Biochemistry (from Greek: βίος, bios, "life" and Egyptian kēme, "earth"^[1]) is the study of the chemical processes in living organisms. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages Many ancient philosophies used a set of archetypal classical "elements" to explain patterns in Nature. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties It deals with the structure and function of cellular components, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules. Structure is a fundamental and sometimes Intangible notion covering the Recognition, Observation, nature, and Stability of Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most Lipids are broadly defined as any fat- Soluble ( lipophilic) naturally-occurring Molecule, such as fats oils waxes cholesterol sterols fat-soluble A nucleic acid is a Macromolecule composed of chains of monomeric Nucleotides In Biochemistry these Molecules carry Genetic information A biomolecule is any organic Molecule that is produced by living Organisms including large Polymeric molecules such as Proteins Chemical biology aims to answer many questions arising from biochemistry by using tools developed within chemical synthesis. In Chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of Chemical reactions in order to get a product, or several products

Although there are a vast number of different biomolecules, many are complex and large molecules (called polymers) that are composed of similar repeating subunits (called monomers). A polymer is a large Molecule ( Macromolecule) composed of repeating Structural units typically connected by Covalent Chemical bonds A monomer (from Greek mono "one" and meros "part" is a small Molecule that may become chemically bonded to other Each class of polymeric biomolecule has a different set of subunit types. For example, a protein is a polymer whose subunits are selected from a set of 20 or more amino acids. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this Biochemistry studies the chemical properties of important biological molecules, like proteins, in particular the chemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions. Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins Catalysis is the process in which the rate of a Chemical reaction is increased by means of a Chemical substance known as a catalyst A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the interconversion of Chemical substances The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called

The biochemistry of cell metabolism and the endocrine system has been extensively described. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. The endocrine system is an integrated system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as Hormones The endocrine system is instrumental Other areas of biochemistry include the genetic code (DNA, RNA), protein synthesis, cell membrane transport, and signal transduction. The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material ( DNA or RNA sequences is translated into Proteins Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Ribonucleic acid ( RNA) is a Nucleic acid that consists of a long chain of Nucleotide units Protein synthesis is the creation of proteins using DNA and' RNA'. The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane, plasmalemma, or "phospholipid bilayer" is a Selectively permeable Lipid bilayer Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another In Biology, signal transduction refers to any process by which a cell converts one kind of signal or stimulus into another

This article only discusses terrestrial biochemistry (carbon- and water-based), as all the life forms we know are on Earth. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Since life forms alive today descended from the same common ancestor, they have similar biochemistries, even for matters that seem to be essentially arbitrary, such as handedness of various biomolecules. A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common Ancestor. The term chiral (pronounced /ˈkaɪɹ(əl̩/ is used to describe an object that is non- superimposable on its mirror image It is unknown whether alternative biochemistries are possible or practical. Alternative biochemistry is the speculative Biochemistry of alien Life forms that differ radically from those on Earth.

Contents 1 History 2 Monomers and Polymers 2.1 Carbohydrates 2.2 Lipids 2.3 Proteins 2.4 Nucleic Acids 3 Carbohydrates 3.1 Monosaccharides 3.2 Disaccharides 3.3 Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides 3.4 Use of carbohydrates as an energy source 3.4.1 Glycolysis (anaerobic) 3.4.2 Aerobic 3.4.3 Gluconeogenesis 4 Proteins 5 Lipids 6 Nucleic acids 7 Relationship to other "molecular-scale" biological sciences 8 References 9 Further reading 10 See also 10.1 Lists 10.2 Related topics 11 External links

History

Main article: History of biochemistry

Originally, it was generally believed that life was not subject to the laws of science the way non-life was. The history of biochemistry spans approximately 400 years Although the term “biochemistry” seems to have been first used in 1882 it is generally accepted that the word "biochemistry" It was thought that only living beings could produce the molecules of life (from other, previously existing biomolecules). Then, in 1828, Friedrich Wöhler published a paper on the synthesis of urea, proving that organic compounds can be created artificially. Friedrich Wöhler (31 July 1800 - 23 September 1882 was a German Chemist, best-known for his synthesis of Urea, but also the first to isolate several Urea is an Organic compound with the Chemical formula ( N[[hydrogen H]]22 C[[oxygen O]] Organic chemistry is a discipline within Chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure properties composition reactions, and preparation ^[2][3]

The dawn of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme, diastase (today called amylase), in 1833 by Anselme Payen. A diastase (from Greek διαστασις "separation" is any one of a group of Enzymes which catalyses the breakdown of Starch into Amylase is an Enzyme that breaks Starch down into Sugar. Amylase is present in human Saliva, where it begins the chemical process Anselme Payen ( January 6, 1795 - May 12, 1871) was a French Chemist. Eduard Buchner contributed the first demonstration of a complex biochemical process outside of a cell in 1896: alcoholic fermentation in cell extracts of yeast. Eduard Buchner (May 20 1860 &ndash August 13 1917 was a German chemist and zymologist, the winner of the 1907 Nobel Prize in Chemistry See also Fermentation (biochemistry Ethanol fermentation is the biological process by which sugars such as Glucose, Fructose, and Sucrose Although the term “biochemistry” seems to have been first used in 1882, it is generally accepted that the formal coinage of biochemistry occurred in 1903 by Carl Neuberg, a German chemist. Carl Alexander Neuberg (1877-1956 was an early pioneer in Biochemistry, and often referred to as the "Father of Biochemistry" A chemist is a Scientist trained in the Science of Chemistry. Previously, this area would have been referred to as physiological chemistry. Physiological chemistry is the Chemistry of the organs and tissues of the body and of the various physiological processes incident to life Since then, biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-20th century, with the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labeling, electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. Chromatography (from Greek χρώμα chroma, color and γραφειν"graphein" to write is the collective term for a family of Laboratory X-ray scattering techniques are a family of non-destructive analytical techniques which reveal information about the crystallographic structure chemical composition Protein nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (usually abbreviated protein NMR) is a field of Structural biology in which NMR spectroscopy is used Isotopic labeling is a technique for tracking the passage of a sample of substance through a system An electron microscope is a type of Microscope that uses Electrons to illuminate a specimen and create an enlarged image Molecular dynamics ( MD) is a form of Computer simulation in which atoms and molecules are allowed to interact for a period of time by approximations of These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle). In Biochemistry, a metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called See also Gluconeogenesis, which carries out a process wherein glucose is synthesized rather than catabolized The citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle ( TCA cycle) or the Krebs cycle, (or rarely the Szent-Györgyi–Krebs cycle

Another significant historic event in biochemistry is the discovery of the gene and its role in the transfer of information in the cell. History See also History of genetics The existence of genes was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822-1884 who in the 1860s studied inheritance This part of biochemistry is often called molecular biology. Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level In the 1950s, James D. Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, and Maurice Wilkins were instrumental in solving DNA structure and suggesting its relationship with genetic transfer of information. Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004 Ph Rosalind Elsie Franklin ( 25 July, 1920 Notting Hill, London – 16 April, 1958 Chelsea London) was an Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins CBE FRS ( 15 December 1916 – 5 October 2004) was a New Zealand -born British In 1958, George Beadle and Edward Tatum received the Nobel Prize for work in fungi showing that one gene produces one enzyme. George Wells Beadle ( October 22, 1903 &ndash June 9, 1989) was an American Scientist in the field of Genetics Edward Lawrie Tatum ( December 14, 1909 &ndash November 5, 1975) was an American geneticist. In 1988, Colin Pitchfork was the first person convicted of murder with DNA evidence, which led to growth of forensic science. Colin Pitchfork (born 1961 Bristol, England) was the first criminal convicted for murder based on DNA fingerprinting evidence and the first to be Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known More recently, Andrew Z. Fire and Craig C. Mello received the 2006 Nobel Prize for discovering the role of RNA interference (RNAi), in the silencing of gene expression. Andrew Zachary Fire (born April 27, 1959) is an American biologist and Professor of pathology and of genetics at the Stanford University Craig Cameron Mello (born October 18 1960) is an American biologist and Professor of Molecular Medicine at the University of Massachusetts Medical RNA interference ( RNAi) is a mechanism that inhibits Gene expression at the stage of translation or by hindering the transcription of specific RNA interference ( RNAi) is a mechanism that inhibits Gene expression at the stage of translation or by hindering the transcription of specific

Today, there are three main types of biochemistry as established by Michael E. Sugar. Plant biochemistry involves the study of the biochemistry of autotrophic organisms such as photosynthesis and other plant specific biochemical processes. An autotroph (from the Greek autos = self and trophe = nutrition is an Organism that produces complex Organic compounds from simple Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as General biochemistry encompasses both plant and animal biochemistry. Human/medical/medicinal biochemistry focuses on the biochemistry of humans and medical illnesses.

Monomers and Polymers

Main articles: Monomer and Polymer

Monomers and polymers are a structural basis in which the four main macromolecules ^{(Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids)}, or biopolymers, of biochemistry are based on. A monomer (from Greek mono "one" and meros "part" is a small Molecule that may become chemically bonded to other A polymer is a large Molecule ( Macromolecule) composed of repeating Structural units typically connected by Covalent Chemical bonds A monomer (from Greek mono "one" and meros "part" is a small Molecule that may become chemically bonded to other A polymer is a large Molecule ( Macromolecule) composed of repeating Structural units typically connected by Covalent Chemical bonds The term macromolecule by definition implies "large Molecule " Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most Lipids are broadly defined as any fat- Soluble ( lipophilic) naturally-occurring Molecule, such as fats oils waxes cholesterol sterols fat-soluble Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl A nucleic acid is a Macromolecule composed of chains of monomeric Nucleotides In Biochemistry these Molecules carry Genetic information Biopolymers are a class of Polymers produced by living organisms Monomers are smaller micromolecules that are put together to make macromolecules. Polymers are those macromolecules that are created when monomers are synthesized together. When they are synthesized, the two molecules undergo a process called dehydration synthesis. A condensation reaction is a Chemical reaction in which two Molecules or moieties ( Functional groups) combine to form one single molecule together with

Carbohydrates

Main articles: Carbohydrates, Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Polysaccharides

Carbohydrates have monomers called monosaccharides. Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single sacchar: sugar are the most basic unit of Carbohydrates They consist of one sugar and Some of these monosaccharides include glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), fructose (C₆H₁₂O₆), and deoxyribose (C₅H₁₀O₄). Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. Fructose (also levulose or laevulose) is a simple reducing Sugar ( Monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three Deoxyribose, also known as D-Deoxyribose and 2-deoxyribose, is an Aldopentose &mdash a Monosaccharide containing five Carbon When two monosaccharides undergo dehydration synthesis, water is produced, as two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom are lost form the two monosaccharides' carboxyl group. A hydrogen atom is an atom of the chemical element Hydrogen. The electrically neutral Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Carboxyl group or CO2H is a Functional group present in Amino acids and Carboxylic acids Its structure is composed of one carbon atom attached

Lipids

Main articles: Lipids, Glycerol, and Fatty acids

Lipids are usually made up of a molecule of glycerol and other molecules. Lipids are broadly defined as any fat- Soluble ( lipophilic) naturally-occurring Molecule, such as fats oils waxes cholesterol sterols fat-soluble In triglycerides, or the main lipid, there is one molecule of glycerol, and three fatty acids. (more properly known as, TAG or triacylglyceride) is Glyceride in which the Glycerol is Esterified with three Fatty acids It is the In Chemistry, especially Biochemistry, a fatty acid is a Carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched Aliphatic tail ( chain) which Fatty acids are considered the monomer in that case, and could be saturated or unsaturated.

Proteins

Main articles: Proteins and Amino Acids

Proteins are large molecules, and have monomers of amino acids. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl There are 20 different known kinds of amino acids, and they contain a carboxyl group, an amino group, and an "R" group. In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this Amines are Organic compounds and Functional groups that contain a basic Nitrogen Atom with a Lone pair. The "R" group is what makes each amino acid different. When Amino acids combine, they form a special bond called a peptide bond, and become a polypeptide, or a protein. A peptide bond is a Chemical bond formed between two Molecules when the Carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the Peptides (from the Greek πεπτίδια, "small digestibles" are short Polymers formed from the linking in a defined order of α- Amino

Nucleic Acids

Main articles: Nucleic acid, DNA, RNA, and Nucleotides

Nucleic acids are very important in biochemistry. A nucleic acid is a Macromolecule composed of chains of monomeric Nucleotides In Biochemistry these Molecules carry Genetic information The most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid. Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Ribonucleic acid ( RNA) is a Nucleic acid that consists of a long chain of Nucleotide units Their monomers are called nucleotides. Nucleotides are Organic compounds that consist of three joined structures a nitrogenous base a Sugar, and a Phosphate group The most common nucleotides are called adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, and uracil. Adenine is a Purine with a variety of roles in Biochemistry including Cellular respiration, in the form of both the energy-rich Adenosine Cytosine is one of the five main bases found in DNA and RNA. It is a Pyrimidine derivative with a Heterocyclic Aromatic ring Guanine is one of the five main Nucleobases found in the Nucleic acids DNA and RNA, the others being Adenine, Cytosine, Thymine is one of the four bases in the Nucleic acid of DNA that make up the letters ATGC Uracil is a common and naturally occurring Pyrimidine derivative Adenine binds with thymine and uracil, thymine only binds with adenine, and cytosine and guanine can only bind with each other.

Carbohydrates

Main article: Carbohydrate

The function of carbohydrates includes energy storage and providing structure. Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most Sugars are carbohydrates, but not all carbohydrates are sugars. Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other known type of biomolecule.

Monosaccharides

The simplest type of carbohydrate is a monosaccharide, which among other properties contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 (generalized formula C_nH_2nO_n, where n is at least 3). Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single sacchar: sugar are the most basic unit of Carbohydrates They consist of one sugar and Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Glucose, one of the most important carbohydrates, is an example of a monosaccharide. Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. So is fructose, the sugar that gives fruits their sweet taste. Fructose (also levulose or laevulose) is a simple reducing Sugar ( Monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. Some carbohydrates (especially after condensation to oligo- and polysaccharides) contain less carbon relative to H and O, which still are present in 2:1 (H:O) ratio. A condensation reaction is a Chemical reaction in which two Molecules or moieties ( Functional groups) combine to form one single molecule together with Monosaccharides can be grouped into aldoses (having an aldehyde group at the end of the chain, e. An aldose is a Monosaccharide (a simple Sugar) containing one Aldehyde group per Molecule and having a Chemical formula of the An aldehyde is an organic compound containing a terminal Carbonyl group. g. glucose) and ketoses (having a keto group in their chain; e. A ketose is a Sugar containing one Ketone group per Molecule. A ketone (pronounced as key tone) is either the Functional group characterized by a Carbonyl group (O=C linked to two other Carbon atoms or g. fructose). Both aldoses and ketoses occur in an equilibrium between the open-chain forms and (starting with chain lengths of C4) cyclic forms. In a Chemical process, chemical equilibrium is the state in which the chemical activities or Concentrations of the reactants and products have no net change These are generated by bond formation between one of the hydroxyl groups of the sugar chain with the carbon of the aldehyde or keto group to form a hemiacetal bond. Hemiacetals and hemiketals are compounds of the general formula R1R2C(OHOR3 where R3 is not a hydrogen This leads to saturated five-membered (in furanoses) or six-membered (in pyranoses) heterocyclic rings containing one O as heteroatom.

Disaccharides

Two monosaccharides can be joined together using dehydration synthesis, in which a hydrogen atom is removed from the end of one molecule and a hydroxyl group (—OH) is removed from the other; the remaining residues are then attached at the sites from which the atoms were removed. A condensation reaction is a Chemical reaction in which two Molecules or moieties ( Functional groups) combine to form one single molecule together with Hydroxyl in Chemistry stands for a molecule consisting of an Oxygen atom and a Hydrogen atom connected by a Covalent bond. The H—OH or H₂O is then released as a molecule of water, hence the term dehydration. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. The new molecule, consisting of two monosaccharides, is called a disaccharide and is conjoined together by a glycosidic or ether bond. A disaccharide is a Sugar (a Carbohydrate) composed of two Monosaccharides 'Disaccharide' is one of the four chemical groupings of carbohydrates ( Ether is a class of Organic compounds which contain an ether group — an Oxygen Atom connected to two (substituted Alkyl The reverse reaction can also occur, using a molecule of water to split up a disaccharide and break the glycosidic bond; this is termed hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is a Chemical reaction during which one or more water molecules are split into hydrogen and hydroxide ions which may go on to participate in further reactions The most well-known disaccharide is sucrose, ordinary sugar (in scientific contexts, called table sugar or cane sugar to differentiate it from other sugars). Solubility of Pure SucroseTemperature(Cg Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae Sucrose consists of a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule joined together. Another important disaccharide is lactose, consisting of a glucose molecule and a galactose molecule. Lactose (also referred to as milk sugar) is a Sugar which is found most notably in Milk. Galactose (Gal (also called brain sugar) is a type of Sugar which is less sweet than Glucose. As most humans age, the production of lactase, the enzyme that hydrolyzes lactose back into glucose and galactose, typically decreases. Lactase (LCT a part of the β-galactosidase family of Enzymes is a Glycoside hydrolase involved in the Hydrolysis This results in lactase deficiency, also called lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance is the inability to metabolize Lactose, a sugar found in Milk and other Dairy products because the required enzyme

Sugar polymers are characterised by having reducing or non-reducing ends. A reducing end of a carbohydrate is a carbon atom which can be in equilibrium with the open-chain aldehyde or keto form. A reducing sugar is any sugar that in basic solution forms some Aldehyde or Ketone. An aldehyde is an organic compound containing a terminal Carbonyl group. If the joining of monomers takes place at such a carbon atom, the free hydroxy group of the pyranose or furanose form is exchanged with an OH-side chain of another sugar, yielding a full acetal. Pyranose is a collective term for Carbohydrates which have a chemical structure that includes a six-membered ring consisting of five carbons and one oxygen A furanose is a simple Sugar that contains a five-membered Furan -based ring structure and is a sub-terminal ketone which gives it reducing power An acetal is a Molecule with two single bonded oxygens attached to the same carbon atom This prevents opening of the chain to the aldehyde or keto form and renders the modified residue non-reducing. Lactose contains a reducing end at its glucose moiety, whereas the galactose moiety form a full acetal with the C4-OH group of glucose. Saccharose does not have a reducing end because of full acetal formation between the aldehyde carbon of glucose (C1) and the keto carbon of fructose (C2). Solubility of Pure SucroseTemperature(Cg

Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides

When a few (around three to six) monosaccharides are joined together, it is called an oligosaccharide (oligo- meaning "few"). Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4 An oligosaccharide is a Saccharide polymer containing a small number (typically three to ten of component sugars also known as Simple sugars. These molecules tend to be used as markers and signals, as well as having some other uses.

Many monosaccharides joined together make a polysaccharide. Polysaccharides are relatively complex Carbohydrates They are Polymers made up of many Monosaccharides joined together by Glycosidic bonds They can be joined together in one long linear chain, or they may be branched. Two of the most common polysaccharides are cellulose and glycogen, both consisting of repeating glucose monomers. Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4 Glycogen is a Polysaccharide of Glucose (Glc which functions as the secondary short term energy storage in Animal cells Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. A monomer (from Greek mono "one" and meros "part" is a small Molecule that may become chemically bonded to other

• Cellulose is made by plants and is an important structural component of their cell walls. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural Humans can neither manufacture nor digest it. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus
• Glycogen, on the other hand, is an animal carbohydrate; humans and other animals use it as a form of energy storage.

Use of carbohydrates as an energy source

See also carbohydrate metabolism

Glucose is the major energy source in most life forms. Carbohydrate metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown and interconversion of Carbohydrates For instance, polysaccharides are broken down into their monomers (glycogen phosphorylase removes glucose residues from glycogen). Glycogen phosphorylase is one of the Phosphorylase Enzymes ( It breaks up Glycogen into Glucose Subunits. Disaccharides like lactose or sucrose are cleaved into their two component monosaccharides. Solubility of Pure SucroseTemperature(Cg

Glycolysis (anaerobic)

Glucose is mainly metabolized by a very important and ancient ten-step pathway called glycolysis, the net result of which is to break down one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate; this also produces a net two molecules of ATP, the energy currency of cells, along with two reducing equivalents in the form of converting NAD⁺ to NADH. See also Gluconeogenesis, which carries out a process wherein glucose is synthesized rather than catabolized Pyruvic acid (CH3COCO2H is an alpha-keto acid. The Carboxylate Anion of pyruvic acid is known as pyruvate. Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, abbreviated NAD+, is a Coenzyme found in all living cells The compound is a dinucleotide since it consists This does not require oxygen; if no oxygen is available (or the cell cannot use oxygen), the NAD is restored by converting the pyruvate to lactate (lactic acid) (e. Lactic acid ( IUPAC Systematic name: 2-hydroxypropanoic acid) also known as milk acid, is a Chemical compound that plays a role g. in humans) or to ethanol plus carbon dioxide (e. g. in yeast). Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described Other monosaccharides like galactose and fructose can be converted into intermediates of the glycolytic pathway.

Aerobic

In aerobic cells with sufficient oxygen, like most human cells, the pyruvate is further metabolized. Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in Organisms cells to convert biochemical energy from It is irreversibly converted to acetyl-CoA, giving off one carbon atom as the waste product carbon dioxide, generating another reducing equivalent as NADH. Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule in metabolism used in many biochemical reactions Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, abbreviated NAD+, is a Coenzyme found in all living cells The compound is a dinucleotide since it consists The two molecules acetyl-CoA (from one molecule of glucose) then enter the citric acid cycle, producing two more molecules of ATP, six more NADH molecules and two reduced (ubi)quinones (via FADH₂ as enzyme-bound cofactor), and releasing the remaining carbon atoms as carbon dioxide. The citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle ( TCA cycle) or the Krebs cycle, (or rarely the Szent-Györgyi–Krebs cycle Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, abbreviated NAD+, is a Coenzyme found in all living cells The compound is a dinucleotide since it consists In Biochemistry, flavin adenine dinucleotide ( FAD) is a Redox cofactor involved in several important reactions in Metabolism. The produced NADH and quinol molecules then feed into the enzyme complexes of the respiratory chain, an electron transport system transferring the electrons ultimately to oxygen and conserving the released energy in the form of a proton gradient over a membrane (inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotes). An electron transport chain couples a chemical reaction between an electron donor (such as NADH) and an electron acceptor (such as O2) to the transfer Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Thereby, oxygen is reduced to water and the original electron acceptors NAD⁺ and quinone are regenerated. This is why humans breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. The energy released from transferring the electrons from high-energy states in NADH and quinol is conserved first as proton gradient and converted to ATP via ATP synthase. This generates an additional 28 molecules of ATP (24 from the 8 NADH + 4 from the 2 quinols), totaling to 32 molecules of ATP conserved per degraded glucose (two from glycolysis + two from the citrate cycle). It is clear that using oxygen to completely oxidize glucose provides an organism with far more energy than any oxygen-independent metabolic feature, and this is thought to be the reason why complex life appeared only after Earth's atmosphere accumulated large amounts of oxygen.

Gluconeogenesis

Main article: Gluconeogenesis

In vertebrates, vigorously contracting skeletal muscles (during weightlifting or sprinting, for example) do not receive enough oxygen to meet the energy demand, and so they shift to anaerobic metabolism, converting glucose to lactate. Gluconeogenesis (abreviated GNG) is a Metabolic pathway that results in the generation of Glucose from non- Carbohydrate carbon substrates such Vertebrates are members of the Subphylum Vertebrata, Chordates with backbones or spinal columns The grouping sometimes includes Skeletal muscle is a type of Striated muscle, which usually attaches to tendons Fermentation is the process of deriving energy from the oxidation of organic compounds such as carbohydrates using an endogenous electron acceptor which is The liver regenerates the glucose, using a process called gluconeogenesis. The liver is a vital organ in the human body and is present in Vertebrates and some other animals Gluconeogenesis (abreviated GNG) is a Metabolic pathway that results in the generation of Glucose from non- Carbohydrate carbon substrates such This process is not quite the opposite of glycolysis, and actually requires three times the amount of energy gained from glycolysis (six molecules of ATP are used, compared to the two gained in glycolysis). Analogous to the above reactions, the glucose produced can then undergo glycolysis in tissues that need energy, be stored as glycogen (or starch in plants), or be converted to other monosaccharides or joined into di- or oligosaccharides. The combined pathways of glycolysis during exercise, lactate's crossing via the bloodstream to the liver, subsequent gluconeogenisis and release of glucose into the bloodstream is called the Cori cycle. The Cori cycle, named after its discoverers Carl Cori and Gerty Cori, refers to the metabolic pathway in which lactate produced by anaerobic Glycolysis

Proteins

Main article: Protein

Like carbohydrates, some proteins perform largely structural roles. For instance, movements of the proteins actin and myosin ultimately are responsible for the contraction of skeletal muscle. Actin is a globular roughly 42-kDa Protein found in all eukaryotic cells (except for Nematode sperm where it may be present at concentrations of Myosins are a large family of Motor proteins found in Eukaryotic tissues. One property many proteins have is that they specifically bind to a certain molecule or class of molecules—they may be extremely selective in what they bind. Antibodies are an example of proteins that attach to one specific type of molecule. Antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins, abbreviated Ig) are Gamma globulin Proteins that are found in Blood or other Bodily In fact, the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which uses antibodies, is currently one of the most sensitive tests modern medicine uses to detect various biomolecules. Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay, also called ELISA, Enzyme ImmunoAssay or EIA, is a biochemical technique used mainly in Immunology Probably the most important proteins, however, are the enzymes. Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins These molecules recognize specific reactant molecules called substrates; they then catalyze the reaction between them. Catalysis is the process in which the rate of a Chemical reaction is increased by means of a Chemical substance known as a catalyst By lowering the activation energy, the enzyme speeds up that reaction by a rate of 10¹¹ or more: a reaction that would normally take over 3,000 years to complete spontaneously might take less than a second with an enzyme. In Chemistry, activation energy, also called midnight energy, is a term introduced in 1889 by the Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius, that is defined The enzyme itself is not used up in the process, and is free to catalyze the same reaction with a new set of substrates. Using various modifiers, the activity of the enzyme can be regulated, enabling control of the biochemistry of the cell as a whole.

In essence, proteins are chains of amino acids. In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this An amino acid consists of a carbon atom bound to four groups. One is an amino group, —NH₂, and one is a carboxylic acid group, —COOH (although these exist as —NH₃⁺ and —COO⁻ under physiologic conditions). Amines are Organic compounds and Functional groups that contain a basic Nitrogen Atom with a Lone pair. Carboxylic acids are Organic acids characterized by the presence of a Carboxyl group, which has the formula -C(=OOH usually written -COOH or -CO2H The third is a simple hydrogen atom. Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 The fourth is commonly denoted "—R" and is different for each amino acid. There are twenty standard amino acids. Some of these have functions by themselves or in a modified form; for instance, glutamate functions as an important neurotransmitter. See Chemical synapse for an introduction to concepts and terminology used in this article

Amino acids can be joined together via a peptide bond. A peptide bond is a Chemical bond formed between two Molecules when the Carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the In this dehydration synthesis, a water molecule is removed and the peptide bond connects the nitrogen of one amino acid's amino group to the carbon of the other's carboxylic acid group. The resulting molecule is called a dipeptide, and short stretches of amino acids (usually, fewer than around thirty) are called peptides or polypeptides. A dipeptide is a molecule consisting of two Amino acids joined by a single Peptide bond. Peptides (from the Greek πεπτίδια, "small digestibles" are short Polymers formed from the linking in a defined order of α- Amino Longer stretches merit the title proteins. As an example, the important blood serum protein albumin contains 585 amino acid residues. Blood plasma is the Liquid component of Blood, in which the Blood cells are suspended Human serum albumin is the most abundant Protein in Human Blood plasma.

The structure of proteins is traditionally described in a hierarchy of four levels. The primary structure of a protein simply consists of its linear sequence of amino acids; for instance, "alanine-glycine-tryptophan-serine-glutamate-asparagine-glycine-lysine-…". In Biochemistry, the primary structure of a biological molecule is the exact specification of its atomic composition and the chemical bonds connecting those atoms (including Secondary structure is concerned with local morphology. In Biochemistry and Structural biology, secondary structure is the general three-dimensional form of local segments of Biopolymers such as Some combinations of amino acids will tend to curl up in a coil called an α-helix or into a sheet called a β-sheet; some α-helixes can be seen in the hemoglobin schematic above. A common motif in the Secondary structure of Proteins the alpha helix (α-helix is a right-handed coiled conformation resembling a spring, in which The β sheet (also β-pleated sheet) is the second form of regular Secondary structure in Proteins consisting of beta strands connected laterally Tertiary structure is the entire three-dimensional shape of the protein. In Biochemistry and Chemistry, the tertiary structure of a Protein or any other Macromolecule is its three-dimensional structure as defined This shape is determined by the sequence of amino acids. In fact, a single change can change the entire structure. The alpha chain of hemoglobin contains 146 amino acid residues; substitution of the glutamate residue at position 6 with a valine residue changes the behavior of hemoglobin so much that it results in sickle-cell disease. Glutamic acid (abbreviated as Glu or E) is one of the 20 Alpha Amino acids It is not among the human Essential amino acids Its Valine (abbreviated as Val or V) is an α- Amino acid with the Chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2CH(CH32 Sickle-cell disease or sickle-cell anaemia (or anemia) is a Blood disorder characterized by Red blood cells that assume an abnormal rigid Finally quaternary structure is concerned with the structure of a protein with multiple peptide subunits, like hemoglobin with its four subunits. In Biochemistry, quaternary structure is the arrangement of multiple folded Protein molecules in a multi-subunit complex Not all proteins have more than one subunit.

Ingested proteins are usually broken up into single amino acids or dipeptides in the small intestine, and then absorbed. In Biology the small Intestine is the part of the Gastrointestinal tract (gut between the Stomach and the Large intestine, and comprises They can then be joined together to make new proteins. Intermediate products of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathway can be used to make all twenty amino acids, and most bacteria and plants possess all the necessary enzymes to synthesize them. The pentose phosphate pathway (also called Phosphogluconate Pathway or HexoseMonophosphate Shunt shunt is a process that serves to generate NADPH and the synthesis of pentose Humans and other mammals, however, can only synthesize half of them. They cannot synthesize isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. Isoleucine (abbreviated as Ile or I) is an α- Amino acid with the Chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2CH(CH3CH2CH3 Leucine (abbreviated as Leu or L) is an α- Amino acid with the Chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2CH2CH(CH32 Lysine (abbreviated as Lys or K) is an α- Amino acid with the Chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2(CH24NH2 Methionine ( abbreviated as Met or M) is an α- Amino acid with the Chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2CH2CH2SCH3 Phe redirects here For the BitTorrent feature see PHE. For the constellation see Phoenix (constellation. Threonine (abbreviated as Thr or T) is an α- Amino acid with the Chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2CH(OHCH3 Tryptophan (abbreviated as Trp or W) is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an Essential amino acid in the Human diet Valine (abbreviated as Val or V) is an α- Amino acid with the Chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2CH(CH32 These are the essential amino acids, since it is essential to ingest them. An essential amino acid or indispensable amino acid is an Amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo by the organism (usually referring to Mammals do possess the enzymes to synthesize alanine, asparagine, aspartate, cysteine, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine, the nonessential amino acids. Alanine (abbreviated as Ala or A) is an α- Amino acid with the Chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2CH3 Asparagine (abbreviated as Asn or N; Asx or B represent either asparagine or Aspartic acid) is one of the 20 most common natural Aspartic acid (abbreviated as Asp or D; Asx or B represent either aspartic acid or Asparagine) is an α- Amino acid Not to be confused with Cystine, its oxidized dimer Cysteine (abbreviated as Cys or C) is an α- Amino acid with Glutamic acid (abbreviated as Glu or E) is one of the 20 Alpha Amino acids It is not among the human Essential amino acids Its Glutamine (abbreviated as Gln or Q; the abbreviation Glx or Z represents either glutamate or Glutamic acid) is one of the 20 Glycine (abbreviated as Gly or G) is the Organic compound with the formula NH2CH2COOH Proline (abbreviated as Pro or P) is an α- Amino acid, one of the twenty DNA -encoded amino acids Serine (abbreviated as Ser or S) is an Organic compound with the formula H[[oxygen O]]2 CCH NH sub>2CH2OH Tyrosine (abbreviated as Tyr or Y) or 4-hydroxyphenylalanine, is one of the 20 Amino acids that are used by cells to synthesize While they can synthesize arginine and histidine, they cannot produce it in sufficient amounts for young, growing animals, and so these are often considered essential amino acids. Arginine (abbreviated as Arg or R) is an α- Amino acid. The L-form is one of the 20 most common natural amino acids Histidine (abbreviated as His or H) is one of the 20 standard Amino acids present in Proteins In the Nutritional sense in

If the amino group is removed from an amino acid, it leaves behind a carbon skeleton called an α-keto acid. Keto acids are organic Acids containing a Ketone Functional group and a Carboxylic acid group Enzymes called transaminases can easily transfer the amino group from one amino acid (making it an α-keto acid) to another α-keto acid (making it an amino acid). In Biochemistry, a transaminase or an aminotransferase is an Enzyme that Catalyzes a type of reaction between an Amino acid and an This is important in the biosynthesis of amino acids, as for many of the pathways, intermediates from other biochemical pathways are converted to the α-keto acid skeleton, and then an amino group is added, often via transamination. There are two chemical reactions known as transamination (or aminotransfer The amino acids may then be linked together to make a protein.

A similar process is used to break down proteins. It is first hydrolyzed into its component amino acids. Free ammonia (NH₃), existing as the ammonium ion (NH₄⁺) in blood, is toxic to life forms. Ammonia is a compound with the formula N[[hydrogen H3]] It is normally encountered as a Gas with a characteristic pungent Odor Ammonium is also an old name for the Siwa Oasis in western Egypt. A suitable method for excreting it must therefore exist. Different strategies have evolved in different animals, depending on the animals' needs. Unicellular organisms, of course, simply release the ammonia into the environment. A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually Similarly, bony fish can release the ammonia into the water where it is quickly diluted. Osteichthyes (ˌɒstiːˈɪkθiːz also called bony fish, are a taxonomic Class of Fish that includes the ray-finned fish ( Actinopterygii In general, mammals convert the ammonia into urea, via the urea cycle. The urea cycle (also known as the ornithine cycle) is a cycle of biochemical reactions occurring in many animals that produces Urea ( N[[hydrogen

Lipids

Main article: Lipid

The term lipid comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids, fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids and terpenoids (eg. Lipids are broadly defined as any fat- Soluble ( lipophilic) naturally-occurring Molecule, such as fats oils waxes cholesterol sterols fat-soluble In Chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two Atoms in a definite arrangement held together by "Polar molecule" and "Non-polar" redirect here Wax has traditionally referred to a substance that is secreted by Bees ( Beeswax) and used by them in constructing their In Chemistry, especially Biochemistry, a fatty acid is a Carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched Aliphatic tail ( chain) which Phospholipids are a class of Lipids and are a major component of all Biological membranes All phospholipids contain a Diglyceride, a Phosphate Sphingolipids are a class of Lipids derived from the Aliphatic amino alcohol Sphingosine. Glycolipids are Carbohydrate -attached Lipids. Their role is to provide Energy and also serve as markers for cellular recognition The terpenoids, sometimes referred to as isoprenoids, are a large and diverse class of naturally-occurring organic chemicals similar to Terpenes derived retinoids and steroids). The retinoids are a class of Chemical compounds that are related chemically to Vitamin A. A steroid is a Terpenoid Lipid characterized by a Carbon skeleton with four fused rings generally arranged in a 6-6-6-5 fashion Some lipids are linear aliphatic molecules, while others have ring structures. In Organic chemistry, compounds composed of Carbon and Hydrogen are divided into two classes Aromatic compounds which contain Benzene rings Some are aromatic, while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are rigid.

Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. "Polar molecule" and "Non-polar" redirect here Generally, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic ("water-fearing"), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water. In Chemistry, hydrophobicity (from the combining form of water in Attic Greek hydro- and for fear phobos) refers to the physical property of Another part of their structure is polar or hydrophilic ("water-loving") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. Hydrophile, from the Greek (hydros "water" and φιλια (philia "friendship" refers to a physical property of a Molecule This makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions). Amphiphile (from the Greek αμφις amphis both and φιλíα Philia: love friendship is a term describing a Chemical compound possessing both In the case of cholesterol, the polar group is a mere -OH (hydroxyl or alcohol). Cholesterol is a Lipid found in the Cell membranes and transported in the Blood plasma of all Animals It is an essential component of mammalian Hydroxyl in Chemistry stands for a molecule consisting of an Oxygen atom and a Hydrogen atom connected by a Covalent bond. In the case of phospholipids, the polar groups are considerably larger and more polar, as described below.

Lipids are an integral part of our daily diet. Most oils and milk products that we use for cooking and eating like butter, cheese, ghee etc, are comprised of fats. An oil is a substance that is in a viscous Liquid state ( "oily") at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer and is Dairy products are generally defined as Foodstuffs produced from Milk. Butter is a Dairy product made by churning fresh or fermented Cream or Milk. Cheese is a Food made from Milk, usually the milk of cows, Buffalo, Goats or sheep, by coagulation. Ghee ( Hindi घी ghī, Urdu گھی ghī, Punjabi ਘਿਉ/گھیو ghiu, Kashmiri ग्याव/گیاو Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water Vegetable oils are rich in various polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Polyunsaturated Fatty acids ( PUFA) are those which contain more than one Double bond. Lipid-containing foods undergo digestion within the body and are broken into fatty acids and glycerol, which are the final degradation products of fats and lipids.

Nucleic acids

Main article: Nucleic acid

A nucleic acid is a complex, high-molecular-weight biochemical macromolecule composed of nucleotide chains that convey genetic information. A nucleic acid is a Macromolecule composed of chains of monomeric Nucleotides In Biochemistry these Molecules carry Genetic information The term macromolecule by definition implies "large Molecule " A DNA sequence or genetic sequence is a succession of letters representing the Primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA Molecule The most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Ribonucleic acid ( RNA) is a Nucleic acid that consists of a long chain of Nucleotide units Nucleic acids are found in all living cells and viruses. Aside from the genetic material of the cell, nucleic acids often play a role as second messengers, as well as forming the base molecule for adenosine triphosphate, the primary energy-carrier molecule found in all living organisms. In Cell physiology, a secondary messenger system (also known as a second messenger system) is a method of cellular signaling whereby a diffusable signaling molecule Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy

Nucleic acid, so called because of its prevalence in cellular nuclei, is the generic name of the family of biopolymers. In Cell biology, the nucleus (pl nuclei; from Latin la ''nucleus'' or la ''nuculeus'' "little nut" or kernel is a membrane-enclosed Biopolymers are a class of Polymers produced by living organisms The monomers are called nucleotides, and each consists of three components: a nitrogenous heterocyclic base (either a purine or a pyrimidine), a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. Nucleotides are Organic compounds that consist of three joined structures a nitrogenous base a Sugar, and a Phosphate group In Chemistry, a base is most commonly thought of as an aqueous substance that can accept Protons This refers to the Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and Purine ( 1) is a heterocyclic Aromatic Organic compound, consisting of a Pyrimidine ring fused to an Imidazole ring Pyrimidine is a Heterocyclic Aromatic Organic compound similar to Benzene and Pyridine, containing two Nitrogen Atoms A pentose is a Monosaccharide with five Carbon Atoms They either have an Aldehyde Functional group in position 1 ( aldopentoses Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. A phosphate, an Inorganic chemical, is a salt of Phosphoric acid. Different nucleic acid types differ in the specific sugar found in their chain (e. g. DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid contains 2-deoxyriboses). Deoxyribose, also known as D-Deoxyribose and 2-deoxyribose, is an Aldopentose &mdash a Monosaccharide containing five Carbon Also, the nitrogenous bases possible in the two nucleic acids are different: adenine, cytosine, and guanine occur in both RNA and DNA, while thymine occurs only in DNA and uracil occurs in RNA. Adenine is a Purine with a variety of roles in Biochemistry including Cellular respiration, in the form of both the energy-rich Adenosine Cytosine is one of the five main bases found in DNA and RNA. It is a Pyrimidine derivative with a Heterocyclic Aromatic ring Guanine is one of the five main Nucleobases found in the Nucleic acids DNA and RNA, the others being Adenine, Cytosine, Thymine is one of the four bases in the Nucleic acid of DNA that make up the letters ATGC Uracil is a common and naturally occurring Pyrimidine derivative

Relationship to other "molecular-scale" biological sciences

Researchers in biochemistry use specific techniques native to biochemistry, but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas from genetics, molecular biology and biophysics. Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Biophysics (also biological physics) is an Interdisciplinary Science that employs and develops theories and methods of the Physical sciences for There has never been a hard-line between these disciplines in terms of content and technique, but members of each discipline have in the past been very territorial; today the terms molecular biology and biochemistry are nearly interchangeable. The following figure is a schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationship between the fields:

• Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules. Typical biochemists study chemical processes and chemical transformations in living organisms A biomolecule is any organic Molecule that is produced by living Organisms including large Polymeric molecules such as Proteins The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry.
• Genetics is the study of the effect of genetic differences on organisms. Often this can be inferred by the absence of a normal component (e. g. one gene). History See also History of genetics The existence of genes was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822-1884 who in the 1860s studied inheritance The study of "mutants" – organisms which lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called "wild type" or normal phenotype. A mutant is an individual organism or new genetic character arising or resulting from an instance of Mutation, which is a base-pair sequence change within the DNA Wild type, sometimes written wildtype or wild-type, is the typical form of an organism strain gene or characteristic as it occurs in nature A phenotype is any observable characteristic of an Organism, such as its morphology, Development, biochemical or physiological properties Genetic interactions (epistasis) can often confound simple interpretations of such "knock-out" studies. Epistasis is the Interaction between genes Epistasis takes place when the action of one Gene is modified by one or several other genes which are sometimes called Epistasis is the Interaction between genes Epistasis takes place when the action of one Gene is modified by one or several other genes which are sometimes called
• Molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the genetic material. Genetic material is used to store the genetic information of an organic life form The central dogma of molecular biology where genetic material is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein, despite being an oversimplified picture of molecular biology, still provides a good starting point for understanding the field. The central dogma of molecular biology was first enunciated by Francis Crick in 1958 and re-stated in a Nature paper published in 1970 This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for RNA. Ribonucleic acid ( RNA) is a Nucleic acid that consists of a long chain of Nucleotide units
• Chemical Biology seeks to develop new tools based on small molecules that allow minimal perturbation of biological systems while providing detailed information about their function. In Pharmacology, a small molecule is a small Organic compound that is biologically active ( Biomolecule) but is not a Polymer. Further, chemical biology employs biological systems to create non-natural hybrids between biomolecules and synthetic devices (for example emptied viral capsids that can deliver gene therapy or drug molecules). Gene therapy is the insertion of Genes into an individual's cells and tissues to treat a Disease, and Hereditary diseases in which a

References

Further reading

• Hunter, Graeme K. (2000). Vital Forces: The Discovery of the Molecular Basis of Life. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-361810-X.  
• Proceedings of National academy of Science of the United States of America, ISSN: 1091-6490 (electronic)

See also

Lists

Related topics

External links

• The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology
• Biochemistry, 5th ed. Full text of Berg, Tymoczko, and Stryer, courtesy of NCBI. This page aims to list articles on Wikipedia that are related to Biochemistry. This page aims to list articles on about famous Biochemists This list is not necessarily complete or up to date - if you see a biography that should be here but isn't (or one that shouldn't This page aims to list articles on Wikipedia that describe particular Biomolecules or types of biomolecules This is a list of people who have made notable contributions to genetics Anatomy Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon Some criteria for editing this page have been debated and are displayed Veterinary medicine the application of medical, diagnostic, and therapeutic principles to companion, domestic, exotic, wildlife Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as Metabolomics is the "systematic study of the unique chemical fingerprints that specific cellular processes leave behind" - specifically the study of their small-molecule metabolite Metabolomics is the "systematic study of the unique chemical fingerprints that specific cellular processes leave behind" - specifically the study of their small-molecule metabolite Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of Botany concerned with the function or Physiology, of Plants Closely related fields include Plant morphology Alternative biochemistry is the speculative Biochemistry of alien Life forms that differ radically from those on Earth. Biological psychiatry, or biopsychiatry is an approach to Psychiatry that aims to understand Mental disorder in terms of the biological function Chemical ecology is the study of the Chemicals involved in the interactions of living Organisms It focuses on the production of and response to signaling molecules For use of basic artimethics in Biology see relevant topic such as Serial dilution. Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Structural biology is the branch of Molecular biology concerned with the Architecture and shape of biological Macromolecules especially Proteins Biophysics (also biological physics) is an Interdisciplinary Science that employs and develops theories and methods of the Physical sciences for Molecular medicine is a broad field where physical chemical biological and medical techniques are used to describe molecular structures and mechanisms identify fundamental molecular Stoichiometry (sometimes called reaction stoichiometry to distinguish it from composition stoichiometry is the Calculation of Quantitative (measurable In Pharmacology, a small molecule is a small Organic compound that is biologically active ( Biomolecule) but is not a Polymer. The National Center for Biotechnology Information ( NCBI) is part of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM a branch of the National Institutes
• Biochemistry, 2nd ed. Full text of Garrett and Grisham.
• The Protein Zone

Major families of biochemicals
Peptides | Amino acids | Nucleic acids | Carbohydrates | Nucleotide sugars | Lipids | Terpenes | Carotenoids | Tetrapyrroles | Enzyme cofactors | Steroids | Flavonoids | Alkaloids | Polyketides | Glycosides

Peptides (from the Greek πεπτίδια, "small digestibles" are short Polymers formed from the linking in a defined order of α- Amino In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this A nucleic acid is a Macromolecule composed of chains of monomeric Nucleotides In Biochemistry these Molecules carry Genetic information Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most Nucleotide sugars are Biochemicals that act as donors of Sugar residues in Nucleotide sugars metabolism. Lipids are broadly defined as any fat- Soluble ( lipophilic) naturally-occurring Molecule, such as fats oils waxes cholesterol sterols fat-soluble Terpenes are a large and varied class of Hydrocarbons, produced primarily by a wide variety of plants particularly Conifers though also by some insects such Carotenoids are organic Pigments that are naturally occurring in Chromoplasts of plants and some other photosynthetic Organisms Tetrapyrroles are compounds containing four Pyrrole rings With the exception of Corrin, the four pyrrole rings are interconnected through one-carbon ( Methine A cofactor is a non-protein Chemical compound that is bound (either tightly or loosely to an Enzyme and is required for Catalysis. A steroid is a Terpenoid Lipid characterized by a Carbon skeleton with four fused rings generally arranged in a 6-6-6-5 fashion The term flavonoid (or bioflavonoid refers to a class of Plant Secondary metabolites According to the IUPAC nomenclature they can be classified into This article is about the chemical compounds alkaloids For the Pharmaceutical company in the Republic of Macedonia see Alkaloid (company. Polyketides are Secondary metabolites from bacteria, Fungi, Plants and Animals Polyketides are biosynthesized by the

© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic