuels Institute had identified 21 countries with commercial biodiesel projects. 100% Biodiesel is now available at many normal service stations across Europe.

In September 2005 Minnesota became the first U. Minnesota ( Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers S. state to mandate that all diesel fuel sold in the state contain part biodiesel, requiring a content of at least 2% biodiesel. ^[16]

Properties

Biodiesel has better lubricant than that of today's diesel fuels. During the manufacture of these, to comply with low SO₂ engine emission limits set in modern standards, severe hydrotreatment is included. Biodiesel addition reduces wear^[17] increasing the life of the fuel injection equipment that relies on the fuel for its lubrication, such as high pressure injection pumps, pump injectors (also called unit injectors) and fuel injectors. Fuel injection is a system for mixing fuel with air in an Internal combustion engine.

Older diesel Mercedes are popular for running on biodiesel.

The volumetric energy density of biodiesel is about 33 MJ/L. Energy density is the amount of Energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit Volume, or per unit Mass, depending on the context although This is 9 % lower than regular Number 2 petrodiesel. Diesel or Diesel fuel (ˈdiːzəl in general is any Fuel used in Diesel engines The most common is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum Variations in biodiesel energy density is more dependent on the feedstock used than the production process. Still these variations are less than for petrodiesel. ^[18] It has been claimed biodiesel gives better lubricity and more complete combustion thus increasing the engine energy output and partially compensating for the higher energy density of petrodiesel. ^[19]

Biodiesel is a liquid which varies in color — between golden and dark brown — depending on the production feedstock. It is immiscible with water, has a high boiling point and low vapor pressure. Miscibility is a term commonly used in Chemistry that refers to the property of Liquids to mix in all proportions forming a Homogeneous Solution The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the Vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid Vapor pressure (also known as equilibrium vapor pressure or saturation vapor pressure) is the Pressure of a Vapor in equilibrium *The flash point of biodiesel (>130 °C, >266 °F)^[20] is significantly higher than that of petroleum diesel (64 °C, 147 °F) or gasoline (−45 °C, -52 °F). The flash point of a flammable liquid is the lowest Temperature at which it can form an ignitable mixture in air Biodiesel has a density of ~ 0. 88 g/cm³, less than that of water.

Biodiesel has a viscosity similar to petrodiesel, the current industry term for diesel produced from petroleum. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a Fluid which is being deformed by either Shear stress or Extensional stress. Diesel or Diesel fuel (ˈdiːzəl in general is any Fuel used in Diesel engines The most common is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Biodiesel has high lubricity and virtually no sulfur content, and it is often used as an additive to Ultra-Low Sulfur Diesel (ULSD) fuel. Lubricity is the measure of the reduction in Friction of a Lubricant. Ultra-low sulfur diesel ( ULSD) (also spelled “ sulphur ” is a term used to describe a standard for defining Diesel fuel with substantially lowered

Technical standards

Biodiesel sample

The European standard for biodiesel is EN 14214, which is translated into the respective national standards for each country that forms the CEN (European Committee for Standardization) area e. EN 14214 is an International standard that describes the minimum requirements for Biodiesel. g. , for the United Kingdom, BS EN 14214 and for Germany DIN EN 14214. British Standards are produced by BSI British Standards, a division of BSI Group that is incorporated under a Royal Charter and is formally designated Deutsches Institut für Normung eV ( DIN; in English, the German Institute for Standardization) is the German national organization for It may be used outside the CEN area as well.

There are other national specifications. ASTM D6751 is the most common standard referenced in the United States and Canada. ASTM D6751 details specifications for Biodiesels blended with middle Distillate fuels
There are also DIN standards for three different varieties of biodiesel, which are made of different oils:

• RME (rapeseed methyl ester, according to DIN E 51606)
• PME (vegetable methyl ester, purely vegetable products, according to DIN E 51606)
• FME (fat methyl ester, vegetable and animal products, according to DIN V 51606)

The standards ensure that the following important factors in the fuel production process are satisfied:

• Acid value
• Complete reaction. Deutsches Institut für Normung eV ( DIN; in English, the German Institute for Standardization) is the German national organization for Rapeseed ( Brassica napus) also known as rape, oilseed rape, rapa, rapaseed and (in the case of one particular group of Esters are a class of Chemical compounds and Functional groups Esters consist of an inorganic or organic Acid in which at least
• Removal of glycerin.
• Removal of catalyst. Catalysis is the process in which the rate of a Chemical reaction is increased by means of a Chemical substance known as a catalyst
• Removal of alcohol. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon
• Absence of free fatty acids. In Chemistry, especially Biochemistry, a fatty acid is a Carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched Aliphatic tail ( chain) which
• Low sulfur content. Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16
• Cold Filter Plugging point
• Cloud Point

Basic industrial tests to determine whether the products conform to the standards typically include gas chromatography, a test that verifies only the more important of the variables above. Chromatography (from Greek χρώμα chroma, color and γραφειν"graphein" to write is the collective term for a family of Laboratory Tests that are more complete are more expensive. Fuel meeting the quality standards is very non-toxic, with a toxicity rating (LD₅₀) of greater than 50 mL/kg. In Toxicology, the median lethal dose, LD50 (abbreviation for “Lethal Dose 50%” or LCt50 (Lethal Concentration & Time of a

Gelling

The cloud point, or temperature at which pure (B100) biodiesel starts to gel, varies significantly and depends upon the mix of esters and therefore the feedstock oil used to produce the biodiesel. The Cloud point of a fluid is the temperature at which dissolved solids are no longer completely soluble precipitating as a second phase giving the fluid a cloudy appearance For example, biodiesel produced from low erucic acid varieties of canola seed (RME) starts to gel at approximately −10 °C (14 °F). Erucic acid is a monounsaturated omega-9 Fatty acid, denoted 221 ω-9 Biodiesel produced from tallow tends to gel at around +16 °C (61 °F). As of 2006, there are a very limited number of products that will significantly lower the gel point of straight biodiesel. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. A study carried out by Assiniboine Community College in Manitoba, Canada managed to produce B100 biodiesel that was a clear flowing liquid at -38° by using a commercially available additive, Wintron XC30, in addition to low temperature filtration. Assiniboine Community College is responsible for agriculture training for the province of Manitoba and the Agriculture and Environment division offers agriculture courses in communities Manitoba (English ˌmænɨˈtoʊbə French /manitoba/ is a province of Canada, spanning 647797 square kilometres (250116  sq mi of North America Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page A number of studies have shown that winter operation is possible with biodiesel blended with other fuel oils including #2 low sulfur diesel fuel and #1 diesel / kerosene. Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Diesel or Diesel fuel (ˈdiːzəl in general is any Fuel used in Diesel engines The most common is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum Kerosene, sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage is a Combustible Hydrocarbon liquid The exact blend depends on the operating environment: successful operations have run using a 65% LS #2, 30% K #1, and 5% bio blend. Other areas have run a 70% Low Sulfur #2, 20% Kerosene #1, and 10% bio blend or an 80% K#1, and 20% biodiesel blend. According to the National Biodiesel Board (NBB), B20 (20% biodiesel, 80% petrodiesel) does not need any treatment in addition to what is already taken with petrodiesel.

To permit the use of biodiesel without mixing and without the possibility of gelling at low temperatures, some people modify their vehicles with a second fuel tank for biodiesel in addition to the standard fuel tank. Alternately, a vehicle with two tanks is chosen. The second fuel tank is insulated and a heating coil using engine coolant is run through the tank. The term thermal insulation can refer to materials used to reduce the rate of Heat transfer, or the methods and processes used to reduce heat transfer A heat exchanger is a device built for efficient Heat transfer from one medium to another whether the media are separated by a solid wall so that they never mix or the media Antifreeze is a Cryoprotectant used in Internal combustion engines and for many other heat transfer applications such as electronics cooling and Chillers When a temperature sensor indicates that the fuel is warm enough to burn, the driver switches from the petrodiesel tank to the biodiesel tank. This is similar to the method used for running straight vegetable oil.

Contamination by water

Biodiesel may contain small but problematic quantities of water. Although it is hydrophobic (non-miscible with water molecules), it is said to be, at the same time, hygroscopic to the point of attracting water molecules from atmospheric moisture^[21]; one of the reasons biodiesel can absorb water is the persistence of mono and diglycerides left over from an incomplete reaction. In Chemistry, hydrophobicity (from the combining form of water in Attic Greek hydro- and for fear phobos) refers to the physical property of In Chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two Atoms in a definite arrangement held together by Hygroscopy is the ability of a substance to attract Water Molecules from the surrounding environment through either absorption or Adsorption An atmosphere (from Greek ατμός - atmos, " Vapor " + σφαίρα - sphaira, " Sphere " These molecules can act as an emulsifier, allowing water to mix with the biodiesel. In addition, there may be water that is residual to processing or resulting from storage tank condensation. Condensation is the change of the physical state of aggregation (or simply state of matter from gaseous phase into liquid phase The presence of water is a problem because:

• Water reduces the heat of combustion of the bulk fuel. Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of Exothermic chemical reactions between a Fuel and an Oxidant accompanied by the production of This means more smoke, harder starting, less power. Smoke is the collection of airborne solid and liquid Particulates and Gases ref> ''Smoke Production and Properties'' - SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering In Physics, power (symbol P) is the rate at which work is performed or energy is transmitted or the amount of energy required or expended for
• Water causes corrosion of vital fuel system components: fuel pumps, injector pumps, fuel lines, etc. Corrosion means the breaking down of essential properties in a material due to Chemical reactions with its surroundings
• Water & microbes cause the paper element filters in the system to fail ( rot), which in turn results in premature failure of the fuel pump due to ingestion of large particles.
• Water freezes to form ice crystals near 0 °C (32 °F). These crystals provide sites for nucleation and accelerate the gelling of the residual fuel. Nucleation is the onset of a Phase transition in a small region
• Water accelerates the growth of microbe colonies, which can plug up a fuel system. Biodiesel users who have heated fuel tanks therefore face a year-round microbe problem.
• Additionally, water can cause pitting in the pistons on a diesel engine.

Previously, the amount of water contaminating biodiesel has been difficult to measure by taking samples, since water and oil separate. However, it is now possible to measure the water content using water-in-oil sensors.

Availability and prices

In some countries biodiesel is less expensive than conventional diesel.

For more details on this topic, see Biodiesel around the World. This page describes the use and availability of Biodiesel in various countries around the world

Global biodiesel production reached 3. 8 million tons in 2005. Approximately 85% of biodiesel production came from the European Union.

In the United States, average retail (at the pump) prices, including Federal and state fuel taxes, of B2/B5 are lower than petroleum diesel by about 12 cents, and B20 blends are the same as petrodiesel. For information on Wikipedia project-related discussions see WikipediaVillage pump. A fuel tax (also known as a petrol tax, gasoline tax, gas tax or fuel duty) is a Sales tax imposed on the sale of Fuel. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit ^[22] B99 and B100 generally cost more than petrodiesel except where local governments provide a subsidy.

Production

For more details on this topic, see Biodiesel production. Biodiesel production is the act of producing the Biofuel, Biodiesel, through either Transesterification or Alcoholysis.

Biodiesel is commonly produced by the transesterification of the vegetable oil or animal fat feedstock. There are several methods for carrying out this transesterification reaction including the common batch process, supercritical processes, ultrasonic methods, and even microwave methods.

Chemically, transesterified biodiesel comprises a mix of mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids. An alkyl is a Univalent radical consisting of Carbon and Hydrogen atoms arranged in a chain Esters are a class of Chemical compounds and Functional groups Esters consist of an inorganic or organic Acid in which at least In Chemistry, especially Biochemistry, a fatty acid is a Carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched Aliphatic tail ( chain) which The most common form uses methanol (converted to sodium methoxide) to produce methyl esters as it is the cheapest alcohol available, though ethanol can be used to produce an ethyl ester biodiesel and higher alcohols such as isopropanol and butanol have also been used. Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol, wood naphtha or wood spirits, is a Chemical compound In Chemistry, a methyl group is a Hydrophobic Alkyl Functional group named after Methane (4 Using alcohols of higher molecular weights improves the cold flow properties of the resulting ester, at the cost of a less efficient transesterification reaction. A lipid transesterification production process is used to convert the base oil to the desired esters. Lipids are broadly defined as any fat- Soluble ( lipophilic) naturally-occurring Molecule, such as fats oils waxes cholesterol sterols fat-soluble In Organic chemistry, transesterification is the process of exchanging the Alcohol group of an Ester compound with another Alcohol. Any Free fatty acids (FFAs) in the base oil are either converted to soap and removed from the process, or they are esterified (yielding more biodiesel) using an acidic catalyst. In Chemistry, especially Biochemistry, a fatty acid is a Carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched Aliphatic tail ( chain) which After this processing, unlike straight vegetable oil, biodiesel has combustion properties very similar to those of petroleum diesel, and can replace it in most current uses. For engines designed to burn #2 diesel fuel the Viscosity of vegetable oil must be lowered to allow for proper Atomization of fuel otherwise incomplete combustion Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of Exothermic chemical reactions between a Fuel and an Oxidant accompanied by the production of

A byproduct of the transesterification process is the production of glycerol. For every 1 tonne of biodiesel that is manufactured, 100 kg of glycerol are produced. Originally, there was a valuable market for the glycerol, which assisted the economics of the process as a whole. However, with the increase in global biodiesel production, the market price for this crude glycerol (containing 20% water and catalyst residues) has crashed. Research is being conducted globally to use this glycerol as a chemical building block. One initiative in the UK is The Glycerol Challenge.

Usually this crude glycerol has to be purified, typically by performing vacuum distillation. This is rather energy intensive. The refined glycerol (98%+ purity) can then be utilised directly, or converted into other products. The following announcements were made in 2007: A joint venture of Ashland Inc. and Cargill announced plans to make propylene glycol in Europe from glycerol^[23] and Dow Chemical announced similar plans for North America. Ashland Inc (or simply Ashland) is a Fortune 500 company which operates in more than 100 countries throughout the world Cargill Incorporated is a privately held, Multinational corporation, and is based in the state of Minnesota in the United States. Propylene glycol, known also by the systematic name propane-12-diol is an Organic compound (a Diol Alcohol) usually a faintly sweet odorless and The Dow Chemical Company () is an American Multinational corporation headquartered in Midland Michigan. ^[24] Dow also plans to build a plant in China to make epichlorhydrin from glycerol. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Epichlorohydrin is a reactive Organic compound. It is an Epoxide and an Organochloride. ^[25] Epichlorhydrin is a raw material for epoxy resins. Epichlorohydrin is a reactive Organic compound. It is an Epoxide and an Organochloride. In Chemistry, epoxy or polyepoxide is a Thermosetting Epoxide Polymer that cures (polymerizes and crosslinks when mixed with a

Production levels

Biodiesel production capacity is growing rapidly, with an average annual growth rate from 2002-2006 of over 40% ^[26]. For the year 2006, the latest for which actual production figures could be obtained, total world biodiesel production was about 5-6 million tonnes, with 4. 9 million tonnes processed in Europe ^[27] (of which 2. 7 million tonnes was from Germany) and most of the rest from the USA. ^[28] The capacity for 2007 in Europe totalled 10. 3 million tonnes. This compares with a total demand for diesel in the US and Europe of approximately 490 million tonnes (147 billion gallons). ^[29] Total world production of vegetable oil for all purposes in 2005/06 was about 110 million tonnes, with about 34 million tonnes each of palm oil and soybean oil. ^[30]

Biodiesel feedstocks

Soybeans are used as a source of biodiesel

Plant oils
Sunflowerseed oil
Types
Vegetable fats	(list)
Essential oil	(list)
Macerated	(list)
Uses
Drying oil - Oil paint
Cooking oil
Fuel - Biodiesel
Aromatherapy
Components
Saturated fat
Monounsaturated fat
Polyunsaturated fat
Trans fat

A variety of oils can be used to produce biodiesel. Plant oils are Oils derived from plant sources as opposed to animal Fats or Petroleum. The sunflower seed is the Fruit of the Sunflower ( Helianthus annuus) Wikipedia talkFeatured lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This list of vegetable oils includes all Vegetable oils An essential oil is a concentrated Hydrophobic Liquid containing volatile Aroma compounds from Plants They are also known as volatile Essential oils are volatile and liquid Aroma compounds from natural sources usually plants Macerated oils are Vegetable oils to which other matter such as herbs has been added A drying oil is an Oil which hardens to a tough solid film after a period of exposure to air Oil paint is a type of slow-drying Paint consisting of small Pigment particles suspended in a Drying oil. Cooking oil is purified Fat of Plant or Animal origin which is liquid at room temperature For engines designed to burn #2 diesel fuel the Viscosity of vegetable oil must be lowered to allow for proper Atomization of fuel otherwise incomplete combustion Aromatherapy is a form of Alternative medicine that uses volatile liquid plant materials known as Essential oils (EOs and other aromatic compounds from plants for In Chemistry, especially Biochemistry, a fatty acid is a Carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched Aliphatic tail ( chain) which Saturated fat is Fat that consists of Triglycerides containing only saturated Fatty acids Explanation Fat that occurs For discussion how dietary fats affect cardiovascular health see Diet and heart disease. In nutrition polyunsaturated fat is an abbreviation of polyunsaturated Fatty acid. Trans fat is the common name for a type of Unsaturated fat with trans - isomer Fatty acid (s These include:

• Virgin oil feedstock; rapeseed and soybean oils are most commonly used, soybean oil alone accounting for about ninety percent of all fuel stocks in the US. Rapeseed ( Brassica napus) also known as rape, oilseed rape, rapa, rapaseed and (in the case of one particular group of It also can be obtained from field pennycress and Jatropha other crops such as mustard, flax, sunflower, palm oil, hemp (see List of vegetable oils for a more complete list);
• Waste vegetable oil (WVO);
• Animal fats including tallow, lard, yellow grease, chicken fat, ^[31] and the by-products of the production of Omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil. Thlaspi arvense (common name Field Penny-cress) is a foetid Eurasian plant having round flat pods naturalized throughout North America Jatropha is a Genus of approximately 175 Succulent plants Shrubs and Trees (some are Deciduous, like Jatropha Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture For the prepared condiment see Mustard (condiment. For other uses of the term "mustard" see Mustard. Flax (also known as common flax or linseed) (binomial name Linum usitatissimum) is a member of the genus Linum The sunflower ( Helianthus annuus) is an Annual plant in the family Asteraceae and native to the Americas, with a large flowering Palm oil is an edible plant oil derived from the Fruit of the Arecaceae Elaeis Oil palm. This article is about the cultivation and uses of industrial hemp not its psychoactive cousin Cannabis (drug. Wikipedia talkFeatured lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This list of vegetable oils includes all Vegetable oils For engines designed to burn #2 diesel fuel the Viscosity of vegetable oil must be lowered to allow for proper Atomization of fuel otherwise incomplete combustion Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water Tallow is a rendered form of Beef or Mutton Fat, processed from Suet. Lard is pig Fat in both its rendered and unrendered forms Lard was commonly used in many cuisines as a Cooking fat or Shortening Yellow grease is a term from the rendering industry. It usually means used frying oils from deep fryers and restaurants' grease traps n −3 fatty acids (popularly referred to as ω−3 fatty acids or omega-3 fatty acids) are a family of unsaturated Fatty acids that
• Algae, which can be grown using waste materials such as sewage^[32] and without displacing land currently used for food production. See also Algology Algae fuel, also called algal fuel, oilgae, algaeoleum or third generation biofuel, is a Biofuel See also Algae Algaculture is a form of Aquaculture involving the farming of species of Algae.

Many advocates suggest that waste vegetable oil is the best source of oil to produce biodiesel, but since the available supply is drastically less than the amount of petroleum-based fuel that is burned for transportation and home heating in the world, this local solution does not scale well.

Animal fats are similarly limited in supply, and it would not be efficient to raise animals (or catch fish) simply for their fat. However, producing biodiesel with animal fat that would have otherwise been discarded could replace a small percentage of petroleum diesel usage. Currently, a 5-million dollar plant is being built in the USA, with the intent of producing 11. 4 million litres (3 million gallons) biodiesel from some of the estimated 1 billion kg (2. 3 billion pounds) of chicken fat^[33] produced annually the local Tyson poultry plant. ^[31]. Similarly, some small-scale biodiesel factories use waste fish oil as feedstock^[34][35].

Quantity of feedstocks required

Worldwide production of vegetable oil and animal fat is not yet sufficient to replace liquid fossil fuel use. Furthermore, some object to the vast amount of farming and the resulting fertilization, pesticide use, and land use conversion that would be needed to produce the additional vegetable oil. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. The estimated transportation diesel fuel and home heating oil used in the United States is about 160 million tonnes (350 billion pounds) according to the Energy Information Administration, US Department of Energy - ^[36]. The United States Energy Information Administration (EIA created by Congress in 1977, is the independent statistical agency within the U The United States Department of Energy ( DOE) is a Cabinet -level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy In the United States, estimated production of vegetable oil for all uses is about 11 million tonnes (24 billion pounds) and estimated production of animal fat is 5. 3 million tonnes (12 billion pounds). ^[37]

If the entire arable land area of the USA (470 million acres, or 1. 9 million square kilometers) were devoted to biodiesel production from soy, this would just about provide the 160 million tonnes required (assuming an optimistic 98 gpa of biodiesel). This land area could in principle be reduced significantly using algae, if the obstacles can be overcome. The US DOE estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require 15,000 square miles (38,849 square kilometers), which is a few thousand square miles larger than Maryland, or 1. The United States Department of Energy ( DOE) is a Cabinet -level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy Square Kilometre ( US spelling square kilometer) symbol km2, is a decimal multiple of the SI unit of 3 Belgiums, ^{[38] [39]}assuming a yield of 15000 gpa. The advantages of algae are that it can be grown on non-arable land such as deserts or in marine environments, and the potential oil yields are much higher than from plants.

Yield

Feedstock yield efficiency per acre affects the feasibility of ramping up production to the huge industrial levels required to power a significant percentage of national or world vehicles. Some typical yields in US gallons of biodiesel per acre are:

• Algae: 1800 gpa or more (est. - see soy figures and DOE quote below)
• Palm oil: 508 gpa^[40]
• Coconut: 230 gpa^[40]
• Rapeseed: 102 gpa^[40]
• Soy: 59. 2-98. 6 gpa in Indiana^[41] (Soy is used in 80% of USA biodiesel^[42])
• Peanut: 90 gpa^[40]
• Sunflower: 82 gpa^[40]

Algae fuel yields have not yet been accurately determined, but DOE is reported as saying that algae yield 30 times more energy per acre than land crops such as soybeans ^[43], and some estimate even higher yields up to 15000 gpa . See also Algology Algae fuel, also called algal fuel, oilgae, algaeoleum or third generation biofuel, is a Biofuel ^[44]

The Jatropha plant has been cited as a high-yield source of biodiesel but such claims have also been exaggerated. Jatropha is a Genus of approximately 175 Succulent plants Shrubs and Trees (some are Deciduous, like Jatropha The more realistic estimates put the yield at about 200 gpa (1. 5-2 tonnes per hectare). ^[45] It is grown in the Philippines, Mali and India, is drought-resistant, and can share space with other cash crops such as coffee, sugar, fruits and vegetables. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Intercropping is the agricultural practice of cultivating two or more crops in the same space at the same time (Andrews & Kassam 1976 ^[46] It is well-suited to semi-arid lands and can contribute to slow down desertification, according to its advocates ^[47]. Desertification is the degradation of land in arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting primarily from human activities and influenced by climatic variations

Efficiency and economic arguments

According to a study written by Drs. Van Dyne and Raymer for the Tennessee Valley Authority, the average US farm consumes fuel at the rate of 82 litres per hectare (8. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA is a federally owned Corporation in the United States created by congressional charter in May 1933 to provide The litre or liter (see spelling differences) is a unit of Volume. Explanation The hectare is commonly used in most countries around the world especially in domains concerned with land planning and management such as Agriculture, 75 US gallons per acre) of land to produce one crop. A gallon is a measure of Volume. It is in current use in the United States and still has limited use in many other English-speaking countries The acre is a unit of Area in a number of different systems including the imperial and U However, average crops of rapeseed produce oil at an average rate of 1,029 L/ha (110 US gal/acre), and high-yield rapeseed fields produce about 1,356 L/ha (145 US gal/acre). The ratio of input to output in these cases is roughly 1:12. 5 and 1:16. 5. Photosynthesis is known to have an efficiency rate of about 3-6% of total solar radiation^[48] and if the entire mass of a crop is utilized for energy production, the overall efficiency of this chain is currently about 1%^[49] While this may compare unfavorably to solar cells combined with an electric drive train, biodiesel is less costly to deploy (solar cells cost approximately US$1,000 per square meter) and transport (electric vehicles require batteries which currently have a much lower energy density than liquid fuels). A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts Solar energy into Electricity by the photovoltaic effect.

However, these statistics by themselves are not enough to show whether such a change makes economic sense. Additional factors must be taken into account, such as: the fuel equivalent of the energy required for processing, the yield of fuel from raw oil, the return on cultivating food, the effect biodiesel will have of food prices and the relative cost of biodiesel versus petrodiesel.

The debate over the energy balance of biodiesel is ongoing. Transitioning fully to biofuels could require immense tracts of land if traditional food crops are used (although non food crops can be utilized). The term non food crop applies to the use of agricultural crop for uses other than human (as food) or animal consumption (as feed) The problem would be especially severe for nations with large economies, since energy consumption scales with economic output. ^[50]

If using only traditional food plants, most such nations do not have sufficient arable land to produce biofuel for the nation's vehicles. Nations with smaller economies (hence less energy consumption) and more arable land may be in better situations, although many regions cannot afford to divert land away from food production.

For third world countries, biodiesel sources that use marginal land could make more sense, e. Third World is a name given to nations that are generally considered to be underdeveloped economically g. honge oil nuts^[51] grown along roads or jatropha grown along rail lines. Honge oil is derived from the Pongamia pinnata, which is native to India. Jatropha is a Genus of approximately 175 Succulent plants Shrubs and Trees (some are Deciduous, like Jatropha

In tropical regions, such as Malaysia and Indonesia, oil palm is being planted at a rapid pace to supply growing biodiesel demand in Europe and other markets. It has been estimated in Germany that palm oil biodiesel has less than 1/3 the production costs of rapeseed biodiesel. ^[52] The direct source of the energy content of biodiesel is solar energy captured by plants during photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Regarding the positive energy balance of biodiesel:

When straw was left in the field, biodiesel production was strongly energy positive, yielding 1 GJ biodiesel for every 0. This list compares various energies in Joules (J organized by Order of magnitude. 561 GJ of energy input (a yield/cost ratio of 1. 78).

When straw was burned as fuel and oilseed rapemeal was used as a fertilizer, the yield/cost ratio for biodiesel production was even better (3. 71). In other words, for every unit of energy input to produce biodiesel, the output was 3. 71 units (the difference of 2. 71 units would be from solar energy).

Biodiesel is becoming of interest to companies interested in commercial scale production as well as the more usual home brew biodiesel user and the user of straight vegetable oil or waste vegetable oil in diesel engines. For engines designed to burn #2 diesel fuel the Viscosity of vegetable oil must be lowered to allow for proper Atomization of fuel otherwise incomplete combustion Homemade biodiesel processors are many and varied. Biodiesel production is the act of producing the Biofuel, Biodiesel, through either Transesterification or Alcoholysis.

Energy security

One of the main drivers for adoption of biodiesel is energy security. This means that a nations dependence on oil is reduced, and substituted with use of locally available sources, such as coal, gas or other renewable sources. Thus significant benefits can accrue to a country from adoption of biofuels, even without a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. Whilst the total energy balance is debated, it is clear that the dependence on oil is reduced. One example is the energy used to manufacture fertilizers, which could come from a variety of sources other than petroleum. The the US NREL says that energy security is the number one driving force behind the US biofuels programme. ^[53]and the White House "Energy Security for the 21st Century" makes clear that energy security is a major reason for promoting biodiesel. ^[54] The EU commission president, Jose Manuel Barroso, speaking at a recent EU biofuels conference, stressed that properly managed biofuels have the potential to reinforce the EU's security of supply through diversification of energy sources. ^[55]

Environmental effects

Greenhouse gas emissions

Calculation of Carbon Intensity of Soy biodiesel grown in the US and burnt in the UK, using figures calculated by the UK government for the purposes of the Renewable transport fuel obligation. Carbon intensity can refer to The ratio of Carbon Dioxide to energy a measure of the "greenness" of different fuels The Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation (RTFO in the United Kingdom is a requirement on transport fuel suppliers to ensure that by 2010, 5% of all road vehicle fuel ^[56]

Graph of UK figures for the Carbon Intensity of Biodiesels and fossil fuels. Carbon intensity can refer to The ratio of Carbon Dioxide to energy a measure of the "greenness" of different fuels Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. This graph assumes that all biodiesels are burnt in their country of origin. It also assumes that the diesel is produced from pre-existing croplands rather than by changing land use^[57]

An often mentioned incentive for using biofuel is its capacity to lower greenhouse gas emissions compared to those of fossil fuels. Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. If this is true or not depends on many factors. Especially the effects from land use change have potential to cause even more emissions than what would be caused by using fossil fuels alone. Land use' is also often used to refer to the distinct land use types in Zoning. ^[58]

Carbon dioxide is one of the major greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared Although the burning of biodiesel produces carbon dioxide emissions similar to those from ordinary fossil fuels, the plant feedstock used in the production absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere when it grows. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Plants absorb carbon dioxide through a process known as photosynthesis which allows it to store energy from sunlight in the form of oil. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. After the oil is converted into biodiesel and burnt as fuel the energy and carbon is released again. Some of that energy can be used to power an engine while the carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere.

When considering the total amount of greenhouse gas emissions it is therefore important to consider the whole production process and what indirect effects such production might cause. The effect on carbon dioxide emissions is highly dependent on production methods and the type of feedstock used. Calculating the carbon intensity of biofuels is a complex and inexact process, and is highly dependent on the assumptions made in the calculation. Carbon intensity can refer to The ratio of Carbon Dioxide to energy a measure of the "greenness" of different fuels A calculation usually includes:

• Emissions from growing the feedstock (e. g. Petrochemicals used in fertilizers)
• Emissions from transporting the feedstock to the factory
• Emissions from processing the feedstock into biodiesel

Other factors can be very significant but are sometimes not considered. These include:

• Emissions from the change in land use of the area where the fuel feedstock is grown.
• Emissions from transportation of the biodiesel from the factory to its point of use
• The efficiency of the biodiesel compared with standard diesel
• The amount of Carbon Dioxide produced at the tail pipe. (Biodiesel can produce 4. 7% more)
• The benefits due to the production of useful by-products, such as cattle feed or glycerine

If land use change is not considered and assuming todays production methods, biodiesel from rapeseed and sunflower oil produce 45%-65% lower greenhouse gas emissions than petrodiesel. ^{[59][60][61][62]} However, there is ongoing research to improve the efficiency of the production process. ^[59][61] Biodiesel produced from used cooking oil or other waste fat could reduce CO₂ emissions by as much as 85%. ^[56] As long as the feedstock is grown on existing cropland, land use change has little or no effect on greenhouse gas emissions. However, there is concern that increased feedstock production directly affect the rate of deforestation. Such clearcutting cause carbon stored in the forest, soil and peat layers to be released. Peat is an accumulation of partially Decayed Vegetation matter. The amount of greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation is so large that the benefits from lower emissions (caused by biodiesel use alone) would be negligible for hundreds of years. ^[58][56] Biofuel produced from feedstocks such as palm oil could therefore cause much higher carbon dioxide emissions than ordinary fossil fuels. ^[63]

Deforestation

Jungle burned for agriculture in southern Mexico.

If deforestation, and monoculture farming techniques were used to grow biofuel crops, biodiesel is predicted to become a serious threat to the environment:^[64][65]

• Increasing the emission of climate change gases rather than helping curb them^[58]
• Damaging ecosystems and biodiversity^[66]
• Exacerbating social conflict^[67]

The demand for cheap oil from the tropical regions is of rising concern. In order to increase production, the amount of arable land is being expanded at the cost of tropical rainforest. In Geography, arable land (from Latin arare, to Plough) is an agricultural term meaning land that can be used for Rainforests are Forests characterized by high Rainfall with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1750–2000 mm (68-78 inches ^[63][68] Feedstock oils produced in Asia, South America and Africa are currently less expensive than those produced in Europe and North America suggesting that imports to these wealthier nations are likely to increase in the future. ^[63][68][66]

In the Philippines and Indonesia forest clearing is already underway for the production of palm oil. ^[63] Indigenous people are forced to move and their livelihood is destroyed when forest is cleared to make room for oil palm plantations. ^[67] In some areas the use of pesticides for biofuel crops are disrupting clean water supplies,^[69] and the loss of habitat caused by deforestation is threatening many species of unique plants and animals. One example is the already-shrinking populations of orangutans on the Indonesian islands of Borneo and Sumatra, which face extinction if deforestation continue at it's projected rate. The orangutans are two Species of great apes known for their intelligence long arms and reddish-brown hair ^{[66][70][71][72]}

Pollution

In the United States, biodiesel is the only alternative fuel to have successfully completed the Health Effects Testing requirements (Tier I and Tier II) of the Clean Air Act (1990). The 1990 Clean Air Act is a piece of United States environmental policy relating to the reduction of Smog and Air pollution.

Biodiesel can reduce the direct tailpipe-emission of particulates, small particles of solid combustion products, on vehicles with particulate filters by as much as 20 percent compared with low-sulfur (< 50 ppm) diesel. Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas Particulate emissions as the result of production are reduced by around 50 percent compared with fossil-sourced diesel. (Beer et al, 2004). Biodiesel has a higher cetane rating than petrodiesel, which can improve performance and clean up emissions compared to crude petro-diesel (with cetane lower than 40). Cetane number or CN is a measurement of the Combustion quality of Diesel fuel during compression ignition Biodiesel contains fewer aromatic hydrocarbons: benzofluoranthene: 56% reduction; Benzopyrenes: 71% reduction.

If burned without additives, Biodiesel (B100) is estimated to produce about 10% more nitrogen oxide NO_x tailpipe-emissions than petrodiesel. The term nitrogen oxide typically refers to any Binary compound of Oxygen and Nitrogen, or to a mixture of such compounds Nitric As biodiesel has a low sulfur content, NO_x emissions can be reduced through the use of catalytic converters to less than the NO_x emissions from conventional diesel engines. A catalytic converter (colloquially "cat" or "catcon" is a device used to reduce the toxicity of emissions from an Internal combustion engine. However, modern diesel engines already use exhaust aftertreatment and EGR to reduce NO_x emissions. These systems add complexity, increase costs, and reduce fuel economy (leading to higher CO₂ emissions). As a transportation fuel, biodiesel is in its infancy in terms of additives which are capable of improving energy density, resistance to gelling, and NO_x emissions. Debate continues over NO_x, particulates, smog, and greenhouse gas emissions from biodiesel and all other new transportation fuels, biofuels in particular. Ultimately, greater clarity on the fundamental distinctions between smog and other local pollution issues vs. greenhouse gas emissions will be essential for both well founded public policy as well as well informed consumer choices.

Biodegradable

A University of Idaho study compared biodegradation rates of biodiesel, neat vegetable oils, biodiesel and petroleum diesel blends, and neat 2-D diesel fuel. The University of Idaho is Idaho 's oldest public university located in the rural city of Moscow in Latah County. Using low concentrations of the product to be degraded (10 ppm) in nutrient and sewage sludge amended solutions, they demonstrated that biodiesel degraded at the same rate as a dextrose control and 5 times as quickly as petroleum diesel over a period of 28 days, and that biodiesel blends doubled the rate of petroleum diesel degradation through co-metabolism. ^[73] The same study examined soil degradation using 10 000 ppm of biodiesel and petroleum diesel, and found biodiesel degraded at twice the rate of petroleum diesel in soil. In all cases, it was determined biodiesel also degraded more completely than petroleum diesel, which produced poorly degradable undetermined intermediates. Toxicity studies for the same project demonstrated no mortalities and few toxic effects on rats and rabbits with up to 5000 mg/kg of biodiesel. Petroleum diesel showed no mortalities at the same concentration either, however toxic effects such as hair loss and urinary discoloring were noted with concentrations of greater than 2000 mg/l in rabbits.

Food vs fuel

Main article: Food vs fuel

Food quality vegetable oil has become so expensive there is no longer a profit viability for its use. Food vs fuel is the dilemma regarding the risk of diverting farmland or crops for Biofuels production in detriment of the Food Food grade vegetable oil pricing is on a similar upward ramp as food in general. Accessing food stuffs in poor countries has always been problematic for the inhabitants. Non food grade vegetable oils are under use or consideration for use to make biodiesel and have been so during the entire history of biodiesel.

In some poor countries the rising price of vegetable oil is causing problems. ^[74][75] There are those that say using a food crop for fuel sets up competition between food in poor countries and fuel in rich countries. Some propose that fuel only be made from non-edible vegetable oils like jatropha oil and algal oil. Jatropha oil is Vegetable oil produced from the seeds of the Jatropha curcas, a plant that can grow in Wastelands Jatropha curcas See also Algology Algae fuel, also called algal fuel, oilgae, algaeoleum or third generation biofuel, is a Biofuel

Others argue that the problem is more fundamental. Farmers can switch from producing food crops to producing biofuel crops to make more money, even if the new crops are not edible. ^[76][77] The law of supply and demand predicts that if fewer farmers are producing food the price of food will rise. Supply and demand is an Economic model describing effects on price and quantity in a Market. It may take some time, as farmers can take some time to change which things they are growing, but increasing demand for first generation biofuels is likely to result in price increases for many kinds of food. Some have pointed out that there are poor farmers and poor countries making more money because of the higher price of vegetable oil. ^[78]. In any case, algae biodiesel would not displace land currently used for food production and new algaculture jobs could be created. See also Algae Algaculture is a form of Aquaculture involving the farming of species of Algae.

Current research

There is ongoing research into finding more suitable crops and improving oil yield. Using the current yields, vast amounts of land and fresh water would be needed to produce enough oil to completely replace fossil fuel usage. It would require twice the land area of the US to be devoted to soybean production, or two-thirds to be devoted to rapeseed production, to meet current US heating and transportation needs.

Specially bred mustard varieties can produce reasonably high oil yields, and have the added benefit that the meal leftover after the oil has been pressed out can act as an effective and biodegradable pesticide. A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest.

Algaculture

Main articles: Algaculture and Algae fuel

From 1978 to 1996, the U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory experimented with using algae as a biodiesel source in the "Aquatic Species Program". See also Algae Algaculture is a form of Aquaculture involving the farming of species of Algae. See also Algology Algae fuel, also called algal fuel, oilgae, algaeoleum or third generation biofuel, is a Biofuel The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL located in Golden Colorado, as part of the U The Aquatic Species Program was a research program in the United States launched in 1978 by President Jimmy Carter and was funded by the United States Department ^[53] A self-published article by Michael Briggs, at the UNH Biodiesel Group, offers estimates for the realistic replacement of all vehicular fuel with biodiesel by utilizing algae that have a natural oil content greater than 50%, which Briggs suggests can be grown on algae ponds at wastewater treatment plants. University of New Hampshire ( UNH) is a public university in the University System of New Hampshire (USNH United States. A motor Vehicle is a Machine which incorporates a motor (sometimes known as an Engine) and which is used for Transportation Sewage treatment, or domestic wastewater treatment, is the process of removing Contaminants from Wastewater, both Runoff ( Effluents ^[39] This oil-rich algae can then be extracted from the system and processed into biodiesel, with the dried remainder further reprocessed to create ethanol.

The production of algae to harvest oil for biodiesel has not yet been undertaken on a commercial scale, but feasibility studies have been conducted to arrive at the above yield estimate. " Feasibility Study " is also the title of an episode from The Outer Limits television show In addition to its projected high yield, algaculture — unlike crop-based biofuels — does not entail a decrease in food production, since it requires neither farmland nor fresh water. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture The food industry is the complex global collective of diverse Businesses that together supply much of the Food energy consumed by the World population. In Geography, arable land (from Latin arare, to Plough) is an agricultural term meaning land that can be used for Freshwater is a word that refers to bodies of water such as Ponds lakes rivers and streams containing low concentrations of dissolved Salts and other Total dissolved Many companies[4][5] are pursuing algae bio-reactors for various purposes, including scaling up biodiesel production to commercial levels.

See also

• Biodiesel around the World
  • Biodiesel in the United States
  • Biodiesel in the United Kingdom
• Biodiesel production
• Bioenergy
• Biofuel
• Diesel motorcycle
• Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008
• Greasestock
• National Biodiesel Board
• Tonne of oil equivalent
• Vegetable oil economy
• Vegetable oil refining
  • NExBTL

References

Footnotes

Other references

• An Overview of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel Lifecycles, May 1998, Sheehan, et al. NREL (60pp pdf file)
• Business Management for Biodiesel Producers, January 2004, Jon Von Gerpen, Iowa State University under contract with the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (210pp pdf file)
• Energy balances in the growth of oilseed rape for biodiesel and of wheat for bioethanol, June 2000, I. R. Richards
• Life Cycle Inventory of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel for Use in an Urban Bus, 1998, Sheehan, et al. NREL (314pp pdf file)
• Algae - like a breath mint for smokestacks, January 11, 2006, Mark Clayton, Christian Science Monitor
• McCormick, R. Events 1055 - Theodora is crowned Empress of the Byzantine Empire. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The Christian Science Monitor (CSM is an international Newspaper published daily Monday through Friday L. . "2006 Biodiesel Handling and Use Guide Third Edition".
• Biodiesel's Bright Future from the July-August issue of THE FUTURIST magazine.

External links

• Biodiesel at the Open Directory Project
• European Biodiesel Board website - European Biodiesel Industry. The Open Directory Project ( ODP) also known as dmoz (from directory
• Renewable raw materials: Biodiesel leads to more rape (rapeseed) cultivation
• UNH Biodiesel Group's comparison of Biodiesel vs. Hydrogen
• Biodiesel.org
• Collaborative Biodiesel Tutorial
• Oliomap.com The Global Vegetable Fuel Resources Map