View in 1986 from the west side of graffiti art on the wall's infamous "death strip"

The Berlin Wall (German: Berliner Mauer) was a barrier separating West Berlin from East Berlin and the rest of East Germany. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. The term separation barrier is a Euphemism for walls or fences constructed to limit the movement of people across a certain line or Border, or to separate two populations West Berlin was the name given to the western part of Berlin between 1949 and 1990 East Berlin was the name given to the eastern part of Berlin between 1949 and 1990 The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state The longer 'inner German border' demarcated the remainder of the East-West German border between the two states. The inner German border ( German: Innerdeutsche Grenze or Deutsch-Deutsche Grenze, informal Zonengrenze) was an extensive system of fortifications Both borders were part of the Iron Curtain. The " Iron Curtain " was the symbolic ideological and physical boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II until the end

The wall separated East Berlin and West Berlin for 28 years, from the day construction began on August 13, 1961 until it was dismantled in 1989. East Berlin was the name given to the eastern part of Berlin between 1949 and 1990 West Berlin was the name given to the western part of Berlin between 1949 and 1990 Events 3114 BC - According to the Lounsbury correlation the start of the Maya calendar. Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. During this period at least 133 people were confirmed killed trying to cross the Wall into West Berlin, according to official figures. ^[1] However, a prominent victims' group claims that more than 200 people had been killed trying to flee from East to West Berlin. ^[2] The GDR/East German government gave shooting orders to border guards dealing with defectors; such orders are not the same as shoot to kill orders which GDR officials have denied exist. The German term Schießbefehl ("firing order" was the common term to refer to Befehl 101 ( Order 101) a standing order ^[3]

When the East German government announced on November 9, 1989, after several weeks of civil unrest, that visits in West Germany and West Berlin would be permitted, crowds of East Germans climbed onto and crossed the wall, joined by West Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) Over the next few weeks, parts of the wall were chipped away by a euphoric public and by souvenir hunters; industrial equipment was later used to remove almost all of the rest of it.

The fall of the Berlin Wall paved the way for German reunification, which was formally concluded on October 3, 1990. German reunification (Deutsche Wiedervereinigung took place twice after 1945 first in 1957 the Saarland was permitted to join the Federal Republic of Germany Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar)

Background

Occupied Germany in 1945

After the end of World War II in Europe, what territorially remained of Nazi Germany was divided into four occupation zones (per the Potsdam Agreement), each one controlled by one of the four occupying Allied powers: the Americans, British, French and Soviets. The final battles of the European Theatre of World War II as well as the German surrender took place in late April and early May 1945 Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The Potsdam Agreement was an agreement on policy for the occupation and reconstruction of Germany and other nations after fighting in the European Theatre of World War II The Allies of World War II were the countries officially opposed to the Axis powers during the Second World War. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The old capital of Berlin, as the seat of the Allied Control Council, was similarly subdivided into four sectors despite the city lying deep inside the zone of the Soviet Union. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. The Allied Control Council or Allied Control Authority, known in German as the Alliierter Kontrollrat, also referred to as the Four Powers (German Although the intent was for the occupying powers to govern Germany together inside the 1947 borders, the advent of Cold War tension caused the French, British and American zones to be formed into the Federal Republic of Germany (and West Berlin) in 1949, excluding the Soviet zone, which then formed the German Democratic Republic (including East Berlin). Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the

Divergence of German states

West Germany developed into a western capitalist country with a social market economy ("Soziale Marktwirtschaft" in German) and a democratic parliamentary government. The social market economy was the main economic model used in Western and Northern Europe during the Cold War era Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system Continual economic growth starting in the 1950s fuelled a 30-year "economic miracle" ("Wirtschaftswunder"). The term ( German for "economic miracle" describes the rapid reconstruction and development of the economies of West Germany and Austria Across the inner-German border, East Germany established an authoritarian government with a Soviet-style planned economy. A planned economy or directed economy is an Economic system in which the Government or Workers' councils manages the Economy. While West Germany became rich, many East Germans wanted to move to West Germany. The East Germans constructed the Berlin Wall to stop East Germans from fleeing. However, East German soldiers allowed West Berliners to cross into East Germany.

Barrier between East and West Germany

On 1 April, 1952, East German leaders met the Soviet leader Stalin in Moscow; during the discussions Stalin's foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov proposed that the East Germans should "introduce a system of passes for visits of West Berlin residents to the territory of East Berlin [so as to stop] free movement of Western agents" in the GDR. Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Molotov redirects here For other uses see Molotov (disambiguation. Stalin agreed, calling the situation "intolerable". He advised the East Germans to build up their border defenses, telling them that "The demarcation line between East and West Germany should be considered a border – and not just any border, but a dangerous one . . . The Germans will guard the line of defense with their lives. " ^[4]

Consequently, the border between East and West Germany was closed, and a barbed-wire fence erected. The inner German border ( German: Innerdeutsche Grenze or Deutsch-Deutsche Grenze, informal Zonengrenze) was an extensive system of fortifications The border between East and West Berlin, however, remained open, although traffic between the Eastern and the Western sectors was somewhat restricted.

Construction begins, 1961

East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall, November 20, 1961. Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

On June 15, 1961, two months before the construction of the Berlin Wall started, First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party and Staatsrat chairman Walter Ulbricht stated in an international press conference, "Niemand hat die Absicht, eine Mauer zu errichten!" (No one has the intention to erect a wall). Events 763 BC - Assyrians record a Solar eclipse that will be used to fix the Chronology of Mesopotamian history Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Socialist Unity Party of Germany ( German: Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands, SED) was the governing party of the German Democratic The Staatsrat (Council of State was in the German Democratic Republic the formally highest collective body which was created with law over the formation of the Council of State Walter Ulbricht ( June 30, 1893 &ndash August 1, 1973) was a German Communist politician It was the first time the colloquial term Mauer (wall) had been used in this context.

On Saturday August 12, 1961, the leaders of East Germany attended a garden party at a government guesthouse in Döllnsee, in a wooded area to the north of East Berlin, and Walter Ulbricht signed the order to close the border and erect a Wall. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon - Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

At midnight the army, police, and units of the East German army began to close the border and by morning on Sunday August 13, 1961 the border to West Berlin had been shut. Events 3114 BC - According to the Lounsbury correlation the start of the Maya calendar. Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. East German troops and workers had begun to tear up streets running alongside the barrier to make them impassable to most vehicles, and to install barbed wire entanglements and fences along the 156 km (97 miles) around the three western sectors and the 43 km (27 miles) which actually divided West and East Berlin. The Soviets were not directly involved.

The barrier was built slightly inside East German territory to ensure that it did not encroach on West Berlin at any point, and was later built up into the Wall proper, the first concrete elements and large blocks being put in place on August 15. During the construction of the Wall, NVA and KdA soldiers stood in front of it with orders to shoot anyone who attempted to defect. History The creation of the National People’s Army on March 1, 1956, six months after the formation of the West German Bundeswehr, followed years The Combat Groups of the Working Class ( German: Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse, KdA was a Paramilitary organisation in East Germany, founded Additionally, the whole length of the border between East and West Germany was closed with chain fences, walls, minefields, and other installations. The inner German border ( German: Innerdeutsche Grenze or Deutsch-Deutsche Grenze, informal Zonengrenze) was an extensive system of fortifications

Immediate effects

The last readily accessible option for travel or emigration to West Germany had been closed for the vast majority of East Germans, and many families were split and East Berliners cut off from their jobs and from chances for financial improvement; West Berlin became an isolated enclave in a hostile land. West Berliners demonstrated against the wall, led by their mayor Willy Brandt, who strongly criticized the United States for failing to respond. Willy Brandt, born Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm (18 December 1913 - 8 October 1992 was a German politician Chancellor of West Germany 1969&ndash1974 The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Allied intelligence agencies had hypothesized about a wall to stop the flood of refugees, but the main candidate for its location was around the perimeter of the city.

US President John F. Kennedy visiting the Berlin Wall on June 26, 1963

From the East-Side 1968 the "Baby Wall" with flowers was the nearest point for visitors. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy (May 29 1917&ndashNovember 22 1963 often referred to by his initials JFK, was the thirty-fifth President of Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian is killed during the retreat from the Sassanid Empire. Year 1963 ( MCMLXIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

John F. Kennedy had acknowledged in a speech on July 25, 1961, that the United States could hope to defend only West Berliners and West Germans; to attempt to stand up for East Germans would result only in an embarrassing downfall. John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy (May 29 1917&ndashNovember 22 1963 often referred to by his initials JFK, was the thirty-fifth President of Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Accordingly, the administration made polite protests at length via the usual channels, but without fervour, even though it was a violation of the postwar Potsdam Agreements, which gave the United Kingdom, France and the United States a say over the administration of the whole of Berlin. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Indeed, a few months after the barbed wire was erected, the U. S. government informed the Soviet government that it accepted the Wall as "a fact of international life" and would not challenge it by force. US and UK sources had expected the Soviet sector to be sealed off from West Berlin - it appeared to be the best option the GDR and Soviet powers had, but were surprised how long it had taken for a move of this kind. They also saw the wall as an end to concerns about a GDR/Soviet retaking or capture of the whole of Berlin, i. e the wall would have been an unnecessary project if such plans were afloat. Thus the possibility of a military conflict over Berlin decreased. ^[5]

The East German government claimed that the Wall was an "anti-Fascist protective rampart" ("antifaschistischer Schutzwall") intended to dissuade aggression from the West ^[6]. Another official justification were the activities of western agents in Eastern Europe ^[7]. A yet different explanation was that West Berliners were buying out state-subsidized goods in East Berlin. Most of these positions were, however, viewed with skepticism even in East Germany, even more so since most of the time, the border was only closed for citizens of East Germany travelling to the West, but not for residents of West Berlin travelling to the East^[8]. The construction of the Wall had caused considerable hardship to families divided by it, and the view that the Wall was mainly a means of preventing the citizens of East Germany from entering West Berlin or fleeing was widely accepted.

An East German propaganda booklet published in 1955 outlined the seriousness of 'flight from the republic' to SED party agitators:

Secondary response

It was clear both that West German morale needed lifting and that there was a serious potential threat to the viability of West Berlin. If West Berlin fell after all the efforts of the Berlin Airlift, how could any of America's other allies rely on it? On the other hand, in the face of any serious Soviet threat, an enclave like West Berlin could not be defended except with nuclear weapons. The Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 – 11 May 1949 was one of the first major international crises of the Cold war. ^[10] As such, it was vitally important for the Americans to show the Soviets a display of strength and also placate West German and French pressure for a more serious response.

Accordingly, General Lucius D. Clay, an anti-communist who was known to have a firm attitude towards the Soviets, was sent to Berlin with ambassadorial rank as Kennedy's special advisor. General Lucius Dubignon Clay ( April 23 1897 &ndash April 16 1978) was an American general and military governor best known for his He and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson arrived at Tempelhof Airport on the afternoon of Saturday August 19. For the United States Air Force military use of this facility see Tempelhof Central Airport Berlin-Tempelhof Airport also Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul.

They arrived in a city defended by what would soon be known as the "Berlin Brigade", which then consisted of the 2nd and 3rd Battle Groups of the 6th Infantry, with Company F, 40th Armor. After the end of World War II, under the conditions of the Yalta and Potsdam agreements Allied forces occupied West Berlin. The battle groups were "pentatomic" (A flatter command structure with five battle groups instead of the old three regiments with three battalions and were also equipped with tactical nuclear weapons), with 1,362 officers and men each. A tactical nuclear weapon (or TNW) refers to a Nuclear weapon which is designed to be used on a battlefield in military situations On August 16, Kennedy had given the order for them to be reinforced. Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting Early on August 19, the 1st Battle Group, 18th Infantry (commanded by Col. Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Glover S. Johns Jr. ) was alerted.

On Sunday morning, lead elements arranged in a column of 491 vehicles and trailers carrying 1,500 men divided into five march units and left the Helmstedt-Marienborn checkpoint at 06:34. At Marienborn, the Soviet checkpoint next to Helmstedt on the West German/East German border, U. Helmstedt is a city located at the eastern edge of the German state of Lower Saxony. S. personnel were counted by guards. The column was 160 km (~100 miles) long, and covered 177 km (~110 miles) from Marienborn to Berlin in full battle gear, with VoPos (East German police) watching from beside trees next to the autobahn all the way along. (German ˈaʊtoːbaːn plural Autobahnen; English /ˈɔːtəʊbɑːn/ is the German word for a major high- Speed Road restricted to motor The front of the convoy arrived at the outskirts of Berlin just before noon, to be met by Clay and Johnson, before parading through the streets of Berlin to an adoring crowd. At 04:00 on August 21, Lyndon Johnson left a visibly reassured West Berlin in the hands of Gen. Events 1192 - Minamoto Yoritomo becomes Seii Tai Shōgun and the De facto ruler of Japan. Frederick O. Hartel and his brigade of 4,224 officers and men. Every three months for the next three and a half years, a new American battalion was rotated into West Berlin by autobahn to demonstrate Allied rights.

The creation of the Wall had important implications for both German states. By stemming the exodus of people from East Germany, the East German government was able to reassert its control over the country: in spite of discontent with the wall, economic problems caused by dual currency and the black market were largely eliminated, and the economy in the east grew. However, the Wall proved a propaganda disaster for the communist bloc as a whole. Western powers used it as a symbol of communist tyranny, particularly after the shootings of would-be defectors (which were later treated as acts of murder by the reunified Germany). In 1987, Ronald Reagan gave a famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate, at which he challenged Mikhail Gorbachev to "tear down this wall". The Brandenburg Gate (Brandenburger Tor is a former City gate and one of the main symbols of Berlin and Germany. Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev ( Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov;; born 2 March 1931 in Privolnoye Stavropol Krai) is a Russian politician " Tear down this wall! " was the famous challenge from United States President Ronald Reagan to Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to destroy In West Germany, dismay that the Western powers had done nothing to prevent the Wall's creation led directly to the policy of Ostpolitik or rapprochement with the east, in an effort to stabilize the relationship of the two German states. Ostpolitik ( German for Eastern Politics) describes the politics of the "Change Through Rapprochement" principle &mdash as verbalized by Egon Bahr

Layout and modifications

Position and course of the Berlin Wall and its border control checkpoints (1989)

Satellite image of Berlin, with the wall's location marked in yellow.

The Wall was over 155 kilometers (96 mi) long. In June 1962, work started on a second parallel fence up to 91 meters (100 yd) further into East German territory, with houses in between the fences torn down and their inhabitants relocated. A no man's land was created between the two barriers, which became widely known as the "death strip". No man's land is a term for land that is not occupied or more specifically land that is under dispute between countries or areas that will not occupy it because of fear or uncertainty It was paved with raked gravel, making it easy to spot footprints; it offered no cover; it was booby-trapped with tripwires; and, most importantly, it offered a clear field of fire to the watching guards. Over the years, the Wall went through four distinct phases:

1. Basic wire fence (1961)
2. Improved wire fence (1962–1965)
3. Concrete wall (1965–1975)
4. Grenzmauer 75 (Border Wall 75) (1975–1989)

The "fourth-generation wall", known officially as "Stützwandelement UL 12. 11" (retaining wall element UL 12. 11), was the final and most sophisticated version of the Wall. Begun in 1975^[11] and completed about 1980,^[12] it was constructed from 45,000 separate sections of reinforced concrete, each 3. 6 meters (12 ft) high and 1. 2 meters (4 ft) wide, and cost 16,155,000 East German Marks or about 3,638,000 United States Dollars. The East German mark (Mark der DDR commonly called the eastern mark ( Ostmark in West Germany and after the reunification) in East Germany only The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been ^[13] The top of the wall was lined with a smooth pipe, intended to make it more difficult to scale. It was reinforced by mesh fencing, signal fencing, anti-vehicle trenches, barbed wire, dogs on long lines, "fakir beds" under balconies hanging over the "death strip", over 116 watchtowers,^[14] and 20 bunkers. A fence is a freestanding structure designed to restrict or prevent movement across a boundary Barbed wire, also known as barb wire (and frequently in dialect form spelled bob or bobbed) is a type of fencing Wire constructed A bed of nails is typically an Oblong piece of wood the size of a bed with nails pointing upwards out of it A watchtower is a type of Fortification used in many parts of the world A military bunker is a hardened shelter often buried partly or fully underground designed to protect the inhabitants from falling bombs or other attacks This version of the Wall is the one most commonly seen in photographs, and surviving fragments of the Wall in Berlin and elsewhere around the world are generally pieces of the fourth-generation Wall. Many portions of the Berlin Wall have been given to institutions since its fall on November 9, 1989. The layout came to resemble the Inner German border in most technical aspects, except the Berlin Wall had no landmines and no Spring-guns. The inner German border ( German: Innerdeutsche Grenze or Deutsch-Deutsche Grenze, informal Zonengrenze) was an extensive system of fortifications A spring-gun is a Gun, often a Shotgun, rigged to fire when a string or other triggering device is tripped by contact of sufficient force to "spring"

Official crossings and usage

see also main article Berlin border crossings

There were eight border crossings between East and West Berlin, allowing visits by West Berliners, West Germans, western foreigners and Allied personnel into East Berlin, as well as visits of East German citizens into West Berlin, provided they held the necessary permit. The Berlin border crossings were created as a result of the postwar division of Germany. Those crossings were restricted according to which nationality was allowed to use it (East Germans, West Germans, West Berliners, other countries). The most famous was Friedrichstraße (Checkpoint Charlie), which was restricted to Allied personnel and non-German citizens. The Friedrichstraße (ˈfʀiːdʀɪçˌʃtʀaːsə (lit Frederick Street) is a major culture and shopping street in central Berlin, forming the core of the Checkpoint Charlie was the name given by the Western Allies to a crossing point between East Berlin and West Berlin during the Cold War

Several other border crossings existed between West Berlin and surrounding East Germany. These could be used for transit between West Germany and West Berlin, for visits by West Berliners into East Germany, for transit into countries neighbouring East Germany (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Denmark), and for visits by East Germans into West Berlin carrying a permit. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe After the 1972 agreements, new crossings were opened to allow West Berlin waste to be transported into East German dumps, as well as some crossings for access to West Berlin's exclaves (see Steinstücken). Steinstücken, a small settlement with approximately 200 inhabitants is the southernmost territory of the Berlin borough of Steglitz-Zehlendorf.

The famous you are leaving sign

Four motorways usable by West Germans connected West Berlin to West Germany, the most famous being Berlin-Helmstedt autobahn, which entered East German territory at the town of Helmstedt (Checkpoint Alpha) and connected to Berlin at Dreilinden (Checkpoint Bravo) in south-western Berlin. is an Autobahn in Germany that connects the Ruhr area in the west to Berlin in the east Helmstedt is a city located at the eastern edge of the German state of Lower Saxony. Access to West Berlin was also possible by railway (four routes) and by boat using canals and rivers.

Westerners could cross the border at Friedrichstraße station in East Berlin and at Checkpoint Charlie. When the Wall was erected, Berlin's complex public transit networks, the S-Bahn and U-Bahn, were divided with it. The Berlin S-Bahn is a Rapid transit system operated by S-Bahn Berlin GmbH, a subsidiary of the Deutsche Bahn. The Berlin de U-Bahn (de Untergrundbahn underground railway is a major part of the Public transport system of the German capital Berlin. ^[12] Some lines were cut in half; many stations were shut down. Three Western lines traveled through brief sections of East Berlin territory, passing through eastern stations (called Geisterbahnhöfe, or ghost stations) without stopping. Ghost stations is the usual English translation for the German word Geisterbahnhöfe. Both the eastern and western networks converged at Friedrichstraße, which became a major crossing point for those (mostly Westerners) with permission to cross.

Who could cross

West Germans and citizens of other Western countries could in general visit East Germany. Usually this involved application of a visa at an East German embassy several weeks in advance. Visas for day trips restricted to East Berlin were issued without previous application in a simplified procedure at the border crossing. However East German authorities could refuse entry permit without stating a reason.

West Berliners could at first not visit East Berlin or East Germany at all. All crossing points were closed to them between August 26, 1961 and December 17, 1963. Events 1071 - Battle of Manzikert: The Seljuk Turks defeat the Byzantine Army at Manzikert. Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 546 - Gothic War (535–554: The Ostrogoths of King Totila Year 1963 ( MCMLXIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In 1963 negotiations between East and West resulted a limited possibility for visits at Christmas that year ("Passierscheinregelung"). Similar very limited arrangements were made in 1964, 1965 and 1966.

In 1971 with the Four Power Agreement on Berlin, agreements were reached that allowed West Berliners to apply for visas for East Berlin and East Germany regularly, comparable to the regulations already in force for West Germans. The Four Power Agreement on Berlin also known as the Berlin Agreement or the Quadripartite Agreement on Berlin was agreed on 3 September, East German authorities could still refuse entry permits.

East Berliners and East Germans could at first not travel to West Berlin or West Germany at all. This regulation remained in force basically until the fall of the wall, but over the years several exceptions to these rules were introduced. The most significant being:

• Old age pensioners could travel to the west starting in 1964
• Visits of relatives for important family matters
• People who had to travel to the west for professional reasons (e. g. artists, lorry drivers etc. )

However each visit had to be applied for individually and the permission was never guaranteed.

Citizens of other East European countries were in general subject to the same prohibition to visit western countries as East Germans, even though there was variation in the applicable exception (if any) from country to country.

Allied military personnel, officials, and diplomats were able to pass into East Berlin without passport check; likewise Soviet patrols could pass into West Berlin. This was a requirement of the post-war Four Powers Agreements. The Allied Control Council or Allied Control Authority, known in German as the Alliierter Kontrollrat, also referred to as the Four Powers (German

Escape attempts

During the Wall's existence there were around 5,000 successful escapes into West Berlin. The number of people who died trying to cross the wall or as a result of the wall's existence has been controversial. The most vocal claims by Alexandra Hildebrandt, Director of the Checkpoint Charlie Museum and widow of the Museum's founder estimated the death toll to be well above 200 people ^[2] while an ongoing historic research group at the Center for Contemporary Historical Research (ZZF) in Potsdam has confirmed 133 deaths. The Checkpoint Charlie Museum exhibition opened just outside the Berlin Wall on October 19 1962 in an apartment with only two and a half rooms in famous The Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung ( ZZF) ( Center for Research on Contemporary History) is an independent and interdisciplinary research institute focusing The Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung ( ZZF) ( Center for Research on Contemporary History) is an independent and interdisciplinary research institute focusing ^[15] Guards were told by East German authorities that people attempting to cross the wall were criminals and needed to be shot: "Do not hesitate to use your firearm, not even when the border is breached in the company of women and children, which is a tactic the traitors have often used," they said. ^[3]

Peter Fechter lies dying after being shot by East German border guards. Peter Fechter ( January 14 1944 &ndash August 17 1962) was a German bricklayer from East Berlin, who at the age of eighteen Grepo is the short form of the German word for border police (Grenzpolizei This photo achieved international notoriety, 1962.

Early successful escapes involved people jumping the initial barbed wire or leaping out of apartment windows along the line but these ended as the wall was fortified. In order to solve these simple escape attempts, East German authorities no longer permitted Apartments near the wall to be occupied and any building near the wall had to have their windows boarded up. On August 15, 1961, Conrad Schumann was the first East German border guard to escape by jumping the barbed wire to West Berlin. Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Hans Conrad Schumann ( 28 March, 1942 – June 20, 1998 in Oberemmendorf near Kipfenberg) was one of the most famous defectors from Later successful escape attempts included long tunnels, waiting for favorable winds and taking a hot air balloon, sliding along aerial wires, flying ultralights, and in one instance, simply driving a sports car at full speed through the basic, initial fortifications. When a metal beam was placed at checkpoints to prevent this kind of escape, up to four people (two in the front seats and possibly two in the boot) drove under the bar in a sports car that had been modified to allow the roof and wind screen to come away when it made contact with the beam. They simply lay flat and kept driving forward. This issue was rectified with zig-zagging roads at checkpoints.

Another airborne escape was by Thomas Krüger, who landed a Zlin Z-42M light aircraft of the Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik, an East German youth military training organization, at RAF Gatow. This article is on the city See also Zlin aircraft brand Zlín (zliːn formerly Gottwaldov ('gotvaldof is a city in the Zlín His aircraft, registration DDR-WOH, was dismantled and returned to the East Germans by road, complete with humorous slogans painted on by RAF Airmen such as "Wish you were here" and "Come back soon". DDR-WOH is still flying today, but under the registration D-EWOH. D-EWOH is a Zlin Z 42M General Aviation aircraft Prior to its registration to its current German Tail number in 1991 it was registered in the

If an escaper was wounded in a crossing attempt and lay on the death strip, no matter how close they were to the Western wall, they could not be rescued for fear of triggering engaging fire from the 'Grepos', the East Berlin border guards. The guards often let fugitives bleed to death in the middle of this ground, like in the most notorious failed attempt, that of Peter Fechter (aged 18). Peter Fechter ( January 14 1944 &ndash August 17 1962) was a German bricklayer from East Berlin, who at the age of eighteen He was shot and bled to death in full view of the western media, on August 17, 1962. Events 986 - A Byzantine army was destroyed in the pass of Trajan's Gate by the Bulgarians under the Comitopuli Year 1962 ( MCMLXII) was a Common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The last person to be killed while trying to cross the border was Chris Gueffroy on February 6, 1989. Chris Gueffroy ( June 21, 1968 &ndash February 6, 1989) was the last person to be shot while trying to escape to West Berlin across the Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar)

The Fall, 1989

United States President Ronald Reagan delivers his famed speech at the Berlin Wall in June 1987, in which he called for Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev to "tear down this wall!"

The wall being dismantled at the Brandenburg Gate, February 17, 1990

On August 23, 1989, communist Hungary removed its border restrictions with Austria, and in September more than 13,000 East German tourists in Hungary escaped to Austria. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by The General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( First Secretary in 1953-1966 was the title synonymous with leader of the Soviet Union after Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev ( Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov;; born 2 March 1931 in Privolnoye Stavropol Krai) is a Russian politician " Tear down this wall! " was the famous challenge from United States President Ronald Reagan to Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to destroy Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) Events 79 - Mount Vesuvius begins stirring on the feast day of Vulcan the Roman god of fire Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Mass demonstrations against the government in East Germany began in October 1989. The Monday demonstrations in East Germany in 1989 and 1990 (Montagsdemonstrationen were a series of peaceful political protests against the authoritarian government of the The long-time leader of East Germany, Erich Honecker, resigned on October 18, 1989, and was replaced by Egon Krenz a few days later. Erich Honecker ( August 25, 1912 – May 29, 1994) was a German Communist Politician who led the German Democratic Events 1009 - The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, a Christian church in Jerusalem, is completely destroyed by the Fatimid Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) Egon Krenz (born 19 March, 1937) is a German former Communist, who briefly served as leader of the German Democratic Republic Honecker had predicted in January of that year that the wall would stand for a "hundred more years" if the conditions which had caused its construction did not change.

Protest demonstrations broke out all over East Germany in September 1989. Initially, they were of people wanting to leave to the West, chanting "Wir wollen raus!" ("We want out!"). Then protestors began to chant "Wir bleiben hier", ("We're staying here!"). This was the start of what East Germans generally call the "Peaceful Revolution" of late 1989. The protestors wanted to create "socialism with a human face," and by November 4, 1989, the protests had swelled significantly, with a million people gathered that day in Alexanderplatz in East Berlin. The Prague Spring ( Czech: Pražské jaro, Slovak: Pražská jar) was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia during Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) is a large open square and public transport hub in the Berlin district of Mitte in the city centre near the river Spree and the Berliner Dom

Meanwhile the wave of refugees leaving East Germany for the West had increased and had found its way through Czechoslovakia, tolerated by the new Krenz government and in agreement with the communist Czechoslovak government. Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. In order to ease the complications, the politburo led by Krenz decided on November 9, 1989, to allow refugees to exit directly through crossing points between East Germany and West Germany, including West Berlin. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) On the same day, the ministerial administration modified the proposal to include private travel. The new regulations were to take effect on November 10. Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw Günter Schabowski, the East German Minister of Propaganda, had the task of announcing this; however he had been on vacation prior to this decision and had not been fully updated. Günter Schabowski (born 4 January 1929) was an official of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED the ruling party during most of the existence of Shortly before a press conference on November 9, 1989, he was handed a note that said that East Berliners would be allowed to cross the border with proper permission but given no further instructions on how to handle the information. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) These regulations had only been completed a few hours earlier and were to take effect the following day, so as to allow time to inform the border guards. However, nobody had informed Schabowski. He read the note out loud at the end of the conference and when asked when the regulations would come into effect, he assumed it would be the same day based on the wording of the note and replied "As far as I know effective immediately, without delay". After further questions from journalists he confirmed that the regulations included the border crossings towards West Berlin, which he had not mentioned until then.

Tens of thousands of East Berliners heard Schabowski's statement live on East German television and flooded the checkpoints in the Wall demanding entry into West Berlin. The surprised and overwhelmed border guards made many hectic telephone calls to their superiors, but it became clear that there was no one among the East German authorities who would dare to take personal responsibility for issuing orders to use lethal force, so there was no way for the vastly outnumbered soldiers to hold back the huge crowd of East German citizens. In face of the growing crowd, the guards finally yielded, opening the checkpoints and allowing people through with little or no identity checking. Ecstatic East Berliners were soon greeted by West Berliners on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. November 9 is thus considered the date the Wall fell. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all In the days and weeks that followed, people came to the wall with sledgehammers in order to chip off souvenirs, demolishing lengthy parts of it in the process. These people were nicknamed "Mauerspechte" (wall woodpeckers).

A crane removing a section of the Berlin Wall near Brandenburg Gate on December 21, 1989

The East German regime announced the opening of ten new border crossings the following weekend, including some in symbolic locations (Potsdamer Platz, Glienicker Brücke, Bernauer Straße). The Brandenburg Gate (Brandenburger Tor is a former City gate and one of the main symbols of Berlin and Germany. The Berlin border crossings were created as a result of the postwar division of Germany. ( English Potsdam Square, is an important Public square and traffic intersection in the centre of Berlin, Germany, lying about one kilometre The Glienicke bridge ( Glienicker Brücke) is a Bridge in Berlin which spans the Havel River to connect the cities of Potsdam Bernauer Straße is one of only three remaining locations of the Berlin Wall. Crowds on both sides waited there for hours, cheering at the bulldozers who took parts of the Wall away to reinstate old roads. Photos and television footage of these events is sometimes mislabelled "dismantling of the Wall", even though it was merely the construction of new crossings. New border crossings continued to be opened through summer 1990, including the Brandenburg Gate on December 22, 1989. The Brandenburg Gate (Brandenburger Tor is a former City gate and one of the main symbols of Berlin and Germany. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar)

West Germans and West Berliners were allowed visa-free travel starting December 23, 1989. Events 962 - Byzantine-Arab Wars: Under the future Emperor Nicephorus Phocas, Byzantine troops stormed the city Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) Until then they could only visit East Germany and East Berlin under restrictive conditions that involved application for a visa several days or weeks in advance, and obligatory exchange of at least 25 DM per day of their planned stay, all of which hindered spontaneous visits. Thus, in the weeks between November 9 and December 23, East Germans could travel "more freely" than Westerners. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Events 962 - Byzantine-Arab Wars: Under the future Emperor Nicephorus Phocas, Byzantine troops stormed the city

Former United States President Ronald Reagan is presented the famous but now obsolete 'you are leaving sign' at Tempelhof Airport on September 14, 1990. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by For the United States Air Force military use of this facility see Tempelhof Central Airport Berlin-Tempelhof Airport also Events 81 - Domitian becomes Emperor of the Roman Empire upon the death of his brother Titus. Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar)

Technically the Wall remained guarded for some time after November 9, though at a decreasing intensity. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all In the first months, the East German military even tried to repair some of the damages done by the "wall peckers". Gradually these attempts ceased, and guards became more lax, tolerating the increasing demolitions and "unauthorised" border crossing through the holes. On June 13, 1990, the official dismantling of the Wall by the East German military began in Bernauer Straße. Events 1525 - Martin Luther marries Katharina von Bora, against the Celibacy rule decreed by the Roman Catholic Church for Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) Bernauer Straße is one of only three remaining locations of the Berlin Wall. On July 1, the day East Germany adopted the West German currency, all border controls ceased, although the inter-German border had become meaningless for some time before that. "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. The dismantling continued to be carried out by military units (after unification under the Bundeswehr) and lasted until November 1991. The Bundeswehr ( German for "Federal Defence Force") is the name of the unified Armed forces of the Federal Republic of Germany Only a few short sections and watchtowers were left standing as memorials.

The fall of the Wall was the first step toward German reunification, which was formally concluded on October 3, 1990. German reunification (Deutsche Wiedervereinigung took place twice after 1945 first in 1957 the Saarland was permitted to join the Federal Republic of Germany Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar)

Celebrations

Further information: Schicksalstag

Mstislav Rostropovich's impromptu concert during the fall of the Berlin Wall. Schicksalstag (literally day of fate) is a label often used for 9 November due to the special importance of this day in German history. WikipediaWikiProject Classical music#Biographical_infoboxes --> Mstislav Leopoldovich Rostropovich KBE ( Russian: Мстисла́в

On December 25, 1989, Leonard Bernstein gave a concert in Berlin celebrating the end of the Wall, including Beethoven's 9th symphony (Ode to Joy) with the word "Joy" (Freude) changed to "Freedom" (Freiheit) in the text sung. Events 274 - Roman Emperor Aurelian Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) WikipediaWikiProject Composers#Lead section --> WikipediaWikiProject Classical music#Biographical_infoboxes Ludwig van Beethoven ( English ˈlʊdvɪg væn ˈbeɪtoʊvən, 16 December 1770 &ndash 26 March 1827 was a German Composer and Pianist. The Symphony No 9 in D minor Op 125 "Choral" is the last complete Symphony composed by Ludwig van Beethoven. " To Joy " ( An die Freude in German, in English often familiarly called the Ode to Joy) is an Ode written in The orchestra and chorus were drawn from both East and West Germany, as well as the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States. ^[16]

Roger Waters performed the Pink Floyd album The Wall in Potsdamer Platz on 21 July 1990, with guests including Scorpions, Bryan Adams, Sinéad O'Connor, Thomas Dolby, Joni Mitchell, Marianne Faithfull and Van Morrison. George Roger Waters (born 6 September 1943 in Great Bookham, Surrey) is an English rock musician Pink Floyd are The Wall is a Rock opera presented as a Double album by the English Progressive rock band Pink Floyd, released in late ( English Potsdam Square, is an important Public square and traffic intersection in the centre of Berlin, Germany, lying about one kilometre Events 356 BC - Herostratus sets fire to the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) Scorpions are a heavy metal / Hard rock band from Hanover, Germany, probably best known for their 1980s rock anthem " Rock You Like a {Otherpeople|Brian Adams}} Bryan Adams OC, OBC, (born Bryan Guy Adams on November 5, 1959) is a Canadian rock Sinéad Marie Bernadette O'Connor (ʃɪˈneɪd oʊˈkɒnɚ (born 8 December 1966 is a Grammy Award winning Irish singer and songwriter Thomas Dolby (born Thomas Morgan Robertson, on 14 October 1958) is an English Musician, producer and inventor Joni Mitchell, CC (born Roberta Joan Anderson on November 7 1943) is a Canadian Musician, Songwriter, and Marianne Faithfull (born December 29 1946) is an English Singer, Songwriter, actress and Diarist whose George Ivan Morrison OBE (generally known as Van Morrison) (born 31 August 1945 is a Grammy Award -winning Northern Irish Singer, David Hasselhoff performed his song "Looking for Freedom", which was very popular in Germany at that time, standing on the Berlin wall. David Michael Hasselhoff (born July 17, 1952) is an American Actor and Singer, who is best known for his lead roles on Knight

Some believe November 9 would have made a suitable German National Holiday, since it both marks the emotional apogee of East Germany's peaceful revolution and is also the date of the declaration of the first German republic, the Weimar Republic, in 1918. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933 However, November 9 is also the anniversary of the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch and the infamous Kristallnacht pogroms of 1938 and, therefore, October 3 was chosen instead. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all The Beer Hall Putsch (also known as the Munich Putsch) was a failed Coup d'état that occurred between the evening of Thursday November 8 Kristallnacht ( literally "Crystal night" or the Night of Broken Glass was a Pogrom in Nazi Germany on November 9–10 1938 A pogrom is a form of Riot directed against a particular group whether ethnic religious or other and characterized by destruction of their Homes Businesses Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Part of this decision was that the East German government wanted to conclude reunification before East Germany could celebrate a 41st anniversary on October 7, 1990. Events 3761 BC - The epoch (origin of the modern Hebrew calendar ( Proleptic Julian calendar) Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar)

Legacy

Almost all of the remaining sections of Berlin Wall were rapidly chipped away. Photo December 1990.

Remaining stretch of the Wall near Ostbahnhof in Friedrichshain, August 2006

Remains of the Wall near Potsdamer Platz, August 2007

A memorial of over 1,000 crosses and a segment of the wall for those who died attempting to cross. The memorial stood for ten months in 2004 and 2005 before being demolished.

Little is left of the Wall at its original site, which was destroyed almost everywhere. Three long sections are still standing: an 80-meter (263 ft) piece of the "first (westernmost) wall" at the site of the former Gestapo headquarter half way between Checkpoint Charlie and Potsdamer Platz; a longer section of the "second (easternmost) wall" along the Spree River near the Oberbaumbrücke nicknamed East Side Gallery; and a third section with hints of the full installation, but partly reconstructed, in the north at Bernauer Straße, which was turned into a memorial in 1999. The ( contraction of ge heime Sta ats' po' lizei: "Secret State Police" was the official Secret police of Nazi Germany Checkpoint Charlie was the name given by the Western Allies to a crossing point between East Berlin and West Berlin during the Cold War ( English Potsdam Square, is an important Public square and traffic intersection in the centre of Berlin, Germany, lying about one kilometre The Spree (ʃpʁeː Sprowja Sprjewja Spréva is a River in Saxony, Brandenburg and Berlin, Germany and in Ústecký The Oberbaumbrücke is a double-deck bridge crossing Berlin 's River Spree, considered one of the city Landmarks It links Friedrichshain The East Side Gallery is an international memorial for freedom Bernauer Straße is one of only three remaining locations of the Berlin Wall. Some other isolated fragments and a few watchtowers also remain in various parts of the city. None still accurately represent the Wall's original appearance. They are badly damaged by souvenir seekers, and fragments of the Wall both with and without certificates of authenticity are a staple on the online auction service eBay as well as German souvenir shops. A Certificate of Authenticity (COA is a seal or small sticker on a proprietary Computer program, T-shirt, Jersey, or any other memorabilia item eBay Inc is an American Internet company that manages eBaycom an Online auction and shopping Website in which people and businesses buy and Moreover, the eastern side is covered in graffiti that did not exist while the Wall was guarded by the armed soldiers of East Germany. Graffiti (singular graffito; the plural is used as a Mass noun) is the name for images or lettering scratched scrawled painted or marked in any manner on property Previously, graffiti appeared only on the western side. Along the tourist areas of the city centre, the city government has marked the location of the former wall by a row of cobblestones in the street. In most places only the "first" wall is marked, except near Potsdamer Platz where the stretch of both walls is marked, giving visitors an impression of the dimension of the barrier system. Pieces of the wall were taken and sold around the world.

Museum

Fifteen years after the fall, a private museum rebuilt a 200-metre (656 ft) section close to Checkpoint Charlie, although not in the location of the original wall. Checkpoint Charlie was the name given by the Western Allies to a crossing point between East Berlin and West Berlin during the Cold War They also raised more than 1,000 crosses in memory of those who died attempting to flee to the West. The memorial was installed in October 2004 and demolished in July 2005. ^[17]

Cultural differences

Even now, some years after reunification, there is still talk in Germany of cultural differences between East and West Germans (colloquially Ossis and Wessis), sometimes described as "Mauer im Kopf" ("The wall in the head"). For other uses of the word see Ossi. Ossi is an informal name for citizens of the (former German Democratic Republic (East Germany Wessi /vɛsiː/ ("westerner" is the informal name that people in Germany call citizens of West Germany before re-unification A September 2004 poll found that 25% of West Germans and 12% of East Germans wished that East Germany and West Germany were again cut off by the Berlin Wall. ^[18]

See also

• List of walls
• Brandenburg Gate
• Berlin border crossings
• Der Tunnel, a film about a mass evacuation to West Berlin through a tunnel
• Diplomatic incident of October 1961 – See Checkpoint Charlie
• Operation Gold
• Ostalgie
• Schießbefehl
• Tear down this wall
• List of Berlin Wall portions
• Solidarity Movement
• Eastern Bloc
• Panmunjeom, the Korean equivalent of the wall and the last standing front of the cold war after the fall of the wall. This is a list of famous Walls. Classical Biblical Byzantine Antiquity & feudal era Anastasian Wall in Turkey The Brandenburg Gate (Brandenburger Tor is a former City gate and one of the main symbols of Berlin and Germany. The Berlin border crossings were created as a result of the postwar division of Germany. For the 1913 German novel about transatlantic tunnels see Der Tunnel (novel Der Tunnel ( English: The Tunnel) is a Checkpoint Charlie was the name given by the Western Allies to a crossing point between East Berlin and West Berlin during the Cold War For the other use of Operation Gold, see Operation Gold (disambiguation. Ostalgie is a German term referring to Nostalgia for life in the former East Germany. The German term Schießbefehl ("firing order" was the common term to refer to Befehl 101 ( Order 101) a standing order " Tear down this wall! " was the famous challenge from United States President Ronald Reagan to Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to destroy Many portions of the Berlin Wall have been given to institutions since its fall on November 9, 1989. The history of Solidarity ( Polish: sɔlidarnɔɕt͡ɕ a Polish non-governmental Trade union, began in August 1980 at the During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were

Notes

References

• Buckley, William F., Jr. (2004). William Frank Buckley Jr ( November 24 1925  – February 27 2008) was an American Author and conservative The Fall of the Berlin Wall. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons. Hoboken is a city in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States. New Jersey ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. John Wiley & Sons Inc, also referred to as Wiley, is a global Publishing company that markets its products to professionals and consumers students and instructors ISBN 0-471-26736-8.  
• Cate, Curtis (1978). The Ides of August: The Berlin Wall Crisis—1961. New York City: M. The City of New York Evans.  
• Catudal, Honoré M. (1980). Kennedy and the Berlin Wall Crisis. John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy (May 29 1917&ndashNovember 22 1963 often referred to by his initials JFK, was the thirty-fifth President of West Berlin: Berlin Verlag. West Berlin was the name given to the western part of Berlin between 1949 and 1990  
• Kennedy, John F.. John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy (May 29 1917&ndashNovember 22 1963 often referred to by his initials JFK, was the thirty-fifth President of July 25, 1961 speech. Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
• Maclean, Rory (1992). Rory MacLean is a Canadian Travel writer living in the UK whose best known works are Stalin’s Nose, a black and surreal travelogue through eastern Europe Stalin's Nose: Across the Face of Europe. London: HarperCollins. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom.  
• Schneider, Peter (2005). Peter Schneider (born 21 April 1940 in Lübeck) is a German novelist The Wall Jumper. London: Penguin Classics. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom.  
• Friedrich, Thomas (writer),and Harry Hampel (photos) (1996). Wo die Mauer War/Where was the Wall?. Berlin: Nicolai. ISBN 3875846958.  
• Taylor, Frederick. The Berlin Wall: 13 August 1961 - 9 November 1989. Bloomsbury 2006

External links

• Information Berlin Wall and East-Berlin (in German)
• Retracing the Berlin Wall
• Bernauer Straße Memorial website
• Information on the East German border system (in German)
• Allied Forces in Berlin (FR, UK & US Berlin Brigade)
• Photographs of time of the Fall as well as updates on the current situation in Germany
• Reports on reinforcements to Berlin Brigade
• JFK speech clarifying limits of American protection
• "Berlin 1969" includes sections on Helmstedt-Berlin rail operations.
• Includes articles on rail transport for Berlin during the Cold War. (large files)
• Berlin 1983: Berlin and the Wall in the early 1980s
• Berlin Life: A concise but thorough history of the wall
• Berlin Wall: Past and Present
• The Lives of Others official website
• Important Berlin Wall Dates
• The Lost Border: Photographs of the Iron Curtain

Images and personal accounts

• Gallery of annotated photographs of the Berlin Wall
• Virtual e-Tours "The Wall" Shockwave Player required
• Photos of the Berlin Wall by Georges Rosset
• Photos of the Berlin Wall 1989 to 1999
• (Italian) Borders: spotting the past along Berlin death strip. 2007 BW photo gallery.
• Berlin Wall Pieces for Sale
• Berlin Wall Panorama of the East Side Gallery
• images of the Berlin wall
• One Day In Berlin: Tracing The Wall
• Berlin Wall Online, Chronicle of the Berlin Wall history includes an archive of photographs and texts
• Personal Account of the Fall of the Berlin Wall
• Berlin Wall, Past and Present, Descriptions, Videos, Images of Berlin Wall
• Berlin Wall - Personal Stories
• Photos of the Berlin Wall 1962-1990 (German text)
• A large number of collected images in the Flickr Berlin Wall group