Part of a series on The Bible
Biblical canon and books
Tanakh: Torah · Nevi'im · Ketuvim Old Testament · Hebrew Bible · New Testament · New Covenant · Deuterocanon · Antilegomena · Chapters & verses Apocrypha: Jewish · OT · NT
Development and authorship
Panbabylonism · Jewish Canon · Old Testament canon · New Testament canon · Mosaic authorship · Pauline epistles · Johannine works
Translations and manuscripts
Septuagint · Samaritan Pentateuch · Dead Sea scrolls · Targums · Peshitta · Vetus Latina · Vulgate · Masoretic text · Gothic Bible · Luther Bible · English Bibles
Biblical studies
Dating the Bible · Biblical criticism · Higher criticism · Textual criticism · Novum Testamentum Graece · NT textual categories · Documentary hypothesis · Synoptic problem · The Bible and history‎ · Biblical archaeology
Interpretation
Hermeneutics · Pesher · Midrash · Pardes · Allegorical · Literalism · Prophecy
Views
Inerrancy · Infallibility · Criticism · Islamic · Qur'anic · Gnostic · Judaism and Christianity · Law in Christianity
This box: view • talk • edit

The Bible is Part of Category:Judaism (see The Hebrew Bible below) Part of a series on Christianity (see The New Testament below)

The Bible is the collection of religious writings of Judaism and of Christianity. A Biblical canon or canon of scripture is a list or Set of Biblical books considered to be authoritative as Scripture by a particular religious Books of the Bible are listed differently in the canons of Jews and Catholic, Protestant, Greek Orthodox Slavonic Orthodox Georgian Armenian Apostolic See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to Nevi'im (נְבִיאִים "Prophets" is the second of the three major sections in the Hebrew Bible, the Tanakh, between the Ketuvim (כְּתוּבִים "writings" is the third and final section of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible) after Torah and Nevi'im In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon. The term Hebrew Bible is a generic reference to those books of the Bible originally written in Biblical Hebrew (and the related Biblical Aramaic The term New Covenant (; Greek:, diathēkē kainē is used in the Bible (both in the Hebrew Bible and the Greek New Testament) to refer " Deuterocanonical books " is a term used since the sixteenth century in the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Christianity to describe certain books and passages Antilegomena (from Greek, meaning things contradicted or disputed literally spoken against) was an Epithet used by the Church Fathers to denote those The Bible comprises 24 books for Jews, 66 for Protestants, 73 for Catholics, and 78 for most Orthodox This article on Jewish apocrypha includes a survey of books written in the Jewish religious tradition either in the late pre-Christian era or in the early Christian era but The biblical apocrypha (from the Greek word ἀπόκρυφος meaning hidden) are books published in an edition of the Bible whose canonicity New Testament apocrypha are a number of writings of the early Christian church that give accounts of the teachings of Jesus, aspects of the life of Jesus accounts The Authors of the Bible have authored or co-authored literature that has appeared in the canons of Judaism and of Christianity Panbabylonism is a school of thought within Assyriology and Religious studies that considers the Hebrew Bible and Judaism as directly derived Rabbinic Judaism recognizes the twenty-four books of the Masoretic Text, commonly called the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible. The Old Testament is the first section of the two-part Christian Biblical canon, which includes the books of the Hebrew Bible as well as several Deuterocanonical The Biblical canon is the set of books Christians regard as divinely inspired and thus constituting the Christian Bible. Mosaic authorship is the traditional ascription to Moses of the authorship of the five books of the Torah or Pentateuch - Genesis, The Pauline epistles are the thirteen books in the New Testament traditionally attributed to and explicitly ascribed to Paul of Tarsus. Scholars have debated the authorship of the Johannine works ( Gospel of John, the first, second, and third epistles of John, and the Book The Bible has been translated into many languages from the Biblical languages of Hebrew and Greek. A Biblical manuscript is any handwritten copy of a portion of the text of the Bible. The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the The Samaritan Pentateuch is the text of the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible, also called the Torah or Law that is used by the Samaritans The Dead Sea Scrolls consist of roughly 1000 documents including texts from the Hebrew Bible, discovered between 1947 and 1979 in eleven Caves A targum ( Hebrew: תרגום plural targumim, lit "translation interpretation" is an Aramaic Translation of the Hebrew The name 'Peshitta' The name 'Peshitta' is derived from the Syriac mappaqtâ pšîṭtâ (ܡܦܩܬܐ ܦܫܝܛܬܐ literally meaning 'simple version' Vetus Latina is a collective name given to the Biblical texts in Latin that were translated before St Jerome 's Vulgate The Vulgate is an early Fifth Century version of the Bible in Latin, and largely the result of the labours of Jerome, who was commissioned by The Masoretic Text ( MT) is the Hebrew text of the Jewish Bible ( Tanakh) The Gothic Bible or Wulfila Bible is the Christian Bible as translated by Wulfila into the Gothic language spoken by the Eastern Germanic or The Luther Bible is a German Bible translation by Martin Luther, first printed with both testaments in 1534 The efforts of translating the Bible from its original languages into over 2000 others have spanned more than two millennia. Biblical studies is the academic study of the Judeo-Christian Bible and related texts The Bible is a compilation of various texts or " books " of different ages used in the Jewish and Christian religions This article is about the academic treatment of the bible as a historical document Historical criticism or higher criticism is a branch of literary analysis that investigates the origins of a text as applied in Biblical studies it naturally Textual criticism (or lower criticism) is a branch of Literary criticism that is concerned with the identification and removal of Transcription errors in Novum Testamentum Graece is the Latin name of the Greek language version of the New Testament. New Testament manuscripts are categorized into five groups This categorization scheme was introduced in 1981 by Kurt and Barbara Aland in Der Text des Neuen Testaments The synoptic problem concerns the literary relationships between and among the first three canonical gospels (the Gospels of Mark, Matthew, and The historicity of the Bible addresses in what ways the Bible is historically accurate the extent to which it can be used as a historic source and what qualifications should For the movement associated with William F Albright and known as Biblical archaeology see Biblical archaeology school. Biblical hermeneutics refers to methods of interpreting the Bible. Pesher (pl pesharim) is a Hebrew word meaning "interpretation" in the sense of "solution" Midrash ( Hebrew: מדרש plural midrashim, lit "to repeat" is a Hebrew term referring to the not exact but comparative ( homiletic The Pardes typology describes four different approaches to Biblical Exegesis in rabbinic Judaism (or - simpler - interpretation of text in Allegorical interpretation is the approach which assigns a higher-than-literal interpretation to the contents of a text (eg Bible) Biblical literalism (also called Biblicism) is a primarily pejorative term referring to the adherence to an explicit and literal sense of the Bible. Bible prophecy, or " biblical prophecy " is the belief in prophecies in the Bible. Biblical inerrancy is the conservative evangelical doctrinal position that in its original form the Bible is totally without error and free from all contradiction Biblical infallibility is the theological term to describe the belief that the Bible is free from errors on issues of faith and practice while minor possible contradictions in history This article is about criticisms which are made against the Bible as a source of information or ethical guidance In Islam, the Bible is held to reflect true unfolding revelation from God but revelation which had become corrupted or distorted in its handing down (in Arabic The Qur'an, the central religious text of Islam, contains references to over fifty people also found in the Bible, typically in the same or similar This article discusses the relationship between Gnosticism and the New Testament. This article discusses the traditional views of the two religions and may not be applicable all adherents of each Biblical law in Christianity generally refers to a discussion as to what and how the biblical law applies in a Christian context. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings ^[1] The exact composition of the Bible is dependent on the religious traditions of specific denominations. Modern Rabbinic Judaism generally recognizes a single set of canonical books that comprise the Tanakh, the Jewish version of the Bible. Rabbinic Judaism or Rabbinism ( Hebrew: " Yehadut Rabanit " - יהדות רבנית is the mainstream religious system of post- diaspora Rabbinic Judaism recognizes the twenty-four books of the Masoretic Text, commonly called the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible. See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ ^[2] The Christian Bible includes the same books as the Tanakh (referred to in this context as the Old Testament), but in a different order, together with specifically Christian books collectively called the New Testament. In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon. Among some Christian traditions, the Bible includes additional Jewish books that were not accepted into the Tanakh. See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is

The Hebrew Bible comprises three parts: the Torah ("Teaching", also known as the Pentateuch or "Five Books of Moses"), the Prophets, and the Writings. The term Hebrew Bible is a generic reference to those books of the Bible originally written in Biblical Hebrew (and the related Biblical Aramaic term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to Moses ( Latin: Moyses,; Greek: grc Mωυσής in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; Arabic: ar موسىٰ Ketuvim (כְּתוּבִים "writings" is the third and final section of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible) after Torah and Nevi'im It was primarily written in Hebrew with some small portions written in Aramaic. Aramaic is a Semitic language with

The Christian Bible includes the twenty-seven books of the New Testament, which were originally written in Greek,^[3] preceded by the protocanonical books of the Old Testament and sometimes a number of deuterocanonical books: Eastern Orthodox Churches use all of the books that were incorporated into the Septuagint, the earliest Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible;^[4] Roman Catholics include some of these books in their canon; and many Protestant Bibles follow the Jewish canon, excluding the additional books. The Protocanonical books are those books of the Old Testament which were coextensive with the Hebrew Bible and which have always been considered canonical " Deuterocanonical books " is a term used since the sixteenth century in the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Christianity to describe certain books and passages The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Some editions of the Christian Bible have a separate Biblical apocrypha section for books not considered canonical. The biblical apocrypha (from the Greek word ἀπόκρυφος meaning hidden) are books published in an edition of the Bible whose canonicity

According to the United Bible Society, as of December 31, 2007, translations of the full Bible were available for 438 languages, translations of one of the two testaments in 1,168 additional languages, and portions of the text existed in 848 additional languages. A Bible society is a non-profit organization (usually Ecumenical in makeup devoted to Translating, publishing distributing the Bible at affordable costs Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. This means that partial or full translations of the Bible exist in a total of 2,454 languages. ^[5]

Contents 1 Etymology 2 Tanakh 2.1 Torah 2.2 Nevi'im 2.3 Ketuvim 2.4 Hebrew Bible translations and editions 2.5 The Torah of Judaism 3 Christian Bible 3.1 Old Testament 3.1.1 Apocryphal or deuterocanonical books 3.2 New Testament 3.2.1 Original language 3.2.2 Historic editions 3.3 Christian theology 4 Canonization 4.1 Hebrew Bible 4.2 Old and New Testaments 4.3 Ethiopian Orthodox canon 5 Bible versions and translations 5.1 Characteristics of early Bible texts 5.2 Differences in Bible translations 5.3 Inclusive language 5.4 Chapters and verses 6 Biblical criticism 6.1 Higher criticism 6.2 Documentary hypothesis 6.3 Modern developments 6.4 Theological responses 6.4.1 Judaism 6.4.2 Christianity 7 Archaeological and historical research 7.1 Nomadist theory 8 See also 8.1 Biblical scholarship and analysis 8.2 Perspectives on the Bible 8.3 Interpretation 8.4 History and the Bible 8.5 Biblical topics 8.6 Bible societies 8.7 Commentaries 8.8 Religious texts 9 Notes 10 References and further reading 11 External links 11.1 Wikis

Etymology

According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible^[6] is from Anglo-Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin, as used in the phrase biblia sacra ("holy book" - "In the Latin of the Middle Ages, the neuter plural for Biblia (gen. The Online Etymology Dictionary is a Dictionary that describes the origins of English language words bibliorum) gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun (biblia, gen. bibliae, in which singular form the word has passed into the languages of the Western world. "^[7]). This stemmed from the Greek term τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια (ta biblia ta hagia), "the holy books", which derived from βιβλίον (biblion),^[8] "paper" or "scroll," the ordinary word for "book", which was originally a diminutive of βύβλος (byblos, "Egyptian papyrus"), possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician port Byblos from which Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly A Book is a set or collection of written printed illustrated or blank sheets made of Paper, Parchment, or other material usually fastened together Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun Byblos ( Βύβλος) is the Greek name of the Phoenician city Gebal (earlier Gubla) Papyrus (/pəˈpaɪrəs/ (Rhymes -aɪrəs)is a thick paper-like material produced from the Pith of the papyrus plant Cyperus papyrus

Biblical scholar Mark Hamilton states that the Greek phrase Ta biblia ("the books") was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books several centuries before the time of Jesus,"^[9] and would have referred to the Septuagint. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the ^[10] The Online Etymology Dictionary states, "The Christian scripture was referred to in Greek as Ta Biblia as early as c. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly 223. "

Tanakh

Main article: Tanakh

The Tanakh (Hebrew: תנ"ך) consists of 24 books. See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is Tanakh is an acronym for the three parts of the Hebrew Bible: the Torah ("Teaching/Law" also known as the Pentateuch), Nevi'im ("Prophets"), and Ketuvim ("Writings," or Hagiographa), and is used commonly by Jews but unfamiliar to many English speakers and others (Alexander 1999, p. 17). term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to Nevi'im (נְבִיאִים "Prophets" is the second of the three major sections in the Hebrew Bible, the Tanakh, between the Ketuvim (כְּתוּבִים "writings" is the third and final section of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible) after Torah and Nevi'im Ketuvim (כְּתוּבִים "writings" is the third and final section of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible) after Torah and Nevi'im (See Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture). See also Books of the Bible Below is a table of books of Jewish Tanakh and Christian Scripture, organized by the Jewish use and Christian Churches

Torah

Main article: Torah

The Torah, or "Instruction," is also known as the "Five Books" of Moses, thus Chumash from Hebrew meaning "fivesome," and Pentateuch from Greek meaning "five scroll-cases. term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to Moses ( Latin: Moyses,; Greek: grc Mωυσής in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; Arabic: ar موسىٰ Chumash (xuˈmɑʃ ( Hebrew: חומש also Humash) is one of the Hebrew names for the Five Books of Moses also known as the Pentateuch or term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to "

The Torah comprises the following five books:

• 1. Genesis, Ge—Bereshit (בראשית)
• 2. Exodus, Ex—Shemot (שמות)
• 3. Exodus ( Greek: έξοδος eksodos = "departure" is the second book of the Jewish Torah and of the Christian Old Testament. Leviticus, Le—Vayikra (ויקרא)
• 4. Leviticus (from Greek Λευιτικός, "relating to the Levites " Numbers, Nu—Bamidbar (במדבר)
• 5. The Book of Numbers, ( Bamidbar, meaning in the wilderness) is the fourth book of the Torah, the Tanakh, and the Old Testament. Deuteronomy, Dt—Devarim (דברים)

The Hebrew book titles come from the first words in the respective texts. Deuteronomy (Greek deuteronomion, Δευτερονόμιον "second law" is the fifth book of the Hebrew Bible and of the Old Testament The Hebrew title for Numbers, however, comes from the fifth word of that text.

The Torah focuses on three moments in the changing relationship between God and people. The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the creation (or ordering) of the world, and the history of God's early relationship with humanity. The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's covenant with the Hebrew patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (also called Israel), and Jacob's children (the "Children of Israel"), especially Joseph. Originally a patriarch was a man who exercised autocratic authority as a Pater familias over an extended family Abraham ( Ashkenazi   Avrohom or Avruhom; ابراهيم, {{Unicode|Ibrāhīm}}; Ge'ez: According to the Hebrew Bible, Isaac ( Hebrew: Yitzchak יִצְחָק, Standard Yiẓḥaq Jacob ( Hebrew: יַעֲקֹב, Standard   Yaʿaqov Tiberian   Yaʿăqōḇ; For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Joseph or Yosef (יוֹסֵ Standard Yosef Tiberian Yôsēp̄, يوسف Yusuf; "He It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of Ur, eventually to settle in the land of Canaan, and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt. Ur ( Sumerian:urim; Akkadian: ?) is modern Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq, and was a city in ancient Sumer. Canaanites redirects here For the 1940s social and political movement in Israel, see Canaanites (movement. The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of Moses, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. Moses ( Latin: Moyses,; Greek: grc Mωυσής in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; Arabic: ar موسىٰ His story coincides with the story of the liberation of the Children of Israel from slavery in Ancient Egypt, to the renewal of their covenant with God at Mount Sinai, and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation would be ready to enter the land of Canaan. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now For other places named Mount Sinai see Mount Sinai (disambiguation Mount Sinai (Arabic طور سيناء, Hebrew הר סיני also The Torah ends with the death of Moses.

The Torah contains the commandments, of God, revealed at Mount Sinai (although there is some debate amongst Jewish scholars, if this was written down completely in one moment, or if it was spread out during the 40 years in the wandering in the desert). These commandments provide the basis for Halakha (Jewish religious law). Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Tradition states that the number of these is equal to 613 Mitzvot or 613 commandments. See also Mitzvah See also Biblical law in Christianity The 613 Mitzvot ("commandments" (also " 613 Mitzvos There is some dispute as to how to divide these up (mainly between the Ramban and Rambam). Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and Everyone agrees though that there are 613.

The Torah is divided into fifty-four portions which are read in turn in Jewish liturgy, from the beginning of Genesis to the end of Deuteronomy, each Sabbath. Shabbat or Shabbos ( Hebrew: שַׁבָּת, shabbāt, shabbes, "rest/inactivity" is the Weekly Sabbath The cycle ends and recommences at the end of Sukkot, which is called Simchat Torah. Sukkot ( also known as Succoth, Sukkos, Feast of Booths or Feast of Tabernacles) is a Biblical Pilgrimage Simchat Torah or Simchas Torah (שמחת תורה is a Jewish holiday marking the conclusion of the annual cycle of public Torah readings and the beginning

Nevi'im

Main article: Nevi'im

The Nevi'im, or "Prophets," tell the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy, its division into two kingdoms, and the prophets who, in God's name, warned the kings and the Children of Israel about the punishment of God. Nevi'im (נְבִיאִים "Prophets" is the second of the three major sections in the Hebrew Bible, the Tanakh, between the Nevi'im (נְבִיאִים "Prophets" is the second of the three major sections in the Hebrew Bible, the Tanakh, between the It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians and the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians, and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Portions of the prophetic books are read by Jews on the Sabbath (Shabbat). Shabbat or Shabbos ( Hebrew: שַׁבָּת, shabbāt, shabbes, "rest/inactivity" is the Weekly Sabbath The Book of Jonah is read on Yom Kippur. In the Hebrew Bible, the Book of Jonah is the fifth book in a series of books called the Minor Prophets Yom Kippur (יוֹם כִּפּוּר ˈjɔm kiˈpur also known in English as the Day of Atonement, is the most solemn and important of the Jewish holidays Its

According to Jewish tradition, Nevi'im is divided into eight books. Contemporary translations subdivide these into seventeen books.

The Nevi'im comprise the following eight books:

• 6. Joshua, Js—Yehoshua (יהושע)
• 7. The Book of Joshua ( Hebrew: Sefer Y'hoshua ספר יהושע is the sixth book in both the Hebrew Tanakh and the Old Testament of the Christian Judges, Jg—Shoftim (שופטים)
• 8. Book of Judges ( Hebrew: Sefer Shoftim ספר שופטים is a book of the Bible originally written in Hebrew. Samuel, includes First and Second, 1Sa–2Sa—Shemuel (שמואל)
• 9. The Books of Samuel ( Hebrew: Sefer Sh'muel ספר שמואל are part of the Tanakh (part of Judaism 's Hebrew Bible) and also of Kings, includes First and Second, 1Ki–2Ki—Melakhim (מלכים)
• 10. The Books of Kings ( Sefer Melachim, ספר מלכים are a part of Judaism 's Tanakh, the Hebrew Bible. Isaiah, Is—Yeshayahu (ישעיהו)
• 11. The Book of Isaiah ( Hebrew: Sefer Y'sha'yah ספר ישעיה is a book of the Bible traditionally attributed to the Prophet Isaiah, who lived Jeremiah, Je—Yirmiyahu (ירמיהו)
• 12. The Book of Jeremiah, or Jeremiah ( יִרְמְיָהוּ Yirməyāhū in Hebrew) is part of the Hebrew Bible, Judaism Ezekiel, Ez—Yekhezkel (יחזקאל)
• 13. The Book of Ezekiel is a book of the Hebrew Bible (of the Books of the Bible) named after the prophet Ezekiel. Twelve, includes all Minor Prophets—Tre Asar (תרי עשר)
  • a. A minor prophet is one of the writings in the Twelve Prophets section of the Hebrew Bible, also known to Christians as the Minor Prophets of the Old Hosea, Ho—Hoshea (הושע)
  • b. The Book of Hosea is one of the books of the Hebrew Bible and of the Christian Old Testament. Joel, Jl—Yoel (יואל)
  • c. The Book of Joel is part of the Jewish Tanakh, and also the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. Amos, Am—Amos (עמוס)
  • d. The Book of Amos is one of the books of the Nevi'im (Hebrew "prophets" and of the Christian Old Testament. Obadiah, Ob—Ovadyah (עבדיה)
  • e. The Book of Obadiah is found in both the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament of the Christian Bible, where it is the shortest book only one chapter long Jonah, Jh—Yonah (יונה)
  • f. In the Hebrew Bible, the Book of Jonah is the fifth book in a series of books called the Minor Prophets Micah, Mi—Mikhah (מיכה)
  • g. The Book of Micah (Hebrew ספר מיכה is one of the books of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament, traditionally attributed to Micah the Nahum, Na—Nahum (נחום)
  • h. The book of Nahum is a book in the Bible 's Old Testament and Jewish Tanakh. Habakkuk, Hb—Havakuk (חבקוק)
  • i. The Book of Habakkuk is the eighth book of the 12 Minor prophets of the Hebrew Bible. Zephaniah, Zp—Tsefanya (צפניה)
  • j. The superscription of the Book of Zephaniah attributes its authorship to “Zephaniah son of Cushi son of Gedaliah son of Amariah son of Hezekiah, in the days of King Haggai, Hg—Khagay (חגי)
  • k. The Book of Haggai is a book of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible) and of the Old Testament, written by the prophet Haggai. Zechariah, Zc—Zekharyah (זכריה)
  • l. The Book of Zechariah is a book of the Bible Old Testament and Jewish Tanakh attributed to the Prophet Zechariah. Malachi, Ml—Malakhi (מלאכי)

Part of a series on
Judaism
Portal | Category
Jews · Judaism · Denominations
Orthodox · Conservative · Reform
Haredi · Hasidic · Modern Orthodox
Reconstructionist · Renewal · Rabbinic
Humanistic · Karaite · Samaritanism
Jewish philosophy
Principles of faith · Minyan · Kabbalah
Noahide laws · God · Eschatology · Messiah
Chosenness · Holocaust · Halakha · Kashrut
Modesty · Tzedakah · Ethics · Mussar
Religious texts
Torah · Tanakh · Talmud · Midrash · Tosefta
Rabbinic works · Kuzari · Mishneh Torah
Tur · Shulchan Aruch · Mishnah Berurah
Ḥumash · Siddur · Piyutim · Zohar
Holy cities
Jerusalem · Safed · Hebron · Tiberias
Important figures
Abraham · Sarah · Isaac · Rebecca ·
Jacob/Israel · Rachel · Leah · Twelve Tribes · Moses
Deborah · Ruth · Solomon · David
Hillel · Shammai · Rabbi Akiva · Judah the Prince
Rav · Saadia Gaon · Rif · Rashi · Tosafists
Maimonides · Nahmanides · Yosef Karo
Jewish life cycle
Brit · Bar/Bat Mitzvah · Shidduch · Marriage
Niddah · Naming · Pidyon HaBen · Bereavement
Religious roles
Rabbi · Rebbe · Hazzan
Kohen/Priest · Mashgiach · Gabbai · Maggid
Mohel · Beth din · Rosh yeshiva
Religious Kehilla & institutions
Synagogue · Mikvah · Gemach
Religious buildings
Synagogue · Mikvah · Holy Temple / Tabernacle
Religious articles
Tallit · Tefillin · Kipa · Sefer Torah
Tzitzit · Mezuzah · Menorah · Hanukiah · Shofar
4 Species · Kittel · Gartel · Yad
Jewish prayers and services
Shema · Amidah · Aleinu · Kol Nidre
Kaddish · Hallel · Ma Tovu · Havdalah
Judaism & other religions
Christianity · Islam · "Judeo-Christian" · Others
Abrahamic faiths · Judeo-Paganism · Pluralism
Related topics
Antisemitism · Criticism
Philo-Semitism · Slavery · Yeshiva · Zionism
v • d • e

Ketuvim

Main article: Ketuvim

The Ketuvim, or "Writings" or "Scriptures," may have been written during or after the Babylonian Exile but no one can be sure. Malachi (or Malachias מַלְאָכִי Malʾaḫi Mál'akhî is a book of the Bible Old Testament and Jewish Tanakh, written by the prophet Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Orthodox Judaism is the formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonized Conservative Judaism (also known as Masorti Judaism in Israel and Europe) is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions Haredi or Chareidi Judaism is the most theologically conservative form of Orthodox Judaism. Hasidic Judaism (also Chasidic, etc from the Hebrew: he '''''חסידות''''', Chassidus, meaning "piety" from the Hebrew Modern Orthodox Judaism (or Modern Orthodox or Modern Orthodoxy) is a movement within Orthodox Judaism that attempts to synthesize traditional observance Reconstructionist Judaism is a modern American-based Jewish movement based on the ideas of the late Mordecai Kaplan (1881 – 1983 Jewish Renewal is a recent movement in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with mystical, Hasidic, Musical and Rabbinic Judaism or Rabbinism ( Hebrew: " Yehadut Rabanit " - יהדות רבנית is the mainstream religious system of post- diaspora Humanistic Judaism is a movement within Judaism that emphasizes Jewish culture and history—rather than belief in God—as the sources of Jewish identity Karaite Judaism or Karaism (ˈkærəˌaɪt ˈkærəˌɪzəm) is a Jewish movement NOTE The word sect should not be used without defining it first and Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology Although Jews and religious leaders share a core of monotheistic principles Judaism has no formal statement of principles of faith such as a Creed or Catechism A minyan (מנין lit to count number; pl minyanim) in Judaism refers to the Quorum required for certain religious Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. The Seven Laws of Noah ( Hebrew: שבע מצוות בני נח Sheva mitzvot B'nei Noach) often referred to as the Noahide Laws, are a set of seven moral In Judaism, the name of God is more than a distinguishing title Jewish eschatology is concerned with the Jewish Messiah, Afterlife, and the revival of the dead. Messiah ( משיח; mashiah, moshiah, mashiach, or moshiach, ("anointed " is a term used in the Hebrew Bible In Judaism chosenness is the belief that the Jews are the Chosen people: chosen to be in a Covenant with God. Holocaust theology refers to a body of theological and philosophical debate soul-searching and analysis with the subsequent related Literature, that Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Kashrut (also kashruth or kashrus, he כַּשְׁרוּת refers to Jewish dietary laws. Tzniut or Tznius (also Tzeniut) ( Hebrew: צניעות " Modesty " is a term used within Judaism and has its greatest influence Tzedakah ( צדקה) is a Hebrew word commonly translated as charity, though it is based on a root meaning Justice Jewish ethics stands at the intersection of Judaism and the Western philosophical tradition of Ethics. Mussar movement refers to a Jewish ethical, educational and cultural movement (a "Jewish Moralist Movement" that developed in 19th century Orthodox term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Midrash ( Hebrew: מדרש plural midrashim, lit "to repeat" is a Hebrew term referring to the not exact but comparative ( homiletic The Tosefta ( Aramaic: תוספתא is a secondary compilation of the Jewish oral law from the period of the Mishnah. Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense can mean the entire spectrum of Rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history The Kuzari is one of most famous works of the medieval Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet Rabbi Yehuda Halevi. The Mishneh Torah ( Hebrew: משנה תורה subtitled Sefer Yad ha-Chazaka (יד החזקה is a code of Jewish Religious law Arba'ah Turim (ארבעה טורים often called simply the Tur, is an important Halakhic code, composed by Yaakov ben Asher The Shulchan Aruch (שולחן ערוך literally " Set Table " (also Shulhan Aruch or Shulchan Arukh) is a Codification Mishnah Berurah ( Hebrew: "Clarified Teaching" is a work of Halakha (Jewish law by Rabbi Yisrael Chumash (xuˈmɑʃ ( Hebrew: חומש also Humash) is one of the Hebrew names for the Five Books of Moses also known as the Pentateuch or A siddur ( Hebrew: סידור plural siddurim) is a Jewish Prayer book, containing a set order of daily prayers. See also Religious Jewish music A piyyut (plural piyyutim, Hebrew פיוט pijút and) is a Jewish liturgical poem usually designated For the village in southern Israel see Tzohar The Zohar (זהר lit Splendor or Radiance) is widely considered the most important The Four Holy Cities is the collective term in Jewish tradition applied to the cities of Jerusalem, Hebron, Tiberias, and Safed: "Since Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the Safed (צְפַת pronounced Tsfat; صفد pronounced Safad) is a city in the Northern District of Israel. Hebron ( al-Ḫalīl or al-Khalīl, Standard Hebrew: Ḥevron Tiberian Hebrew: Ḥeḇrôn is the largest city in the West Bank, located in the south Tiberias ( British English: /taɪˈbɪəriæs -əs/ American English: /taɪˈbɪriəs/ טְבֶרְיָה Tverya; طبرية Ṭabariyyah Jewish leadership has evolved over time Since the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE there has been no single body that has a leadership Abraham ( Ashkenazi   Avrohom or Avruhom; ابراهيم, {{Unicode|Ibrāhīm}}; Ge'ez: Sarah (; Arabic: سارة, Sārah; "a woman of high rank" is the wife of Abraham as described in the Hebrew Bible According to the Hebrew Bible, Isaac ( Hebrew: Yitzchak יִצְחָק, Standard Yiẓḥaq This article is about the biblical matriarch For other uses of the word Rebecca see Rebecca (disambiguation Rebecca (also Rebekah also Jacob ( Hebrew: יַעֲקֹב, Standard   Yaʿaqov Tiberian   Yaʿăqōḇ; Rachel (; meaning "ewe" is the second and favorite Wife of Jacob and mother of Joseph and Benjamin, first mentioned in the Leah ( "Weary tired" is the first of the four concurrent wives of the Hebrew patriarch Jacob, and mother of six of the Twelve Tribes of Israel along See also History of ancient Israel and Judah According to the Bible, the Israelites were the dominant group living in the Land of Israel. Moses ( Latin: Moyses,; Greek: grc Mωυσής in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; Arabic: ar موسىٰ See also Biblical judges Book of Judges List of women warriors in folklore literature and popular culture This article is about the ancient Hebrew religious text For the 20th-century English-language novel see The Book of Ruth (novel The Book of Ruth King Solomon ( Ge'ez: ስለሞን Arabic: ar سليمان, Sulayman, all from the Triliteral root S-L-M, "peace" David, Arabic: داوود or داود dawud, "beloved" was the second king of the united Kingdom of Israel according to the Hebrew Bible Hillel (הלל (born Babylon traditionally c110BCE-10CE in Jerusalem) was a famous Jewish religious leader one of the most important figures in Jewish Shammai (50 BCE&ndash30 CE Hebrew: שמאי was a Jewish scholar of the 1st century and an important figure in Judaism 's core work of Rabbinic literature Akiva redirects here For other people and things with this name see Akiva (disambiguation. Abba Arika (175–247 ( Talmudic Aramaic: tmr אבא אריכא) (born Abba bar Aybo was a Jewish Talmudist who lived in Babylonia Rabbi Isaac ben Jacob Alfasi (1013 - 1103 - also Isaac Hakohen, Alfasi or the Rif (רי"ף - was a Talmudist and Posek (decisor For the astrological concept see Rāshi (Jyotiṣa. Rabbi Shlomo Yitzhaki, (רבי שלמה יצחקי better known by the acronym Rashi Tosafists were Medieval Rabbis who created critical and explanatory Glosses on the Talmud. Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and Nahmanides (1194 &ndash c 1270 was a Catalan Rabbi, philosopher, Physician, Kabbalist and biblical commentator. Yosef ben Ephraim Caro (sometimes Joseph Caro) (1488 ( Portugal) - March 24, 1575 ( Safed, Ottoman Empire) was one of the Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions In Judaism, Bar Mitzvah ( Hebrew: בר מצוה "one (m to whom the commandments apply" Bat Mitzvah (בת מצוה "one (f The Shidduch ( Hebrew: שידוך pl shidduchim שידוכים is a system of Matchmaking in which Jewish singles are introduced Betrothal ( shiddukhin) In Jewish law (halakha Betrothal (shiddukhin or Engagement is defined as the mutual promise between Niddah (or nidah, nidda, nida; Hebrew:נִדָּה is a Hebrew term which literally means separation, generally considered to refer Zeved habat (Sephardic or Simchat bat (Ashkenazi are terms for the ritual for naming infant Jewish girls Pidyon HaBen, (פדיון הבן trans Redemption of the Son) is a ritual in Judaism whereby a firstborn son is redeemed from a Kohen in order Bereavement in Judaism ( is a combination of Minhag (traditional custom and Mitzvot (good deeds or religious obligation derived from Judaism 's classical Rabbi (pronunciation, although in English usually) in Judaism, means a religious ‘teacher’ or more literally ‘my great one’ when addressing any master Rebbe (רבי (pronounced in English which means master teacher or mentor is a Yiddish word derived from the identical Hebrew word Rabbi "Hazan" and "Chazan" redirect here For people named Hazan or Chazan see Hazan (disambiguation Growing importance of the office A kohen (or cohen, Hebrew כּהן "priest" pl כּהנִים kohanim or cohanim) has a separate status in Judaism. This article is about someone who supervises the production of Kosher food A Gabbai ( גבאי) (or sometimes Shamash שמש} is a person who assists in the running of a Synagogue and ensures that the needs are met for example Maggid ( מַגִּיד) sometimes spelled as magid) is traditional Eastern European Jewish religious itinerant A mohel ( Hebrew:מוהל plural mohelim) is a Jewish man who performs the Jewish ritual of Brit milah. A beth din, beit din or beis din ( Hebrew: בית דין "house of judgment" plural battei din) is a Rabbinical Rosh yeshiva, ( pl. Heb. Roshei yeshiva; Yeshivish Rosh yeshivas) (ראש ישיבה is the title given to the dean of A kehilla or kehillah (קהילה Hebrew: "community" is a Jewish Community. A synagogue (from Greek: grc συναγωγή transliterated synagogē, "assembly" he בית כנסת beit knesset, "house of Mikvah (or mikveh) ( plural mikva'ot or mikves) is a ritual bath designed for the purpose of ritual immersion in Judaism. Gemach ( Hebrew: גמח plural גמחים gemachim, an abbreviation for גמילות חסדים gemilat chasadim, "acts of kindness" is a A synagogue (from Greek: grc συναγωγή transliterated synagogē, "assembly" he בית כנסת beit knesset, "house of Mikvah (or mikveh) ( plural mikva'ot or mikves) is a ritual bath designed for the purpose of ritual immersion in Judaism. Etymology The Hebrew name given in Scripture for the building is Beit HaMikdash or "The Holy House" and only the Temple in Jerusalem is referred to by this name The Tabernacle is known in Hebrew as the Mishkan ( משכן "Residence" or "Dwelling Place" The tallit (טַלִּית also called tallis ( Yiddish, plural taleysm) is a prayer Shawl worn during the morning Jewish services Tefillin, ( תפילין) also called phylacteries, are a pair of black leather boxes containing scrolls of parchment inscribed with biblical verses "Kipa" redirects here For the supermarket please see Kipa (supermarket. A Sefer Torah ( Hebrew: ספר תורה; plural ספרי תורה Sifrei Torah; “Book(s of Torah ” or “Torah Scroll (s” Tzitzit or tzitzis ( Hebrew: Biblical   ציצת Modern   ציצית) are "fringes" A mezuzah (מזוזה "doorpost" (plural mezuzot (מזוזות is a piece of Parchment (usually contained in a decorative case Pekiin tabletjpg|thumb|right|151px| Second Temple period stone tablet from a Synagogue in Peki'in, Israel. Hanukkah Menorah ( Hebrew: מנורה menorah) (also חַנֻכִּיָּה Hanukiah, or Chanukkiyah, pl A shofar (שופר is a horn used for Jewish religious purposes The Four Species ( Hebrew: ארבעת המינים, Arba'at Ha-Minim, also called Arba Minim) are three types of branches and one type of fruit A kittel, also spelled kitl, (קיטל robe coat cf German Kittel ‘(house/work coat’ is a white robe which served as a burial The Gartel is a belt used by married Jewish males predominantly but not exclusively Hasidim during prayer A yad ( יד) literally "hand" is a Jewish ritual pointer used to point to the text during the Torah reading from the Parchment See also Jewish services Listed below are some Hebrew prayers and blessings that are part of Judaism that are recited by many Jews Jewish services ( Hebrew: תפלה, tefillah; plural תפלות, tefillos or tefillot; Yinglish: davening Shema Yisrael (or Sh'ma Yisroel or just Shema) ( Hebrew: שמע ישראל "Hear Israel" are the first two words of a section of The Amidah (Hebrew תפילת העמידה, Tefilat HaAmidah "The Standing Prayer " also called the Shmona Esre ( שמנה עשרה Aleinu ( Hebrew:, "our duty" is a Jewish Prayer found in the Siddur, the classical Jewish prayerbook Kol Nidre ( Aramaic: כל נדרי) is a Jewish prayer recited in the Synagogue at the beginning of the evening service on Yom Kippur Kaddish (קדיש Aramaic: "holy" refers to an important and central prayer in the Jewish prayer service. Hallel (הלל "Praise" is a Jewish prayer &mdasha verbatim recitation from Psalms 113-118 which is used for praise and thanksgiving that is recited Ma Tovu ( Hebrew for "O How Good" or "How Goodly" is a Prayer in Judaism, expressing reverence and awe for Synagogues and Havdalah is a Jewish religious ceremony that marks the symbolic end of Shabbat and holidays and ushers in the new week This article discusses the traditional views of the two religions and may not be applicable all adherents of each The historical interaction of Judaism and Islam started in the 7th century CE with the origin and spread of Islam in the Arabian peninsula. Judeo-Christian (or Judaeo-Christian, sometimes written as Judæo-Christian) is a term used to describe the body of concepts and values which are thought to be held Alternative Judaism or Agnostic Judaism refers to a variety of groups whose members while identifying as Jews in some fashion nevertheless do not practice Rabbinical Jewitchery (from the terms Jew and witch, "shaman"/"sage" in its pure meaning or Jewish Neopaganism is a religious movement that Religious pluralism is a set of religious world views that hold that one's religion is not the sole and exclusive source of truth and thus recognizes that some level of truth and value exists in Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility Criticism of Judaism has existed since Judaism 's formative stages as with many other Religions, on Theological grounds Philo-Semitism, Philosemitism, or Judeophilia is an interest in respect for and appreciation of the Jewish people their historical significance and the Judaism has been influenced by the experience of slavery of the Hebrews in the land of Egypt, as narrated in the biblical story of The Exodus Yeshiva or yeshivah (jəʃi'və ( Hebrew: ישיבה "sitting (n History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the Ketuvim (כְּתוּבִים "writings" is the third and final section of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible) after Torah and Nevi'im Ketuvim (כְּתוּבִים "writings" is the third and final section of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible) after Torah and Nevi'im The Babylonian captivity, Babylonian exile, is the name typically given to the deportation and exile of the Jews of the ancient Kingdom of Judah to According to Rabbinic tradition, many of the psalms in the book of Psalms are attributed to David; King Solomon is believed to have written Song of Songs in his youth, Proverbs at the prime of his life, and Ecclesiastes at old age; and the prophet Jeremiah is thought to have written Lamentations. Psalms ( Hebrew: Tehilim, תהילים, or "praises" is a book of the Hebrew Bible (the Christian Old Testament) included David, Arabic: داوود or داود dawud, "beloved" was the second king of the united Kingdom of Israel according to the Hebrew Bible King Solomon ( Ge'ez: ስለሞን Arabic: ar سليمان, Sulayman, all from the Triliteral root S-L-M, "peace" The Book of Proverbs is one of the books of the Ketuvim of the Tanakh, and thus also one of the books of the Old Testament. Ecclesiastes (often abbreviated Ecc) (קֹהֶלֶת Kohelet, variously transliterated as Qoheleth, Göhalath, Koheles, Koheleth Jeremiah ( jirmɛ'jahu; Septuagint Greek: Ἰερεμίας was one of the 'greater prophets ' of the Hebrew Bible. The Book of Ruth is the only biblical book that centers entirely on a non-Jew. This article is about the ancient Hebrew religious text For the 20th-century English-language novel see The Book of Ruth (novel The Book of Ruth The book of Ruth tells the story of a non-Jew (specifically, a Moabite) who married a Jew and, upon his death, followed in the ways of the Jews; according to the Bible, she was the great-grandmother of King David. Moab (; Greek Μωάβ; Arabic مؤاب, Assyrian Mu'aba, Ma'ba, Ma'ab; Egyptian Proselyte, from the Koine Greek προσήλυτος/proselytos, is used in the Septuagint for "stranger" i David, Arabic: داوود or داود dawud, "beloved" was the second king of the united Kingdom of Israel according to the Hebrew Bible Five of the books, called "The Five Scrolls" (Megilot), are read on Jewish holidays: Song of Songs on Passover; the Book of Ruth on Shavuot; Lamentations on the Ninth of Av; Ecclesiastes on Sukkot; and the Book of Esther on Purim. Passover ( Hebrew, Yiddish: פֶּסַח Pesach, Tiberian: pɛsaħ Israeli: Pesah, Pesakh, Yiddish This article is about the ancient Hebrew religious text For the 20th-century English-language novel see The Book of Ruth (novel The Book of Ruth Shavuot (or Shavuos, in Ashkenazi usage Hebrew: שבועות, lit Tisha B'Av (תשעה באב or he ט׳ באב "the Ninth of Av," is an annual fast day in Judaism, named for the ninth day ( Tisha Sukkot ( also known as Succoth, Sukkos, Feast of Booths or Feast of Tabernacles) is a Biblical Pilgrimage The Book of Esther is a book of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible) and of the Old Testament. Purim ( Hebrew: פורים Pûrîm " lots " related to Akkadian pūru) is a Jewish holiday that commemorates Collectively, the Ketuvim contain lyrical poetry, philosophical reflections on life, and the stories of the prophets and other Jewish leaders during the Babylonian exile. It ends with the Persian decree allowing Jews to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple.

The Ketuvim comprise the following eleven books:

• 14. Psalms, Ps—Tehillim (תהלים)
• 15. Psalms ( Hebrew: Tehilim, תהילים, or "praises" is a book of the Hebrew Bible (the Christian Old Testament) included Proverbs, Pr—Mishlei (משלי)
• 16. The Book of Proverbs is one of the books of the Ketuvim of the Tanakh, and thus also one of the books of the Old Testament. Job, Jb—Iyyov (איוב)
• 17. The Book of Job ( איוב) is one of the books of the Hebrew Bible. Song of Songs, So—Shir ha-Shirim (שיר השירים)
• 18. Ruth, Ru—Rut (רות)
• 19. This article is about the ancient Hebrew religious text For the 20th-century English-language novel see The Book of Ruth (novel The Book of Ruth Lamentations, La—Eikhah (איכה), also called Kinot (קינות)
• 20. The Book of Lamentations (אֵיכָה Eikha, ʾēḫā(h is a book of the Bible Old Testament and Jewish Tanakh. Ecclesiastes, Ec—Kohelet (קהלת)
• 21. Ecclesiastes (often abbreviated Ecc) (קֹהֶלֶת Kohelet, variously transliterated as Qoheleth, Göhalath, Koheles, Koheleth Esther, Es—Ester (אסתר)
• 22. The Book of Esther is a book of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible) and of the Old Testament. Daniel, Dn—Daniel (דניאל)
• 23. The Book of Daniel (דניאל, originally written in Hebrew and Aramaic, is a Book in both the Hebrew Bible ( Tanakh) and the Christian Ezra, Ea, includes Nehemiah, Ne—Ezra (עזרא), includes Nehemiah (נחמיה)
• 24. The Book of Ezra is a book of the Bible in the Old Testament and Hebrew Tanakh. The Book of Nehemiah is a book of the Hebrew Bible, historically regarded as a continuation of the Book of Ezra, and is sometimes called the second book Chronicles, includes First and Second, 1Ch–2Ch—Divrei ha-Yamim (דברי הימים), also called Divrei (דברי)

Hebrew Bible translations and editions

Main article: Bible translations

The Tanakh was mainly written in Biblical Hebrew, with some portions (notably in Daniel and Ezra) in Biblical Aramaic. The Books of Chronicles ( Hebrew Divrei Hayyamim, דברי הימים Greek Paraleipomêna) are part of the Hebrew Bible (Jewish The Bible has been translated into many languages from the Biblical languages of Hebrew and Greek. Biblical Hebrew, also called Classical Hebrew, is an archaic form of the Hebrew language in which the Hebrew Bible and various Israelite inscriptions The Book of Daniel (דניאל, originally written in Hebrew and Aramaic, is a Book in both the Hebrew Bible ( Tanakh) and the Christian The Book of Ezra is a book of the Bible in the Old Testament and Hebrew Tanakh. Biblical Aramaic is the form of the Aramaic language that is used in the books of Daniel, Ezra and a few other places in the Hebrew Bible. ^[11]

Some time in the 2nd or 3rd century BC, the Torah was translated into Koine Greek, and over the next century, other books were translated (or composed) as well. term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to Koine Greek (Κοινὴ Ἑλληνική, "common Greek" or, ciˈni ðiˈale̞kto̞s "the common dialect" is the popular form of Greek which emerged in This translation became known as the Septuagint^[12] and was widely used by Greek-speaking Jews, and later by Christians. The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the ^[13] It differs somewhat from the later standardized Hebrew (Masoretic Text). The Masoretic Text ( MT) is the Hebrew text of the Jewish Bible ( Tanakh) This translation was promoted by way of a legend (primarily recorded as the Letter of Aristeas) that seventy (or in some sources, seventy-two) separate translators all produced identical texts. The so-called Letter of Aristeas or Letter to Philocrates is a Hellenistic work of the second century BCE one of the Pseudepigrapha. ^[14]

From the 800s to the 1400s, Jewish scholars today known as Masoretes compared the text of all known biblical manuscripts in an effort to create a unified, standardized text. See also Masoretic text The Masoretes ( ba'alei hamasorah, Hebrew בעלי המסורה were groups of Scribes and Bible Scholars A Biblical manuscript is any handwritten copy of a portion of the text of the Bible. A series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as Masoretic Texts (MT). The Masoretes also added vowel points (called niqqud) to the text, since the original text only contained consonant letters. In Phonetics, a vowel is a Sound in spoken Language, such as English ah! or oh!, pronounced with an open Vocal tract In Hebrew Orthography, niqqud or nikkud ( is the system of Diacritical signs used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation, since some words differ only in their vowels—their meaning can vary in accordance with the vowels chosen. In antiquity, variant Hebrew readings existed, some of which have survived in the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Dead Sea scrolls, and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient versions in other languages. The Samaritan Pentateuch is the text of the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible, also called the Torah or Law that is used by the Samaritans The Dead Sea Scrolls consist of roughly 1000 documents including texts from the Hebrew Bible, discovered between 1947 and 1979 in eleven Caves ^[15]

Versions of the Septuagint contain several passages and whole books beyond what was included in the Masoretic texts of the Tanakh. See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or variants not present in the Masoretic texts. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than was once thought. While there are no complete surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew texts on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that they represent a different textual tradition ("Vorlage") from the one that became the basis for the Masoretic texts. ^[15]

Jews also produced non-literal translations or paraphrases known as targums, primarily in Aramaic. A targum ( Hebrew: תרגום plural targumim, lit "translation interpretation" is an Aramaic Translation of the Hebrew They frequently expanded on the text with additional details taken from Rabbinic oral tradition.

The Torah of Judaism

Orthodox Judaism, as epitomized in the Pharisee sect, rejects any notion that the Written Torah and Oral Torah are distinct entities. Orthodox Judaism is the formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonized The word Pharisees ( lat. pharisæ|us, - i) comes from the Hebrew פרושים perushim from פרוש parush, meaning "separated" The Written Torah (the Five Books of Moses), Prophets and Writings, form the corpus of what is God's word in written form. This body is completely incomprehensible without an Oral Tradition. For example, a Torah scroll contains no vowels, and no punctuation. Were it not for an Oral Tradition, the meaning of words would be unknown, as well as the sentence structure, where to begin and end verses, sections etc. are all reliant on an oral tradition. This is extended into what Orthodox Judaism classifies in the Legal parts of the Oral Tradition, as the rules of Biblical Exegesis, which defines how to interpret the text, which is also transmitted orally. The Oral Tradition, however, is much more broad. It includes Midrash, Halachic and Aggadic, Kabbalah, interpretation, and the legal portions, which are codified to some extent in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Sifre, Sifra, Mechilta, Talmuds (both Babylonian and Jerusalem). Midrash ( Hebrew: מדרש plural midrashim, lit "to repeat" is a Hebrew term referring to the not exact but comparative ( homiletic Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism The Tosefta ( Aramaic: תוספתא is a secondary compilation of the Jewish oral law from the period of the Mishnah. Sifre ( סִפְרֵי siphrēy, Sifre Sifrei, also Sifre debe Rab or Sifre Rabbah) refers to either of two Sifra ( Aramaic: סִפְרָא) is the Halakic midrash to Leviticus. Mekhilta or Mekilta ( Hebrew: מכילתא) is the Halakic midrash to the Book of Exodus. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history

The Sadducees were a minority group, that had some sway during the Hellenistic period, were the inheritors of their leader Zadok who believed that there was only a minimal oral tradition of interpreting the words of the Torah, and did not extend into extended biblical interpretation. The Sadducees were members of a Jewish sect founded in the second century BC, possibly as a political party This article focuses on the historical aspects of the Hellenistic age for the cultural aspects see Hellenistic civilisation. They argued against the Rabbis in mostly legal matters, threatening the very existence of Judaism. The Sadducees became corrupted and took over positions in the Priestly service, some becoming the High Priest. This page gives one list (partly traditional of the High Priests of Ancient Israel up to the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Others incited unrest by subverting the Sanhedrin, by providing false testimony in which the new-moon would be declared, and hence the dates of the year for the festivals would be altered. The Sanhedrin (סנהדרין συνέδριον ''synedrion'', "sitting together" hence " assembly " or "council" was an assembly

Masorti and Conservative Judaism state that the Oral Tradition is to some degree Divinely inspired, but disregard its legal elements in varying degrees. The Masorti movement is the name given to Conservative Judaism in the State of Israel. Conservative Judaism (also known as Masorti Judaism in Israel and Europe) is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out Reform Judaism also gives some credence to the Talmud containing the Legal elements of the Oral Torah, but, as with the written Torah, asserts that both were inspired by, but not dictated by, God. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions Reconstructionist Judaism, denies any connection of the Torah, Written or Oral with God. Reconstructionist Judaism is a modern American-based Jewish movement based on the ideas of the late Mordecai Kaplan (1881 – 1983

Christian Bible

The Christian Bible consists of the Hebrew scriptures, which have been called the Old Testament, and some later writings known as the New Testament. In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon. Some groups within Christianity include additional books as part one or both of these sections of their sacred writings – most prominent among which are the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books. The biblical apocrypha (from the Greek word ἀπόκρυφος meaning hidden) are books published in an edition of the Bible whose canonicity " Deuterocanonical books " is a term used since the sixteenth century in the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Christianity to describe certain books and passages

In Judaism, the term Christian Bible is commonly used to identify only those books like the New Testament which have been added by Christians to the Masoretic Text, and excludes any reference to an Old Testament. The Masoretic Text ( MT) is the Hebrew text of the Jewish Bible ( Tanakh) ^[16]

Old Testament

The Old Testament is the collection of books written prior to the life of Jesus but accepted by Christians as scripture. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) Broadly speaking, it is the same as the Hebrew Bible, however it divides and orders them differently, and varies from Judaism in interpretation and emphasis, see for example Isaiah 7:14. The term Hebrew Bible is a generic reference to those books of the Bible originally written in Biblical Hebrew (and the related Biblical Aramaic Several Christian denominations also incorporate additional books into their canons of the Old Testament. A Biblical canon or canon of scripture is a list or Set of Biblical books considered to be authoritative as Scripture by a particular religious A few groups consider particular translations to be divinely inspired, notably the Greek Septuagint, the Aramaic Peshitta, and the English King James Version. Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the The name 'Peshitta' The name 'Peshitta' is derived from the Syriac mappaqtâ pšîṭtâ (ܡܦܩܬܐ ܦܫܝܛܬܐ literally meaning 'simple version'

Apocryphal or deuterocanonical books

The Septuagint (Greek translation, from Alexandria in Egypt under the Ptolemies) was generally abandoned in favour of the Masoretic text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into Western languages from St. The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the The Ptolemaic dynasty (sometimes also known as the Lagids, from the name of Ptolemy I's father Lagus) was a Hellenistic Macedonian royal family The Masoretic Text ( MT) is the Hebrew text of the Jewish Bible ( Tanakh) The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings Jerome's Bible (the Vulgate) to the present day. The Vulgate is an early Fifth Century version of the Bible in Latin, and largely the result of the labours of Jerome, who was commissioned by In Eastern Christianity, translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. Families of churches Eastern Christians have a shared tradition but they became divided ( Schism) during the early centuries of Christianity in disputes about Some modern Western translations make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic text, where the Septuagint may preserve a variant reading of the Hebrew text. They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in other texts e. g. those discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Dead Sea Scrolls consist of roughly 1000 documents including texts from the Hebrew Bible, discovered between 1947 and 1979 in eleven Caves

A number of books which are part of the Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew (Rabbinic) Bible are often referred to as deuterocanonical books by Roman Catholics referring to a later secondary (i. " Deuterocanonical books " is a term used since the sixteenth century in the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Christianity to describe certain books and passages e. deutero) canon. Most Protestants term these books as apocrypha. Evangelicals and those of the Modern Protestant traditions do not accept the deuterocanonical books as canonical, although Protestant Bibles included them in Apocrypha sections until around the 1820s. Evangelicalism is a theological movement tradition and system of beliefs most closely associated with Protestant Christianity, which identifies with the Gospel Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. The biblical apocrypha (from the Greek word ἀπόκρυφος meaning hidden) are books published in an edition of the Bible whose canonicity However, the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox Churches include these books as part of their Old Testament. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world Oriental Orthodoxy is the communion of Eastern Christian Churches that recognize only three Ecumenical councils — the First Council of Nicaea, the

The Roman Catholic Church recognizes the following books:

• Tobit
• Judith
• 1 Maccabees
• 2 Maccabees
• Wisdom of Solomon
• Ecclesiasticus
• Baruch
• Greek Additions to Esther
• Greek Additions to Daniel

In addition to those, the Eastern Orthodox Church recognizes the following:

• 3 Maccabees
• 1 Esdras
• Prayer of Manasseh
• Psalm 151

Some other Orthodox Churches include a few others, typically:

• 2 Esdras
• Odes
• Psalms of Solomon

The Anglican Church uses the Apocryphal books liturgically, but not to establish doctrine. The Book of Tobit (or Book of Tobias in older Catholic Bibles is a book of scripture that is part of the Catholic and Orthodox Biblical canon 1 Maccabees is a deuterocanonical book written by a Jewish author after the restoration of an independent Jewish kingdom probably about 100 BC. 2 Maccabees is a deuterocanonical book of the Bible which focuses on the Jews revolt against Antiochus and concludes with the defeat of the Book of Wisdom or Wisdom of Solomon or simply Wisdom is one of the Deuterocanonical books of the Bible. Sirach, by Ben Sira, also known as The Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, or Ecclesiasticus The Book of Baruch, occasionally referred to as 1 Baruch, is called a deuterocanonical or apocryphal book of the Bible. The Book of Esther is a book of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible) and of the Old Testament. The Additions to Daniel comprise three chapters not found in the Hebrew / Aramaic text of Daniel. One of the Pseudepigrapha, the Biblical book 3 Maccabees is found in most Orthodox Bibles as a part of the Deuterocanonical books, but Protestants 1 Esdras (Εσδράς A′ is a book from the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament regarded as canonical in Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy The Prayer of Manasseh is a short work of 15 verses of the penitential prayer of the Judean king Manasseh. Psalm 151 is the name given to a short psalm that is found in most copies of the Septuagint but not in the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible 2 Esdras is the name of this book in many English versions of the Bible, but it is called 4 Esdras in the Vulgate and the Douay-Rheims Bible One of the Pseudepigrapha, the Psalms of Solomon is a group of eighteen Psalms (religious songs or poems that are not part of any scriptural canon. See also Anglicanism The Anglican Communion is an international association of national Anglican churches The biblical apocrypha (from the Greek word ἀπόκρυφος meaning hidden) are books published in an edition of the Bible whose canonicity Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Anglican Church include the Deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic church, plus 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh. 1 Esdras (Εσδράς A′ is a book from the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament regarded as canonical in Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy 2 Esdras is the name of this book in many English versions of the Bible, but it is called 4 Esdras in the Vulgate and the Douay-Rheims Bible The Prayer of Manasseh is a short work of 15 verses of the penitential prayer of the Judean king Manasseh.

There is also 4 Maccabees which is not accepted as canonical by any church, but was included by St. Jerome in an appendix to the Vulgate, and it therefore sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha. The book of 4 Maccabees is a Homily or philosophic discourse praising the supremacy of pious reason over passion Jerome (c 347 – September 30, 420) ( Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος The Vulgate is an early Fifth Century version of the Bible in Latin, and largely the result of the labours of Jerome, who was commissioned by

New Testament

Main article: New Testament

The Bible as used by the majority of Christians includes the Rabbinic Hebrew Scripture and the New Testament, which relates the life and teachings of Jesus, the letters of the Apostle Paul and other disciples to the early church and the Book of Revelation. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) The word " Epistle " is from the Greek word epistolos which means a written " letter " addressed to a recipient or recipients Paul the apostle (שאול התרסי Šaʾul HaTarsi, meaning " Saul of Tarsus " Σαούλ Saul and Σαῦλος Saulos and In Christianity, the disciples were the students of Jesus during his ministry. Early Christianity is commonly defined as the Christianity of the three centuries between the Crucifixion of Jesus ( c The Book of Revelation, also called Revelation to John, Apocalypse of John ( pronounced, from the Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάννου

Part of a series of articles on Christianity
Jesus Christ
Virgin birth · Crucifixion · Resurrection
Foundations
Church · New Covenant Apostles · Kingdom · Gospel · Timeline
Bible
Old Testament · New Testament Books · Canon · Apocrypha
Christian theology
Trinity · (Father · Son · Holy Spirit) History of · Theology · Apologetics
History and traditions
Early · Councils · Creeds · Missions East-West Schism · Crusades · Reformation
Denominations
Topics in Christianity
Preaching · Prayer · Ecumenism Relation to other religions · Movements Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism
Christianity Portal
This box: view • talk • edit

The New Testament is a collection of 27 books, of 4 different genres of Christian literature (Gospels, one account of the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles and an Apocalypse). Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) Christ is the English term for the Greek ( Khristós) meaning "the anointed " The virgin birth of Jesus is a religious Tenet of Christianity and Islam which holds that Mary miraculously conceived Jesus while The crucifixion of Jesus is an event recorded in all four Gospels (;;) which takes place after his arrest and trial and includes his scourging Within the body of Christian beliefs the resurrection of Jesus is a core event on which much of Christian doctrine and theology depend Church (disambiguation Christian Church and the word church are used to denote both a Christian association of people and a Place of worship The term New Covenant (; Greek:, diathēkē kainē is used in the Bible (both in the Hebrew Bible and the Greek New Testament) to refer The Twelve Apostles (Greek apostolos, "someone sent out" e This article is about the canonical books of the New Testament The purpose of this timeline is to give a detailed account of Christianity from the beginning of the current era ( AD) to the present In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon. Books of the Bible are listed differently in the canons of Jews and Catholic, Protestant, Greek Orthodox Slavonic Orthodox Georgian Armenian Apostolic A Biblical canon or canon of scripture is a list or Set of Biblical books considered to be authoritative as Scripture by a particular religious The biblical apocrypha (from the Greek word ἀπόκρυφος meaning hidden) are books published in an edition of the Bible whose canonicity Christian Theology is discourse concerning Christian faith Christian theologians use biblical Exegesis, rational analysis and argument SSC RF "Troitsk Institute of Innovative and Termonuclear Research" or TRINITY for shprt Троицкий Институт инновационных и термоядерных In many religions the supreme Deity ( God) is given the title and attributions of Father. Christian views of Jesus consist of the teachings and beliefs held by Christian groups about Jesus including his divinity humanity and earthly life In mainstream Christianity, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is one of the three entities of the Holy Trinity which make up the single substance This is an overview of the History of Christian Theology from the time of Christ to the present Christian Theology is discourse concerning Christian faith Christian theologians use biblical Exegesis, rational analysis and argument Christian apologetics is a field of Christian theology that aims to present a rational basis for the Christian faith, defend the faith against objections Christian tradition is a collection of Traditions of practice or belief associated with Christianity. Early Christianity is commonly defined as the Christianity of the three centuries between the Crucifixion of Jesus ( c This is a general introduction to ecumenical councils For the Roman Catholic councils, see Catholic Ecumenical Councils. A creed is a statement of Belief — usually Religious belief — or Faith often recited as part of a religious service See also Evangelism, Christianization A Christian mission has been widely defined since the Lausanne Congress of 1974 as that which The East-West Schism, or the Great Schism, divided medieval Christendom into Eastern (Greek and Western (Latin branches which later became known as the The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Denominationalism|List of Christian denominations|Church (disambiguation A Christian denomination is an identifiable religious body under a common name structure and doctrine within A sermon is an oration by a Prophet or member of the Clergy. Sermons address a Biblical, theological, or religious topic Prayer is an important theme in Christianity, and there are several different forms of prayer Ecumenism (also oecumenism, œcumenism) refers to initiatives aimed at greater Religious unity or cooperation Christianity and other religions appear to share some elements Christian movements are theological, political or philosophical interpretations of Christianity that are not generally represented by a specific church Christian music is music that is written to express either personal or a communal belief regarding Christian life A Liturgy is a set form of ceremony or pattern of worship Christian liturgy is a pattern for worship used (whether recommended or prescribed by a Christian congregation or The liturgical year, also known as the Christian year, consists of the cycle of liturgical seasons in Christian churches which determines when Christian symbolism is defined as the investing of outward things or actions with an inner meaning the expression of Christian ideas Christian art is Art produced in an attempt to illustrate supplement and portray in tangible form the principles of Christianity. Throughout the History of Christianity, a wide range of Christians and non-Christians alike have offered criticisms of Christianity, the Church, and Christians A genre (ˈʒɑːnrə also /ˈdʒɑːnrə/ from French "kind" or "sort" from Latin: genus (stem gener-) is a loose set This article is about the canonical books of the New Testament The Acts of the Apostles is a book of the Bible, which now stands fifth in the New Testament. The word " Epistle " is from the Greek word epistolos which means a written " letter " addressed to a recipient or recipients Jesus is its central figure. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) The New Testament was written primarily in Koine Greek in the early Christian period, though a minority argue for Aramaic primacy. Koine Greek (Κοινὴ Ἑλληνική, "common Greek" or, ciˈni ðiˈale̞kto̞s "the common dialect" is the popular form of Greek which emerged in Aramaic primacy is the view that the Christian New Testament and/or its sources were originally written in the Aramaic language. Nearly all Christians recognize the New Testament (as stated below) as canonical scripture. These books can be grouped into:

The Gospels Synoptic Gospels Gospel According to Matthew, Mt Gospel According to Mark, Mk Gospel According to Luke, Lk Gospel According to John, Jn Acts of the Apostles, Ac (continues Luke) Pauline Epistles Epistle to the Romans, Ro First Epistle to the Corinthians, 1Co Second Epistle to the Corinthians, 2Co Epistle to the Galatians, Ga Epistle to the Ephesians, Ep Epistle to the Philippians, Pp Epistle to the Colossians, Cl First Epistle to the Thessalonians, 1Th Second Epistle to the Thessalonians, 2Th Pastoral Epistles First Epistle to Timothy, 1Ti Second Epistle to Timothy, 2Ti Epistle to Titus, Tt Epistle to Philemon, Pm Epistle to the Hebrews, He General Epistles, also called Jewish Epistles Epistle of James, Jm First Epistle of Peter, 1Pe Second Epistle of Peter, 2Pe First Epistle of John, 1Jn Second Epistle of John, 2Jn Third Epistle of John, 3Jn Epistle of Jude, Jd Revelation, or the Apocalypse Re

The order of these books varies according to Church tradition. This article is about the canonical books of the New Testament The synoptic gospels are the first three Gospels of the New Testament in the Christian Bible. The Gospel of Matthew (Gk Κατά Ματθαίον Ευαγγέλιον is one of the four Canonical gospels in the New Testament and is a Synoptic gospel Content Authorship The gospel itself is anonymous but as early as Papias in the early 2nd century a text was attributed to Mark, a cousin The Gospel of Luke (Gk Κατά Λουκάν Ευαγγέλιον) is a synoptic Gospel, and is the third and longest of the four canonical Gospels of the The Gospel of John (literally According to John; Greek, Κατὰ Ἰωάννην Kata Iōannēn) is the fourth Gospel in the canon The Acts of the Apostles is a book of the Bible, which now stands fifth in the New Testament. The Pauline epistles, Epistles of Paul, or Letters of Paul, are the thirteen New Testament books which have the name Paul (Παῦλος as the first The Epistle of St Paul the Apostle to the Romans is one of the letters of the New Testament canon of the Christian Bible. The First Epistle to the Corinthians is a book of the Bible in the New Testament. The Second Epistle to the Corinthians is a book in the New Testament, written by Paul the Apostle. The Epistle to the Galatians is a book of the New Testament. It is a letter from Paul of Tarsus to a number of early Christian communities in the Roman province of Described by William Barclay as the "Queen of the Epistles" the Epistle to the Ephesians is one of the books of the Bible in the New The Epistle to the Philippians (or simply Philippians) is a Book included in the New Testament of the Bible. The Epistle to the Colossians is a book of the Bible New Testament. The First Epistle to the Thessalonians, also known as the First Letter to the Thessalonians, is a book from the New Testament of the Christian Bible The Second Epistle to the Thessalonians, also known as the Second Letter to the Thessalonians, is a book from the New Testament of the Christian Bible The three pastoral epistles are books of the canonical New Testament: the First Epistle to Timothy ( 1 Timothy) the The First Epistle to Timothy is one of three letters in New Testament of the Bible often grouped together as the Pastoral Epistles. The Second Epistle to Timothy is one of the three Pastoral Epistles, traditionally attributed to Saint Paul, and is part of the canonical New Testament The Epistle to Titus is one of the Pastoral Epistles. The Epistle to Titus is a book of the canonic New Testament, one of the The Epistle to Philemon is a prison letter from Paul of Tarsus to Philemon, a leader in the Colossian church. The Epistle to the Hebrews (abbr Heb for Citations is one of the books in the New Testament. General epistles (also called Catholic Epistles) are books in the New Testament in the form of letters The Epistle of James is a book in the Christian New Testament. The First Epistle of Peter is a book of the New Testament. It has traditionally been held to have been written by Saint Peter the apostle during his time as Bishop The Second Epistle of Peter is a book of the New Testament of the Bible, traditionally ascribed to Saint Peter, but in modern times widely regarded as The First Epistle of John is a book of the New Testament, and is the fourth catholic or "general" Epistles. The Second Epistle of John (often simply called 2nd John or II John) is a book in the Christian Holy Scriptures, the authorship of The New Testament Third Epistle of John (often referred to as 3 John) written in the form of an Epistle, is the 64th book of the Bible. The brief Epistle of Jude is the penultimate book in the Christian New Testament canon. The Book of Revelation, also called Revelation to John, Apocalypse of John ( pronounced, from the Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάννου The New Testament books are ordered differently in the Catholic/Protestant tradition, the Lutheran tradition, the Slavonic tradition, the Syriac tradition and the Ethiopian tradition.

Original language

The books of the New Testament were likely written in Koine Greek, the language of the earliest extant manuscripts, even though some authors often included translations from Hebrew and Aramaic texts. Koine Greek (Κοινὴ Ἑλληνική, "common Greek" or, ciˈni ðiˈale̞kto̞s "the common dialect" is the popular form of Greek which emerged in Certainly the Pauline Epistles were written in Greek for Greek-speaking audiences. See Greek primacy. Greek Primacy is the view that the Christian New Testament and/or its sources were originally written in Koine Greek. Some scholars believe that some books of the Greek New Testament (in particular, the Gospel of Matthew) are actually translations of a Hebrew or Aramaic original. Of these, a small number accept the Syriac Peshitta as representative of the original. See Aramaic primacy. Aramaic primacy is the view that the Christian New Testament and/or its sources were originally written in the Aramaic language.

Historic editions

See also: Biblical manuscript and Bible translations

When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they wrote notes on the margins of the page (marginal glosses) to correct their text—especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line—and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text. See textual criticism. Textual criticism (or lower criticism) is a branch of Literary criticism that is concerned with the identification and removal of Transcription errors in Over time, different regions evolved different versions, each with its own assemblage of omissions and additions.

The autographs, the Greek manuscripts written by the original authors, have not survived. A Biblical manuscript is any handwritten copy of a portion of the text of the Bible. Scholars surmise the original Greek text from the versions that do survive. The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type (generally minimalist), the Byzantine text-type (generally maximalist), and the Western text-type (occasionally wild). The Alexandrian text-type (also called Neutral or Egyptian) is one of several text-types used in New Testament Textual criticism to describe The Byzantine text-type (also called Majority, Traditional, Ecclesiastical, Constantinopolitan, or Syrian) is one of several The Western text-type is one of several text-types used in Textual criticism to describe and group the textual character of Greek New Testament manuscripts Together they comprise most of the ancient manuscripts.

There are also several ancient translations, most important of which are in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta and the Diatessaron gospel harmony), in the Ethiopian language of Ge'ez, and in Latin (both the Vetus Latina and the Vulgate). See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language The name 'Peshitta' The name 'Peshitta' is derived from the Syriac mappaqtâ pšîṭtâ (ܡܦܩܬܐ ܦܫܝܛܬܐ literally meaning 'simple version' The Diatessaron ( c 150 - 160 is the most prominent Gospel harmony. Ge'ez (ግዕዝ, ɡɨʕɨz also transliterated Gi'iz, and referred to as Ethiopic) is an ancient South Semitic Language Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Vetus Latina is a collective name given to the Biblical texts in Latin that were translated before St Jerome 's Vulgate The Vulgate is an early Fifth Century version of the Bible in Latin, and largely the result of the labours of Jerome, who was commissioned by

In 331, the Emperor Constantine commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Persecutions See also Persecution of Christians The first recorded significant persecution of Christians at the hands of the authorities of the Roman Empire Athanasius (Apol. Const. 4) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Flavius Julius Constans (320-350 was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 337 to 350 Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus are examples of these Bibles. A Biblical canon or canon of scripture is a list or Set of Biblical books considered to be authoritative as Scripture by a particular religious The Codex Vaticanus ( The Vatican, Bibl Vat, Vat gr 1209 Gregory-Aland no Codex Sinaiticus (Shelfmarks and references London Brit Libr, Additional 43725 Gregory - Aland nº א (Aleph or 01, Soden The Codex Alexandrinus (London British Library, MS Royal 1 D V-VIII Gregory-Aland no Together with the Peshitta, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles. The name 'Peshitta' The name 'Peshitta' is derived from the Syriac mappaqtâ pšîṭtâ (ܡܦܩܬܐ ܦܫܝܛܬܐ literally meaning 'simple version' ^[17]

The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, a Latin Vulgate edition produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. The Codex Amiatinus is the earliest surviving Manuscript of the complete Bible in the Latin Vulgate version See also List of abbots of Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Wearmouth-Jarrow Abbey is a twin-foundation English Abbey located

The earliest printed edition of the Greek New Testament appeared in 1516 from the Froben press, by Desiderius Erasmus, who reconstructed its Greek text from several recent manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. Johann Froben, in Latin: Johannes Frobenius ( Hammelburg, Franconia, circa 1460 — Basel, 27 October 1527) was a He occasionally added a Greek translation of the Latin Vulgate for parts that did not exist in the Greek manuscripts. He produced four later editions of this text. Erasmus was Roman Catholic, but his preference for the Byzantine Greek manuscripts rather than the Latin Vulgate led some church authorities to view him with suspicion. Medieval Greek (Μεσαιωνική Ελληνική is a linguistic term that describes the fourth period in the history of the Greek language.

The first printed edition with critical apparatus (noting variant readings among the manuscripts) was produced by the printer Robert Estienne of Paris in 1550. The critical apparatus (or Latin: la '''apparatus criticus''' is the critical and Primary source material that accompanies an edition of a text Robert I Estienne ( Paris 1503 &ndash Geneva, 7 September 1559) also known as Robert Stephens ( Latin: Stephanus The Greek text of this edition and of those of Erasmus became known as the Textus Receptus (Latin for "received text"), a name given to it in the Elzevier edition of 1633, which termed it as the text nunc ab omnibus receptum ("now received by all"). Textus Receptus ( Latin: "received text" is the name subsequently given to the succession of printed Greek texts of the New Testament which constituted Elsevier, the world's largest Publisher of Medical and Scientific literature, forms part of the Reed Elsevier group

The churches of the Protestant Reformation translated the Greek of the Textus Receptus to produce vernacular Bibles, such as the German Luther Bible and the English King James Bible. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Vernacular refers to the Native language of a country or a locality The Luther Bible is a German Bible translation by Martin Luther, first printed with both testaments in 1534

The discovery of older manuscripts, which belong to the Alexandrian text-type, including the 4th century Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, led scholars to revise their view about the original Greek text. The Codex Vaticanus ( The Vatican, Bibl Vat, Vat gr 1209 Gregory-Aland no Codex Sinaiticus (Shelfmarks and references London Brit Libr, Additional 43725 Gregory - Aland nº א (Aleph or 01, Soden Attempts to reconstruct the original text are called critical editions. Karl Lachmann based his critical edition of 1831 on manuscripts dating from the 4th century and earlier, to demonstrate that the Textus Receptus must be corrected according to these earlier texts. Karl Konrad Friedrich Wilhelm Lachmann ( March 4, 1793 - March 13, 1851) was a German Philologist and Critic.

Later critical editions incorporate ongoing scholarly research, including discoveries of Greek papyrus fragments from near Alexandria, Egypt, that date in some cases within a few decades of the original New Testament writings. ^[18] Today, most critical editions of the Greek New Testament, such as UBS4 and NA27, consider the Alexandrian text-type corrected by papyri, to be the Greek text that is closest to the original autographs. Novum Testamentum Graece is the Latin name of the Greek language version of the New Testament. Their apparatus includes the result of votes among scholars, ranging from certain {A} to doubtful {E}, on which variants best preserve the original Greek text of the New Testament.

Most variants among the manuscripts are minor, such as alternate spelling, alternate word order, the presence or absence of an optional definite article ("the"), and so on. Occasionally, a major variant happens when a portion of a text was accidentally omitted (or perhaps even censored), or was added from a marginal gloss. Fortunately, major variants tend to be easier to correct. Examples of major variants are the endings of Mark, the Pericope Adulteræ, the Comma Johanneum, and the Western version of Acts. Mark 16 is the final chapter of the Gospel of Mark in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The Pericope Adulterae (pəˈrɪkəpi əˈdʌltəri in anglicised Latin)is a traditional name for a famous passage ( Pericope) about an adulterous woman— The Comma Johanneum is a comma (a short clause contained in most translations of the First Epistle of John published from 1522 until the latter part of the nineteenth The Acts of the Apostles is a book of the Bible, which now stands fifth in the New Testament.

Critical editions that rely primarily on the Alexandrian text-type inform nearly all modern translations (and revisions of older translations).

However for reasons of tradition, especially the doctrine of the inerrancy of the King James Bible, some modern scholars prefer to use the Textus Receptus for the Greek text, or use the Majority Text which is similar to it but is a critical edition that relies on earlier manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. The Byzantine text-type (also called Majority, Traditional, Ecclesiastical, Constantinopolitan, or Syrian) is one of several Among these scholars, some argue that the Byzantine tradition contains scribal additions, but these later interpolations preserve the orthodox interpretations of the biblical text—as part of the ongoing Christian experience—and in this sense are authoritative.

Christian theology

Main article: Christian theology

While individual books within the Christian Bible present narratives set in certain historical periods, most Christian denominations teach that the Bible itself has an overarching message. Christian Theology is discourse concerning Christian faith Christian theologians use biblical Exegesis, rational analysis and argument Denominationalism|List of Christian denominations|Church (disambiguation A Christian denomination is an identifiable religious body under a common name structure and doctrine within

There are among Christians wide differences of opinion as to how particular incidents as described in the Bible are to be interpreted and as to what meaning should be attached to various prophecies. However, Christians in general are in agreement as to the Bible's basic message. A general outline, as described by C. S. Lewis, is as follows:^[19]

1. At some point in the past, humanity chose to depart from God's will and began to sin. Clive Staples Lewis (29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963 Sin is a term used mainly in a religious context to describe an act that violates a moral Rule, or the state of having committed such a violation
2. Because no one is free from sin, people cannot deal with God directly, so God revealed Himself in ways people could understand.
3. God called Abraham and his progeny to be the means for saving all of humanity. Abraham ( Ashkenazi   Avrohom or Avruhom; ابراهيم, {{Unicode|Ibrāhīm}}; Ge'ez:
4. To this end, He gave the Law to Moses. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Moses ( Latin: Moyses,; Greek: grc Mωυσής in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; Arabic: ar موسىٰ
5. The resulting nation of Israel went through cycles of sin and repentance, yet the prophets show an increasing understanding of the Law as a moral, not just a ceremonial, force. Repentance is a change of thought and action to correct a wrong and gain Forgiveness from the one wronged
6. Jesus brought a perfect understanding of the Mosaic Law, that of love and salvation.
7. By His death and resurrection, all who believe are saved and reconciled to God.

Many Christians, Muslims, and Jews regard the Bible as inspired by God yet written by a variety of imperfect men over thousands of years. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. Many others, who identify themselves as Bible-believing Christians, regard both the New and Old Testament as the undiluted Word of God, spoken by God and written down in its perfect form by humans. Biblical literalism (also called Biblicism) is a primarily pejorative term referring to the adherence to an explicit and literal sense of the Bible. Biblical inerrancy is the conservative evangelical doctrinal position that in its original form the Bible is totally without error and free from all contradiction Still others hold the Biblical infallibility perspective, that the Bible is free from error in spiritual but not scientific matters. Biblical infallibility is the theological term to describe the belief that the Bible is free from errors on issues of faith and practice while minor possible contradictions in history

Belief in sacred texts is attested to in Jewish antiquity,^[20][21] and this belief can also be seen in the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention Divine agency in relation to prophetic writings,^[22] the most explicit being 2 Tm 3:16: "All scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness. "

In their book A General Introduction to the Bible, Norman Geisler and William Nix wrote: "The process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record. Norman L Geisler (born 1932 is a Christian Apologist and the co-founder of Southern Evangelical Seminary outside Charlotte North Carolina. "^[23] Some biblical scholars^[24][25][26] associate inspiration with only the original text; for example some American Protestants adhere to the 1978 Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy which asserted that inspiration applied only to the autographic text of Scripture. The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy was formulated in October of 1978 by more than 200 evangelical leaders at a conference sponsored by the International Council on Biblical An autograph is a Document written entirely in the handwriting of its Author, as opposed to a typeset document or ^[27] Others, including some adherents to the King James Only view, attribute inerrancy to particular translations.

Canonization

Main article: Biblical Canon

The word "canon" etymologically means cane or reed. A Biblical canon or canon of scripture is a list or Set of Biblical books considered to be authoritative as Scripture by a particular religious In early Christianity "canon" referred to a list of books approved for public reading. Books not on the list were referred to as "apocryphal" — meaning they were for private reading only. Under Latin usage from the fourth century on, canon came to stand for a closed and authoritative list in the sense of rule or norm. ^[28]

Hebrew Bible

Main article: Development of the Jewish Bible canon

The New Testament refers to the threefold division of the Hebrew Scriptures: the law, the prophets, and the writings. Rabbinic Judaism recognizes the twenty-four books of the Masoretic Text, commonly called the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible. Luke 24:44 refers to the "law of Moses" (Pentateuch), the "prophets" which include certain historical books in addition to the books now called "prophets," and the psalms (the "writings" designated by its most prominent collection). term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to The Hebrew Bible probably was canonized in these three stages: the law canonized before the Exile, the prophets by the time of the Syrian persecution of the Jews, and the writings shortly after AD 70 (the fall of Jerusalem). About that time, early Christian writings began being accepted by Christians as "scripture. " These events, taken together, may have caused the Jews to close their "canon. " They listed their own recognized Scriptures and also excluded both Christian and Jewish writings considered by them to be "apocryphal. " In this canon the thirty-nine books found in the Old Testament of today's Christian Bibles were grouped together as twenty-two books, equaling the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet. This canon of Jewish scripture is attested to by Philo, Josephus, the New Testament (Luke 11:51, Luke 24:44), and the Talmud. ^[28]

The New Testament writers assumed the inspiration of the Old Testament, probably earliest stated in 2 Timothy 3:16 which may be rendered "All Scripture is inspired of God" or "Every God-inspired Scripture is profitable for teaching. " Both translations consider inspiration as a fact. ^[28]

Old and New Testaments

Main articles: Development of the Old Testament canon and Development of the New Testament canon

The Old Testament canon entered into Christian use in the Greek Septuagint translations and original books, and their differing lists of texts. The Old Testament is the first section of the two-part Christian Biblical canon, which includes the books of the Hebrew Bible as well as several Deuterocanonical The Biblical canon is the set of books Christians regard as divinely inspired and thus constituting the Christian Bible. In addition to the Septuagint, Christianity subsequently added various writings that would become the New Testament. Somewhat different lists of accepted works continued to develop in antiquity. In the fourth century a series of synods produced a list of texts equal to the 39-to-46-book canon of the Old Testament and to the 27-book canon of the New Testament that would be subsequently used to today, most notably the Synod of Hippo in AD 393. A synod (also known as a council) is a council of a church, usually a Christian church convened to decide an issue of doctrine administration or application The Synod of Hippo refers to the synod of 393 AD which was hosted in Hippo Regius in Northern Africa during the early Christian Church. Also c. 400, Jerome produced a definitive Latin edition of the Bible (see Vulgate), the canon of which, at the insistence of the Pope, was in accord with the earlier Synods. Jerome (c 347 – September 30, 420) ( Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος The Vulgate is an early Fifth Century version of the Bible in Latin, and largely the result of the labours of Jerome, who was commissioned by With the benefit of hindsight it can be said that this process effectively set the New Testament canon, although there are examples of other canonical lists in use after this time. A definitive list did not come from an Ecumenical Council until the Council of Trent (1545–63). This is a general introduction to ecumenical councils For the Roman Catholic councils, see Catholic Ecumenical Councils. The Council of Trent was the 19th Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. ^[29]

During the Protestant Reformation, certain reformers proposed different canonical lists than what was currently in use. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Though not without debate, see Antilegomena, the list of New Testament books would come to remain the same; however, the Old Testament texts present in the Septuagint, but not included in the Jewish canon, fell out of favor. Antilegomena (from Greek, meaning things contradicted or disputed literally spoken against) was an Epithet used by the Church Fathers to denote those In time they would come to be removed from most Protestant canons. Hence, in a Catholic context these texts are referred to as deuterocanonical books, whereas in a Protestant context they are referred to as Apocrypha, the label applied to all texts excluded from the biblical canon which were in the Septuagint. It should also be noted, that Catholics and Protestants both describe certain other books, such as the Acts of Peter, as apocryphal. New Testament apocrypha are a number of writings of the early Christian church that give accounts of the teachings of Jesus, aspects of the life of Jesus accounts

Thus, the Protestant Old Testament of today has a 39-book canon—the number varies from that of the books in the Tanakh (though not in content) because of a different method of division—while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books as part of the canonical Old Testament. The term "Hebrew Scriptures" is only synonymous with the Protestant Old Testament, not the Catholic, which contains the Hebrew Scriptures and additional texts. Both Catholics and Protestants have the same 27-book New Testament Canon.

Ethiopian Orthodox canon

The Canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is wider than for most other Christian groups. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (in transliterated Amharic: Yäityop'ya ortodoks täwahedo bétäkrestyan) is an Oriental The Ethiopian Old Testament Canon includes the books found in the Septuagint accepted by other Orthodox Christians, in addition to Enoch and Jubilees which are ancient Jewish books that only survived in Ge'ez but are quoted in the New Testament, also First and 2 Esdras (the latter also known as the Apocalypse of Ezra), 3 books of Meqabyan, and Psalm 151 at the end of the Psalter. The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the The Book of Enoch is any of several works that attribute themselves to Enoch, the great-grandfather of Noah and son of Jared ( Jubilee The Book of Jubilees (ספר היובלים sometimes called the Lesser Genesis ( Leptogenesis) is an ancient Jewish religious work considered 1 Esdras (Εσδράς A′ is a book from the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament regarded as canonical in Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy 2 Esdras is the name of this book in many English versions of the Bible, but it is called 4 Esdras in the Vulgate and the Douay-Rheims Bible I II and III Meqabyan ( Ge'ez: መቃብያን sometimes spelled Makabian) are three books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Old Testament Biblical canon Psalm 151 is the name given to a short psalm that is found in most copies of the Septuagint but not in the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible The three books of Meqabyan are not be confused with the books of Maccabees. The order of the other books is somewhat different from other groups', as well.

Bible versions and translations

Further information: Bible translations

In scholarly writing, ancient translations are frequently referred to as "versions," with the term "translation" being reserved for medieval or modern translations. Bible versions are discussed below, while Bible translations can be found on a separate page. The Bible has been translated into many languages from the Biblical languages of Hebrew and Greek.

The original texts of the Tanakh were in Hebrew, although some portions were in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, and the Targum Onkelos, an Aramaic version of the Bible. Targum Onkelos (or Unkelus) is the official eastern ( Babylonian) Targum to the Torah. There are several different ancient versions of the Tanakh in Hebrew, mostly differing by spelling, and the traditional Jewish version is based on the version known as Aleppo Codex. The Aleppo Codex ( Hebrew: כֶּתֶר אֲרָם צוֹבָא kɛθɛɾ ʔăɾɔm sˁovɔʔ Keter Aram Tsova) is a manuscript of the Hebrew Bible Even in this version by itself, there are words which are traditionally read differently than written (sometimes one word is written and another is read), because the oral tradition is considered more fundamental than the written one, and presumably mistakes had been made in copying the text over the generations.

The primary biblical text for early Christians was the Septuagint or (LXX). The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the In addition they translated the Hebrew Bible into several other languages. Translations were made into Syriac, Coptic, Ge'ez and Latin, among other languages. Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt Ge'ez (ግዕዝ, ɡɨʕɨz also transliterated Gi'iz, and referred to as Ethiopic) is an ancient South Semitic Language The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translations of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.

The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible.

Pope Damasus I assembled the first list of books of the Bible at the Council of Rome in 382 AD. Pope The Council of Rome was a meeting of Western church officials and theologians which took place in 382 under the authority of Pope Damasus I. He commissioned Saint Jerome to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin. Jerome (c 347 – September 30, 420) ( Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος This translation became known as the Latin Vulgate Bible and in 1546 at the Council of Trent was declared by the Church to be the only authentic and official Bible in the Latin rite. The Vulgate is an early Fifth Century version of the Bible in Latin, and largely the result of the labours of Jerome, who was commissioned by The Council of Trent was the 19th Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. The Latin Rite is one of the 23 Sui iuris Particular Churches within the Catholic Church.

Bible translations for many languages have been made through the various influences of Catholicism, Orthodox, Protestant, etc especially since the Protestant Reformation. The Bible has been translated into many languages from the Biblical languages of Hebrew and Greek. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time The Bible has seen a notably large number of English language translations. The efforts of translating the Bible from its original languages into over 2000 others have spanned more than two millennia.

The work of Bible translation continues, including by Christian organisations such as Wycliffe Bible Translators (wycliffe.net), New Tribes Missions (ntm.org) and the Bible Societies (biblesociety.org). Wycliffe Bible Translators is a nonprofit organization dedicated to making a translation of the Bible in every living language in the world especially for cultures with little New Tribes Mission (NTM is an international theologically evangelical Christian mission organization based in Sanford Florida. A Bible society is a non-profit organization (usually Ecumenical in makeup devoted to Translating, publishing distributing the Bible at affordable costs Of the world's 6,900 languages, 2,400 have some or all of the Bible, 1,600 (spoken by more than a billion people) have translation underway, and some 2,500 (spoken by 270 million people) are judged as needing translation to begin. List of language familiesA language family is a group of Languages related by descent from a common ancestor called the Proto-language of that family ^[30]

Characteristics of early Bible texts

See also: Chapters and verses of the Bible

• The use of numbered chapters and verses was not introduced until the Middle Ages and later. The Bible comprises 24 books for Jews, 66 for Protestants, 73 for Catholics, and 78 for most Orthodox The system used in English was developed by Stephanus (Robert Estienne of Paris) (as noted below)
• Early manuscripts of the letters of Paul and other New Testament writings show no punctuation whatsoever. Robert I Estienne ( Paris 1503 &ndash Geneva, 7 September 1559) also known as Robert Stephens ( Latin: Stephanus [1] The punctuation was added later by other editors, according to their own understanding of the text.

Differences in Bible translations

See also: Bible translations: Approaches. The Bible has been translated into many languages from the Biblical languages of Hebrew and Greek.

As Hebrew and Greek, the original languages of the Bible, have idioms and concepts not easily translated, there is an on going critical tension about whether it is better to give a word for word translation or to give a translation that gives a parallel idiom in the target language. Koine Greek (Κοινὴ Ἑλληνική, "common Greek" or, ciˈni ðiˈale̞kto̞s "the common dialect" is the popular form of Greek which emerged in For instance, in the English language Catholic translation, the New American Bible, as well as the Protestant translations of the Christian Bible, translations like the King James Version, the New Revised Standard Version, and the New American Standard Bible are seen as fairly literal translations (or "word for word"), whereas translations like the New International Version and New Living Translation attempt to give relevant parallel idioms. Catholic is an Adjective derived from the Greek adjective '' / 'katholikos' meaning "whole" or "complete". In 1970, the New American Bible ( NAB) was first published It is an English Bible translation that was produced by members of the Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. The New Revised Standard Version ( NRSV) of the Bible, released in 1989, is a thorough revision of the Revised Standard Version (RSV The New American Standard Bible (NASB is an English Translation of the Bible. The New International Version is an English Translation of the Christian Bible. The New Living Translation is a translation of the Bible into an easily readable form of Modern English. The Living Bible and The Message are two paraphrases of the Bible that try to convey the original meaning in contemporary language. The Living Bible (TLB is an English version of the Bible by American publisher and author Kenneth N The Message The Bible in Contemporary Language was created by Eugene H The further away one gets from word to word translation, the text becomes easier to read while relying more on the theological, linguistic or cultural understanding of the translator, which one would not normally expect a lay reader to require.

One translation of the Bible, the New World Translation, used mainly by Jehovah's Witnesses, is seen as controversial by some because of the renderings of key verses. The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures ( NWT) is a modern-language translation of the Bible published by Jehovah's Witnesses, published in However, this Bible also takes a "word for word" translation stance.

Inclusive language

Traditionally, English masculine pronouns have been used interchangeably to refer to the male gender and to all people. For instance, "All men are mortal" is not intended to imply that males are mortal but females are immortal. English language readers and hearers have had to interpret masculine pronouns (and such words as "man" and "mankind") based on context. Further, both Hebrew and Greek, like some of the Latin-origin languages, use the male gender of nouns and pronouns to refer to groups that contain both sexes. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly This creates some difficulty in determining whether a noun or pronoun should be translated using terms that refer to men only, or generically to men and women inclusively. Context sometimes, but not always, helps determine whether to decode them in a gender-insensitive or gender-specific way.

Contemporary language has changed in many cases to reflect criticism of the use of the masculine gender, which has been characterized as discriminatory. Current style guides, such as APA, MLA, NCTE, and others, have published statements encouraging, and in some cases requiring, the use of inclusive language, which avoids language this approach regards as sexist or class-distinctive. The MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing, published by the Modern Language Association of America, in its third edition ( 2008) is an Political correctness (adjectivally politically correct; both forms commonly abbreviated to PC) is a term applied to Language, ideas policies or behavior

Until recently, virtually all English translations of the Bible have used masculine nouns and pronouns both specifically (to refer to males) and generically (when the reference is not necessarily gender-specific). Recent examples of translations which incorporate gender-inclusive language include the New Revised Standard Version, the Revised English Bible, and Today's New International Version. The New Revised Standard Version ( NRSV) of the Bible, released in 1989, is a thorough revision of the Revised Standard Version (RSV The Revised English Bible (REB is a 1989 update of the New English Bible of 1970 Today's New International Version is an English Translation of the Bible developed by the Committee on Bible Translation or CBT

Comparison of Traditional vs Gender-Inclusive Translations of Rom. 12:6-8

Original New International Version

Today's New International Version

We have different gifts, according to the grace given us. If a man's gift is prophesying, let him use it in proportion to his faith. If it is serving, let him serve; if it is teaching, let him teach; if it is encouraging, let him encourage; if it is contributing to the needs of others, let him give generously; if it is leadership, let him govern diligently; if it is showing mercy, let him do it cheerfully.

We have different gifts, according to the grace given to each of us. If your gift is prophesying, then prophesy in accordance with your faith; if it is serving, then serve; if it is teaching, then teach; if it is to encourage, then give encouragement; if it is giving, then give generously; if it is to lead, do it diligently; if it is to show mercy, do it cheerfully.

Chapters and verses

Main article: Chapters and verses of the Bible

See Tanakh for the Jewish textual tradition. The Bible comprises 24 books for Jews, 66 for Protestants, 73 for Catholics, and 78 for most Orthodox See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is

The Hebrew Masoretic text contains verse endings as an important feature. The Masoretic Text ( MT) is the Hebrew text of the Jewish Bible ( Tanakh) According to the Talmudic tradition, the verse endings are of ancient origin. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history The Masoretic textual tradition also contains section endings called parashiyot, which are indicated by a space within a line (a "closed" section") or a new line beginning (an "open" section). The division of the text reflected in the parashiyot is usually thematic. The parashiyot are not numbered.

In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian Masoretic manuscripts, such as the Aleppo codex) an "open" section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed" section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). The Aleppo Codex ( Hebrew: כֶּתֶר אֲרָם צוֹבָא kɛθɛɾ ʔăɾɔm sˁovɔʔ Keter Aram Tsova) is a manuscript of the Hebrew Bible These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed Hebrew Bibles. The term Hebrew Bible is a generic reference to those books of the Bible originally written in Biblical Hebrew (and the related Biblical Aramaic In this system the one rule differentiating "open" and "closed" sections is that "open" sections must always begin at the beginning of a new line, while "closed" sections never start at the beginning of a new line.

Another related feature of the Masoretic text is the division of the sedarim. This division is not thematic, but is almost entirely based upon the quantity of text.

The Byzantines also introduced a chapter division of sorts, called Kephalaia. It is not identical to the present chapters.

The current division of the Bible into chapters and the verse numbers within the chapters has no basis in any ancient textual tradition. Rather, they are medieval Christian inventions. They were later adopted by many Jews as well, as technical references within the Hebrew text. Such technical references became crucial to medieval rabbis in the historical context of forced debates with Christian clergy (who used the chapter and verse numbers), especially in late medieval Spain. ^[31] Chapter divisions were first used by Jews in a 1330 manuscript and for a printed edition in 1516. However, for the past generation, most Jewish editions of the complete Hebrew Bible have made a systematic effort to relegate chapter and verse numbers to the margins of the text. The term Hebrew Bible is a generic reference to those books of the Bible originally written in Biblical Hebrew (and the related Biblical Aramaic

The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has often elicited severe criticism from traditionalists and modern scholars alike. Critics charge that the text is often divided into chapters in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate rhetorical points, and that it encourages citing passages out of context, in effect turning the Bible into a kind of textual quarry for clerical citations. Nevertheless, the chapter divisions and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.

Stephen Langton is reputed to have been the first to put the chapter divisions into a Vulgate edition of the Bible, in 1205. Stephen Cardinal Langton (c 1150 &ndash July 9, 1228) was Archbishop of Canterbury between 1207 and his death in 1228 and was a central They were then inserted into Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the 1400s. Robert Estienne (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chapter, his verse numbers entering printed editions in 1551 (New Testament) and 1571 (Hebrew Bible). Robert I Estienne ( Paris 1503 &ndash Geneva, 7 September 1559) also known as Robert Stephens ( Latin: Stephanus ^[32][33]

Biblical criticism

Main articles: Biblical criticism and Criticism of the Bible

Biblical criticism refers to the investigation of the Bible as a text, and addresses questions such as authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention. This article is about the academic treatment of the bible as a historical document This article is about criticisms which are made against the Bible as a source of information or ethical guidance This article is about the academic treatment of the bible as a historical document It is not the same as Criticism of the Bible, which is an assertion against the Bible being a source of information or ethical guidance. This article is about criticisms which are made against the Bible as a source of information or ethical guidance

Higher criticism

Main articles: Higher criticism and Lower criticism

The traditional view of the Mosaic authorship of the Torah came under sporadic criticism from medieval scholars including Isaac ibn Yashush, Abraham ibn Ezra, Bonfils of Damascus and bishop Tostatus of Avila, who pointed to passages such as the description of the death of Moses in Deuteronomy as evidence that some portions, at least, could not have been written by Moses. Historical criticism or higher criticism is a branch of literary analysis that investigates the origins of a text as applied in Biblical studies it naturally Textual criticism (or lower criticism) is a branch of Literary criticism that is concerned with the identification and removal of Transcription errors in Abraham ben Meir ibn Ezra ( Hebrew: אברהם אבן עזרא or ראב"ע, also known as Abenezra) (1092 or 1093–1167 was one of the Alonso Tostado known in Latin as Tostatus Abulensis ("Tostado from Ávila" ((ca In the 17th century Thomas Hobbes collected the current evidence and became the first scholar to conclude outright that Moses could not have written the bulk of the Torah. Thomas Hobbes (born 5 April 1588died 4 December 1679 was an English philosopher, whose famous 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation Shortly afterwards the philosopher Baruch Spinoza published a unified critical analysis, demonstrating that the problematic passages were not isolated cases that could be explained away one by one, but pervasive throughout the five books, concluding that it was "clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses…. Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (ברוך שפינוזה Bento de Espinosa Benedictus de Spinoza ( November 24, 1632 – February 21, " Despite determined opposition from the Church, both Catholic and Protestant, the views of Hobbes and Spinoza gained increasing acceptance amongst scholars.

Documentary hypothesis

Main article: Documentary hypothesis

Scholars intrigued by the hypothesis that Moses had not written the Pentateuch considered other authors. Independent but nearly simultaneous proposals by H. B. Witter, Jean Astruc, and Johann Gottfried Eichhorn separated the Pentateuch into two original documentary components, both dating from after the time of Moses. Jean Astruc ( Sauves, Auvergne, March 19, 1684 - Paris, May 5, 1766) was a famous professor of medicine at Johann Gottfried Eichhorn ( October 16, 1752 - June 27, 1827) was a German Protestant theologian of Enlightenment and early Others hypothesized the presence of two additional sources. The four documents were given working titles: J (or Yahwist), E (Elohist), P (Priestly), and D (Deuteronomist), each was discernible by its own characteristic language, and each, when read in isolation, presented a unified, coherent narrative. The Jahwist, also referred to as the Jehovist, Yahwist, or simply as J, is one of the four major sources of the Torah postulated by the The Elohist (E is one of four sources of the Torah described by the Documentary Hypothesis. The Priestly Source (P is posited as the most recent of the four chief sources of the Torah, as postulated by the long-established "standard" Wellhausen (or Graf-Wellhausen The Deuteronomist (D is one of the sources of the Torah postulated by the Documentary Hypothesis

Subsequent scholars, notably Eduard Reuss, Karl Heinrich Graf and Wilhelm Vatke, turned their attention to the order in which the documents had been composed (which they deduced from internal clues) and placed them in the context of a theory of the development of ancient Israelite religion, suggesting that much of the Laws and the narrative of the Pentateuch were unknown to the Israelites in the time of Moses. Historical criticism or higher criticism is a branch of literary analysis that investigates the origins of a text as applied in Biblical studies it naturally Karl Heinrich Graf ( February 28, 1815 - July 16, 1869) German Old Testament scholar and Orientalist, was born These were synthesized by Julius Wellhausen (1844-1918), who suggested a historical framework for the composition of the documents and their redaction (combination) into the final document known as the Pentateuch. Julius Wellhausen ( May 17, 1844 - January 7, 1918) was a German biblical scholar and Orientalist. This hypothesis was challenged by William Henry Green in his The Mosaic Origins of the Pentateuchal Codes (available online). William Henry Green ( January 27 1825 &ndash February 10 1900) American Hebrew scholar was born in Groveville near Nonetheless, according to contemporary Torah scholar Richard Elliott Friedman, Wellhausen's model of the documentary hypothesis continues to dominate the field of biblical scholarship: "To this day, if you want to disagree, you disagree with Wellhausen. Richard Elliott Friedman is a biblical scholar and the Ann and Jay Davis Professor of Jewish Studies at the University of Georgia. If you want to pose a new model, you compare its merits with those of Wellhausen's model. "^[34]

The documentary hypothesis is important in the field of biblical studies not only because it claims that the Torah was written by different people at different times—generally long after the events it describes—^[35] but it also proposed what was at the time a radically new way of reading the Bible. Many proponents of the documentary hypothesis view the Bible more as a body of literature than a work of history, believing that the historical value of the text lies not in its account of the events that it describes, but in what critics can infer about the times in which the authors lived (as critics may read Hamlet to learn about seventeenth-century England, but will not read it to learn about seventh-century Denmark). Hamlet is a Tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1599 and 1601

Modern developments

The critical analysis of authorship now encompasses every book of the Bible. Every book in turn has been hypothesized to bear traces of multiple authorship, even the book of Obadiah, which is only a single page. The Book of Obadiah is found in both the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament of the Christian Bible, where it is the shortest book only one chapter long In some cases the traditional view on authorship has been overturned; in others, additional support, at least in part has been found.

The development of the hypothesis has not stopped with Wellhausen. Wellhausen's hypothesis, for example, proposed that the four documents were composed in the order J-E-D-P, with P, containing the bulk of the Jewish law, dating from the post-Exilic Second Temple period (i. The Second Temple (בית המקדש romanized 'Beit HaMikdash' meaning 'Holy House' was the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem which stood between 516 BCE and 70 CE e. , after 515 BC);^[36] but the contemporary view is that P is earlier than D, and that all four books date from the First Temple period (i. Solomon's Temple (בית המקדש transliterated Beit HaMikdash) also known as the First Temple, was according to e. , prior to 587 BC). ^[37] The documentary hypothesis has more recently been refined by later scholars such as Martin Noth (who in 1943 provided evidence that Deuteronomy plus the following six books make a unified history from the hand of a single editor), Harold Bloom, Frank Moore Cross and Richard Elliot Friedman. Martin Noth ( August 3, 1902 – May 30, 1968) was a German scholar of the Hebrew Bible who specialized in the pre-Exilic Harold Bloom' (born July 11, 1930) is a Literary critic. Bloom defended 19th-century Romantic poets at a time when their reputations Frank Moore Cross Jr (born July 13 1921 Ross, California) is a Professor Emeritus of the Harvard Divinity School, notable for both his work in the interpretation Richard Elliott Friedman is a biblical scholar and the Ann and Jay Davis Professor of Jewish Studies at the University of Georgia.

The documentary hypothesis, at least in the four-document version advanced by Wellhausen, has been controversial since its formulation. The direction of this criticism is to question the existence of separate, identifiable documents, positing instead that the biblical text is made up of almost innumerable strands so interwoven as to be hardly untangleable—the J document, in particular, has been subjected to such intense dissection that it seems in danger of disappearing.

Although biblical archaeology has confirmed the existence of many people, places, and events mentioned in the Bible, many critical scholars have argued that the Bible be read not as an accurate historical document, but rather as a work of literature and theology that often draws on historical events—as well as upon non-Hebrew mythology—as primary source material(see The Bible and history). For the movement associated with William F Albright and known as Biblical archaeology see Biblical archaeology school. The historicity of the Bible addresses in what ways the Bible is historically accurate the extent to which it can be used as a historic source and what qualifications should For these scholars, the Bible reveals much about the lives and times of its authors and compilers. The relevance of these ideas to contemporary religious life is left to clerics and adherents of contemporary religions to decide.

Theological responses

Judaism

The claim that the Torah—"the Five Books of Moses"—were not written by Moses, but by many authors long after Moses was said to have lived, directly challenged Jewish orthodoxy. For most, this claim implies that the Torah itself—especially its account of God's revelation at Mt. Sinai—is not historically reliable. Although many Orthodox scholars have rejected this "Higher Criticism", most Conservative and virtually all Reform Jewish scholars have accepted it. Orthodox Judaism is the formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonized Historical criticism or higher criticism is a branch of literary analysis that investigates the origins of a text as applied in Biblical studies it naturally Conservative Judaism (also known as Masorti Judaism in Israel and Europe) is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions Consequently, there has been considerable debate among Jewish scholars as to the nature of revelation and the divine nature of the Torah. Conservative Jewish philosopher Elliot Dorff has categorized five distinct major Jewish positions in these debates within Conservative Judaism in the 20th century:^[38]

• Orthodox (characterized by Eliezer Berkovitz and Norman Lamm): "Verbal Revelation: The Torah, including both the Written and Oral Traditions, consists of the exact words of God. Conservatism is a term used to describe political philosophies that favour Tradition, where tradition refers to various religious cultural or nationally defined Conservative Judaism (also known as Masorti Judaism in Israel and Europe) is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out Orthodox Judaism is the formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonized Eliezer Berkovits (8 September 1908 Nagyvarad &ndash 20 August 1992) was a Rabbi, Theologian, Rabbi Dr Norman ( Nachum) Lamm (born 1927 in Brooklyn, New York, United States) is a major American He gave it all as one piece at Sinai. "*
• Conservative I (characterized by Isaac Lesser, Alexander Kohut, Abraham Joshua Heschel, and David Novak): "Continuous Revelation:God dictated His will at Sinai and other times. Alexander Kohut ( April 22, 1842, Kiskunfélegyháza, Hungary &ndash May 25, 1894, New York) was a Rabbi Abraham Joshua Heschel ( January 11, 1907 – December 23, 1972) was a Warsaw-born American Rabbi and one of the leading David Novak (1941- is a scholar of Jewish philosophy law ( Halakha) and ethics It was written down by human beings, however, and hence the diverse traditions in the Bible. "
• Conservative II (characterized by Ben Zion Bokser, Robert Gordis, Max Routtenberg and Emil Fackenheim): "Continuous Revelation: Human beings wrote the Torah, but they were divinely inspired. Ben Zion Bokser, (1907-1984 was one of the major Conservative rabbis of America Robert Gordis (1908 - 1992 was a leading Conservative rabbi He founded the first Conservative day school served as President of the Rabbinical Assembly and the Emil Ludwig Fackenheim PhD ( June 22, 1916 – September 18, 2003) was a noted Jewish Philosopher and Reform "
• Conservative III (characterized by Louis Jacobs, Seymour Seigel, Jacob Agus, David Lieber and Elliot Dorff): "Continuous Revelation: The Torah is the human record of the concounter between God and the People Israel at Sinai. Rabbi Dr Louis Jacobs (b Manchester, 17 July[[ 920]] d London, 1 July 2006, 5 Tammuz 5766 in the Hebrew calendar) was Dr David L Lieber, a Rabbi and a Scholar, is the president emeritus of the University of Judaism (now Elliot N Dorff (born 24 June 1943) is a Conservative rabbi a professor of Jewish Theology at the American Jewish University (formerly Since it was written by human beings, it contains some laws and ideas which we find repugnant today. "
• Conservative IV/Reconstructionist (characterized by Mordecai Kaplan, Ira Eisenstein and Harold Schulweis): "No Revelation: Human beings wrote the Torah. Mordecai Menahem Kaplan ( June 11, 1881 &ndash November 8, 1983) was a Rabbi and the founder of Reconstructionist Judaism Rabbi Ira Eisenstein ( 1906 - June 28, 2001) founded Reconstructionist Judaism, along with Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan, his teacher and Harold M Schulweis (1925-) is a Rabbi, author and a longtime Spiritual Leader at Valley Beth Shalom in Encino CA. No claim for divinity of the product. "

In addition to the 5 categories described by Elliott, other positions have been adopted:

• Traditional Rabbi David Weiss HaLivni, the founder of the Union for Traditional Judaism, adapted a position he describes as chatu yisrael ("Israel sinned"), that God revealed the Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai but it subsequently became corrupted and lost, and Ezra restored it by redacting it from multiple manuscripts reflecting disparate traditions. The Union for Traditional Judaism is an ostensibly non-denominational Jewish educational outreach and communal service organization David Weiss Halivni (1927- is an American Israeli world-acclaimed scholar in the domain of Jewish Sciences and professor of Talmud,born The Union for Traditional Judaism is an ostensibly non-denominational Jewish educational outreach and communal service organization Ezra ( was a Jewish Priestly Scribe who led about 5000 Israelite exiles living in Babylon to their home city of Jerusalem Under this view, the Torah is the best available record of the Divine will, has prophetic commendation, and is binding on the Jewish people, but is not necessarily entirely free of disparaties. ^[39]
• Reform (characterized by the Movement's 1937 Guiding Principles): "Progressive revelation: The Torah is God's will written by human beings. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions As time goes on, we get to understand his will better and better (="progressive revelation").
• Reconstructionist Reconstructionist Judaism generally adapts the textual critical approach in toto and regards the Torah as either inspired rather than revealed, or an entirely human product rather than the product of an external God. Reconstructionist Judaism is a modern American-based Jewish movement based on the ideas of the late Mordecai Kaplan (1881 – 1983

Christianity

In 1943 Pope Pius XII's encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu gave the Vatican's imprimatur to textual criticism. Pope Divino Afflante Spiritu is an Encyclical letter issued by Pope Pius XII on September 30, 1943. An Imprimatur is an official declaration from the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church that a literary or similar work is free from error in matters of Roman Catholic Textual criticism (or lower criticism) is a branch of Literary criticism that is concerned with the identification and removal of Transcription errors in

Archaeological and historical research

Main article: Biblical Archaeology

According to recent theories, linguistic as well as archaeological, the global structure of the texts in the Hebrew Bible were compiled during the reign of King Josiah in the 7th century BC. For the movement associated with William F Albright and known as Biblical archaeology see Biblical archaeology school. The term Hebrew Bible is a generic reference to those books of the Bible originally written in Biblical Hebrew (and the related Biblical Aramaic Josiah or Yoshiyahu ( was king of Judah, and son of Amon and Jedidah, the daughter of Adaiah of Bozkath. Even though the components are derived from more ancient writings, the final form of the books is believed to have been set somewhere between the 1st century BC and the 4th century AD. The 1st century BC started the first day of 100 BC and ended the last day of 1 BC. As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 4th century (per the Julian calendar and Anno Domini / Common era) was that Century

With regard to the Exodus and the 40-year sojourn in the desert, archaeological digs in possible Biblical locations have been unsuccessful so far. Exodus ( Greek: έξοδος eksodos = "departure" is the second book of the Jewish Torah and of the Christian Old Testament. There is also no archaeological evidence of a conquest of the land and cities of Canaan of the kind recounted in the Book of Joshua. Canaanites redirects here For the 1940s social and political movement in Israel, see Canaanites (movement. The Book of Joshua ( Hebrew: Sefer Y'hoshua ספר יהושע is the sixth book in both the Hebrew Tanakh and the Old Testament of the Christian

However, after the split of the Kingdom of Israel in the second half of the 9th century BC, archaeological findings fit the Biblical chronology. The Kingdom of Israel ( ( KJV Israel in Samaria) was one of the successor states to the older United Monarchy (also often called the 'Kingdom of Israel' Definition A chronology may be either relative &mdashthat is locating related events relative to each other&mdashor ''absolute'' &mdashlocating

Nomadist theory

The ancestors of the Hebrews and the Jews are believed to be either nomads who have become sedentary, or people from the plains of Canaan, who fled to the highlands to escape the control of the cities. Hebrews (or Hebertes, Eberites, Hebreians, " Habiru " or " Habiri " Hebrew: עברים PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Canaanites redirects here For the 1940s social and political movement in Israel, see Canaanites (movement. These positions are held by Israel Finkelstein and Neil Silberman in The Bible Unearthed, by the American archaeologist William Dever in Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come from?, and by Jean-Marie Husser, professor at Marc Bloch University in Strasbourg, France. Israel Finkelstein is an Israeli archaeologist and academic. He is currently the Jacob M Neil Asher Silberman (born June 19 1950 Boston Massachusetts is an Archaeologist and historian with a special interest in history archaeology public interpretation and The Bible Unearthed, subtitled Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts is a 2001 book about the archaeology of ancient William G Dever is an American Archaeologist, specialising in the history of Israel and the Near East in Biblical times who was Professor of Near Eastern Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? is a book by American biblical scholar and archaeologist William G The Université Marc Bloch, also known as Strasbourg II or UMB is a University in Strasbourg, Alsace, France.

See also

Biblical scholarship and analysis Dating the Bible Textual criticism Historical criticism Documentary hypothesis Synoptic problem Biblical manuscripts Internal consistency and the Bible Mosaic authorship Authorship of the Johannine works Authorship of the Pauline epistles Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible Apocrypha Dead sea scrolls Nag hammadi library Biblical archaeology

Perspectives on the Bible Bibliolatry Calvin's view of Scripture Jewish Biblical exegesis Islamic view of the Bible Biblical narratives and the Qur'an Criticism of the Bible Gnosticism and the New Testament Christianity and Judaism Biblical law in Christianity Bible prophecy Biblical inerrancy New Testament view on Jesus' life Ten Commandments Parsha Ritual Decalogue Jewish messianism Summary of Christian eschatological differences Bibliomancy is the use of random readings from a book for divination. The Bible is a compilation of various texts or " books " of different ages used in the Jewish and Christian religions Textual criticism (or lower criticism) is a branch of Literary criticism that is concerned with the identification and removal of Transcription errors in Historical criticism or higher criticism is a branch of literary analysis that investigates the origins of a text as applied in Biblical studies it naturally The synoptic problem concerns the literary relationships between and among the first three canonical gospels (the Gospels of Mark, Matthew, and A Biblical manuscript is any handwritten copy of a portion of the text of the Bible. There has long been interest in the subject of the internal consistency of the Bible. Mosaic authorship is the traditional ascription to Moses of the authorship of the five books of the Torah or Pentateuch - Genesis, Scholars have debated the authorship of the Johannine works ( Gospel of John, the first, second, and third epistles of John, and the Book The Pauline epistles are the thirteen books in the New Testament traditionally attributed to and explicitly ascribed to Paul of Tarsus. Several texts are mentioned in the Tanakh ( Old Testament) and New Testament, yet do not appear in the canon of the respective works The Dead Sea Scrolls consist of roughly 1000 documents including texts from the Hebrew Bible, discovered between 1947 and 1979 in eleven Caves Nag Hammadi library (popularly known as The Gnostic Gospels) is a collection of early Christian Gnostic texts discovered near the For the movement associated with William F Albright and known as Biblical archaeology see Biblical archaeology school. Bibliolatry is the worship of the Bible or any other text The word is a Portmanteau of the Greek words "biblion" (book and "latria" The doctrine of Scripture plays a vital role in the writings of John Calvin. Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense can mean the entire spectrum of Rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history In Islam, the Bible is held to reflect true unfolding revelation from God but revelation which had become corrupted or distorted in its handing down (in Arabic The Qur'an, the central religious text of Islam, contains references to over fifty people also found in the Bible, typically in the same or similar This article is about criticisms which are made against the Bible as a source of information or ethical guidance This article discusses the relationship between Gnosticism and the New Testament. This article discusses the traditional views of the two religions and may not be applicable all adherents of each Biblical law in Christianity generally refers to a discussion as to what and how the biblical law applies in a Christian context. Bible prophecy, or " biblical prophecy " is the belief in prophecies in the Bible. Biblical inerrancy is the conservative evangelical doctrinal position that in its original form the Bible is totally without error and free from all contradiction The four canonical Gospels of the New Testament are the main sources of information for the doctrinal Christian narrative of Jesus ' life The Ten Commandments, or Decalogue, are a list of religious and moral imperatives that according to Judeo-Christian tradition were authored by God and given Purpose of the section divisions A parashah break creates a textual pause roughly analogous to a modern Paragraph break The Ritual Decalogue is a list of ten commandments identified in Biblical criticism as a possible candidate for the "Ten Commandments" mentioned by the Bible Messiah ( משיח; mashiah, moshiah, mashiach, or moshiach, ("anointed " is a term used in the Hebrew Bible Bibliomancy is the use of books in Divination. The method of employing sacred books (especially specific words and verses for 'magical medicine' for removing negative entities When practiced in Jewish and Christian cultures, the Bible is often used. Bible conspiracy theory Bible code The Skeptic's Annotated Bible

Interpretation Biblical literalism Biblical hermeneutics Midrash Pardes

History and the Bible The Bible and history Bible chronology Hebrew Bible: Timeline History of the English Bible Code of Hammurabi Study Bible List of burial places of biblical figures

Biblical topics Alcohol in the Bible Ethics in the Bible Women in the Bible The Bible and homosexuality Slavery in the Bible Circumcision in the Bible Crime and punishment in the Bible

Bible societies See Bible society for a list. A Bible conspiracy theory is any Conspiracy theory that posits that much of what is known about the Bible is a deception created to suppress some secret ancient A Bible code (also Torah code) is the notion that there are information patterns encrypted or Coded form in the text of the Bible, or more specifically The Skeptic's Annotated Bible (SAB is a website providing skeptical analysis of the Bible, edited by Steve Wells Biblical literalism (also called Biblicism) is a primarily pejorative term referring to the adherence to an explicit and literal sense of the Bible. Biblical hermeneutics refers to methods of interpreting the Bible. Midrash ( Hebrew: מדרש plural midrashim, lit "to repeat" is a Hebrew term referring to the not exact but comparative ( homiletic The historicity of the Bible addresses in what ways the Bible is historically accurate the extent to which it can be used as a historic source and what qualifications should Biblical chronology is the academic study of the dating of events in the Hebrew Bible. Adam Descendents Timeline Genesis The timeline of Genesis of the Old Testament can be calculated using the ages given in Genesis The efforts of translating the Bible from its original languages into over 2000 others have spanned more than two millennia. The Code of Hammurabi ( Codex Hammurabi) is the best-preserved ancient Law code, created ca A study Bible is an edition of the Bible prepared for the use of a serious student of the Bible The following is a list of burial places attributed to Biblical personalities according to various religious and local traditions Alcoholic beverages appear repeatedly in Biblical literature – from Noah planting a vineyard and getting drunk in the Hebrew Bible to Jesus Ethics is the branch of Philosophy which examines the question of what actions are morally right or wrong and why The Bible and homosexuality is a contentious subject that influences how Homosexuality and homosexual sex are regarded in societies where Christianity has made a strong The Bible contains several references to slavery. The Hebrew Bible does not promote Slavery, but neither does it condemn it Male Circumcision, when practiced as a rite has its foundations in the Bible, in the Abrahamic covenant, such as, and is therefore practiced by Jews The Hebrew Bible is considered a holy text in most Abrahamic religions. A Bible society is a non-profit organization (usually Ecumenical in makeup devoted to Translating, publishing distributing the Bible at affordable costs

Commentaries See Biblical exegesis. Exegesis (from the Greek 'to lead out' involves an extensive and critical interpretation of an authoritative text, especially of a Holy

Religious texts Qur'an Guru Granth Sahib Hindu texts Book of the Dead

Notes

References and further reading

External links

• Blue Letter Bible
• King James Bible
• New Revised Standard Version

Wikis

• Bible versions and commentary
• Bible Study Wiki
• BibleWiki
• Wikible

© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic