The first page of the Beowulf manuscript

Beowulf is an Old English heroic epic poem of anonymous authorship. A hero (from Greek grc ἥρως hērōs) in Greek mythology and Folklore, was originally a Demigod, the offspring of a mortal and An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation This work of Anglo-Saxon literature dates to between the 8th^[1] and the 11th century. Anglo-Saxon literature (or Old English literature) encompasses Literature written in Anglo-Saxon (Old English during the 600-year Anglo-Saxon ^[2][3] At 3183 lines, it is notable for its length. Beowulf is sometimes called the national epic of England, despite the inaccuracy of that label. A national epic is an epic poem or similar work which seeks or is believed to capture and express the essence or spirit of a particular Nation; not necessarily a England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The work was originally written in Anglo-Saxon and pertains to events in Scandinavia. Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well ^[4]

In the poem, Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, battles three antagonists: Grendel, who is attacking the Danish mead hall called Heorot and its inhabitants; Grendel's mother; and, later in life after returning to Geatland (modern southern Sweden) and becoming a king, he fights an unnamed dragon. Beowulf (ˈBeɪoʊwʊlf/ /ˈBeɪəwʊlf Old English ˈbeːo̯wʊlf is a legendary Geatish hero and later king in the Old English epic poem named after him Geats, Geatas, Gautar, Goths, Gotar, Gøtar, Götar were a North Germanic tribe inhabiting Götaland An antagonist (from Greek ανταγωνιστής - antagonistes, "opponent competitor rival" is a character or Grendel is one of three Antagonists along with Grendel's mother and the Dragon, in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf ancient Scandinavia a Mead hall or Feasting hall was initially simply a large building with a single room ‎ Heorot (pronounced /hay oh roht/ heɪ əʊ rəʊt is a Mead hall described in the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf as "the foremost of Grendel's mother ( Old English: Grendles modor) is one of three Antagonists (along with Grendel and the Dragon) in the work of Götaland ( Gothia, Gothland, Gothenland, Gotland, Gautland, Geatland is one of three lands of Sweden "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. The dragon is a Legendary creature of which some interpretation or depiction appears in almost every culture worldwide He is fatally wounded in the final battle, and after his death he is buried in a barrow in Geatland by his retainers. A tumulus (plural tumuli) is a Mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves

The most common English pronunciation is IPA: /ˈbeɪəwʊlf/, but the "ēo" in Bēowulf was a diphthong, and a more authentic pronunciation would be with two syllables and the stress on the first (IPA: [ˈbeːo̯wʊɫf]). In Phonetics, a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (from Greek grc δίφθογγος "diphthongos" literally "with two sounds" or "with The Phonology of Old English is necessarily somewhat speculative since it is preserved purely as a Written language. ^[5]

The Beowulf manuscript

For more details on this topic, see Nowell Codex. Cotton Vitellius A xv is one of the four major Anglo-Saxon literature codices.

Provenance

The earliest known owner is the 16th century scholar Laurence Nowell, after whom the manuscript is named, though its official designation is Cotton Vitellius A. Two sixteenth-century English cousins one an antiquarian and the other a churchman were named Laurence Nowell XV because it was one of Robert Bruce Cotton's holdings in the middle of the 17th century. Sir Robert Bruce Cotton 1st Baronet ( 22 January 1570/1 &ndash 6 May 1631) was an English Politician, founder of Kevin Kiernan argues that Nowell most likely acquired it through William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley in 1563, when Nowell entered Cecil’s household as a tutor to his ward, Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford. Lord Burghley redirects here For other holders of the title see Baron Burghley William Cecil 1st Baron Burghley (13 September 1520 &ndash Earl of Oxford was one of the older titles in the English Peerage, and was held for several centuries by the de Vere family from 1141 ^[6]

It suffered damage in the Cotton Library fire at Ashburnham House in 1731. The Cotton or Cottonian library was the Library compiled by Sir Robert Bruce Cotton (1571 - 1631 an antiquarian and bibliophile Since then, parts of the manuscript have crumbled along with many of the letters. Rebinding efforts, though saving the manuscript from much degeneration, have nonetheless covered up other letters of the poem, causing further loss. Kevin Kiernan, Professor of English at the University of Kentucky is foremost in the computer digitization and preservation of the manuscript (the Electronic Beowulf Project^[7]), using fiber optic backlighting to further reveal lost letters of the poem. The University of Kentucky, also known as UK, is a public, Co-educational, University, and is also the state's land-grant university located

The poem is known only from a single manuscript, which is estimated to date from close to AD 1000. Professor Kevin Kiernan has argued from an examination of the manuscript that it was the author's own working copy. He dated the work to the reign of Canute the Great. } Canute the Great, also known as Cnut in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, or Knut ( Old Norse: Knútr inn ríki, Norwegian ^[3] The poem appears in what is today called the Beowulf manuscript or Nowell Codex (British Library MS Cotton Vitellius A. Cotton Vitellius A xv is one of the four major Anglo-Saxon literature codices. xv), along with other works. The earliest extant reference to the first foliation of the Nowell Codex was made sometime between 1628 and 1650 by Franciscus Junius (the younger). There were two Huguenot Scholars known as Franciscus Junius, a name also encountered as Franz Junius or François du Jon: Franciscus ^[6]. Whoever owned the codex before Nowell remains a mystery. ^[6]

The Reverend Thomas Smith and Humfrey Wanley undertook the task of cataloguing the Cotton library, in which the Nowell Codex was held. Humfrey Wanley ( 21 March 1672 at the Vicarage House adjoining Jesus Hall Coventry - 6 July 1726, of Dropsy, at Clarges Smith’s catalogue appeared in 1696, and Humfrey’s in 1705. ^[8] The Beowulf manuscript itself is mentioned in name for the first time in a letter in 1700 between George Hickes, Wanley’s assistant, and Wanley. In the letter to Wanley, Hickes responds to an apparent charge against Smith, made by Wanley, that Smith had failed to mention the Beowulf script when cataloguing Cotton MS. Vitellius A. XV. Hickes replies to Wanley “I can find nothing yet of Beowulph. ’ ^[8] It is hypothesized that Smith failed to mention the Beowulf manuscript because of his reliance on previous catalogues ^[8] or because either he had no idea how to describe it or because it was temporarily out of the codex ^[8].

The two scribes

The Beowulf manuscript is the product of two different scribes transcribing an earlier original, the second scribe taking over at line 1939 of Beowulf. A scribe (or scrivener) is a person who writes books or documents by hand as a profession Beowulf was composed by two scribes: Scribe A and Scribe B. The handwriting of the two scribes is ill-matched ^[6]. The script of Scribe B is archaic ^[6]. Both scribes proofread their work, and Scribe B even proofread the work of Scribe A ^[6]. The work of Scribe B bears a striking resemblance to the work of the first scribe of the Blickling homilies, and so much so that it is believed they derive from the same scriptorium ^[6]. The Blickling Homilies are the second largest collection of anonymous Homilies written in Old English. Scriptorium, literally "a place for writing" is commonly used to refer to a room in medieval European Monasteries devoted to the copying of manuscripts by monastic In fact, for at least a century, some scholars have maintained that the description of Grendel’s mere in Beowulf was borrowed from St. Paul’s vision of Hell in Homily 16 of the Blickling homilies. The Blickling Homilies are the second largest collection of anonymous Homilies written in Old English. ^[6]

Transcription

Icelandic scholar Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin made the first transcriptions of the manuscript in 1786 and published the results in 1815, working under a historical research commission of the Danish government. Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin (1752-1829 was an Icelandic scholar who became the National Archivist of Denmark and Professor of Antiquities at Copenhagen University. The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe He made one himself, and had another done by a professional copyist who knew no Anglo-Saxon. Since that time, the manuscript has crumbled further, and the Thorkelin transcripts remain a prized secondary source for Beowulf scholars. The recovery of at least 2000 letters can be attributed to these transcripts. Their accuracy has been called into question, however (e. g. , by Chauncey Brewster Tinker in The Translations of Beowulf, a comprehensive survey of 19th century translations and editions of Beowulf), and the extent to which the manuscript was actually more readable in Thorkelin's time is unclear.

Authorship and date

Beowulf was written in England, but is set in Scandinavia. Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well It has variously been dated to between the 8th and the early 11th centuries. The 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. It is an epic poem told in historical perspective; a story of epic events and of great people of a heroic past. Although its author is unknown, its themes and subject matter are generally believed to have been formed through oral tradition, the passing down of stories by scops (tale singers), and it is considered partly historical. Oral tradition, oral culture and oral lore is a way for a society to transmit history, literature, law and other Knowledges A ags scop was an Old English poet the Anglo-Saxon counterpart of the Old Norse non [[skald]].

Opinion differs as to whether the composition of the poem is contemporary with its transcription, or whether the poem was composed at an earlier time and orally transmitted for many years, and then transcribed at a later date. Lord (loc cit) felt strongly that the manuscript represents the transcription of a performance, though likely taken at more than one sitting. Kevin Kiernan argues on the basis of paleographical and codicological evidence, that the poem is contemporary with the manuscript^[6]. Kiernan’s reasoning has in part to do with the much-discussed political context of the poem: it has been held by most scholars, until recently, that the poem was composed in the 8th century or earlier on the assumption that a poem eliciting sympathy for the Danes could not have been composed by Anglo-Saxons during the Viking Ages of the 9th and 10th centuries. ^[6] Kiernan argues against an 8th century provenance because this would still require that the poem be transmitted by Anglo-Saxons through the Viking Age. Keirnan holds that the paleographic and codicological evidence encourages that belief that Beowulf is an 11-th century composite poem, and that Scribe A and Scribe B are the authors and that Scribe B is the more poignant of the two. ^[6]

The 11th century date is due to scholars who argue that, rather than transcription of the tale from the oral tradition by a literate monk, Beowulf reflects an original interpretation of the story by the poet. ^[1][9] Beowulf is not thought to be a Christian hero, however. Since the epic of Beowulf is penned to be taking place four centuries before the actual epic was written and Scandinavia was not Christianized until at least the 12th century, the native Germanic paganism was the prevalent theological system at the time. The Christianization of Scandinavia refers to the process of conversion to Christianity of the Scandinavian people starting in the 8th century with Germanic paganism refers to the religious beliefs of the Germanic peoples preceding Christianization. It is more reasonably thought that the epic was Christianized by Christian monks, who later rewrote it to wider distribution.

Debate over oral tradition

The question of whether Beowulf was passed down through the oral tradition prior to its present manuscript form has been the subject of much debate, and involves more than the mere matter of how it was composed. Oral tradition, oral culture and oral lore is a way for a society to transmit history, literature, law and other Knowledges A manuscript is any Document that is Written by hand as opposed to being printed or reproduced in some other way Rather, given the implications of the theory of Oral-Formulaic Composition and Oral tradition, the question concerns how the poem is to be understood, and what sorts of interpretations are legitimate. See also Oral tradition The theory of Oral-Formulaic Composition is the mechanism proposed for how the Homeric epics could have been passed down through Oral tradition, oral culture and oral lore is a way for a society to transmit history, literature, law and other Knowledges

Scholarly discussion about Beowulf in the context of the oral tradition was extremely active throughout the 1960s and 1970s. The debate might be framed starkly as follows: on the one hand, we can hypothesize a poem put together from various tales concerning the hero (the Grendel episode, the Grendel's mother story, and the firedrake narrative). These fragments would be held for many years in tradition, and learned by apprenticeship from one generation of illiterate poets to the next. The poem is composed orally and extemporaneously, and the archive of tradition on which it draws is oral, pagan, Germanic, heroic, and tribal. On the other hand, one might posit a poem which is composed by a literate scribe, who acquired literacy by way of learning Latin (and absorbing Latinate culture and ways of thinking), probably a monk and therefore profoundly Christian in outlook. On this view, the pagan references would be a sort of decorative archaizing. The views are most neatly opposed in the paired articles , "The Christian Coloring of Beowulf" (F. A. Blackburn, PMLA 12 (1897), 210-17) and "The Pagan Coloring of Beowulf" (Larry D. Benson, in Old English Poetry: fifteen essays. R. P. Creed, ed. Providence (Rhode Island): Brown University Press, 1967: 193-213).

M. H. Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt assert in their introduction to Beowulf in the Norton Anthology of English Literature that, "The poet was reviving the heroic language, style, and pagan world of ancient Germanic oral poetry [. Meyer (Mike Howard Abrams (born July 23[[ 912]] is an American Literary critic, known for works on Romanticism Stephen Jay Greenblatt (born November 7, 1943) is a Literary critic, theorist and scholar The Norton Anthology of English Literature is an anthology of English literature published by the W . . ] it is now widely believed that Beowulf is the work of a single poet who was a Christian and that his poem reflects well-established Christian tradition. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth "^[10] However, many scholars, including D. K. Crowne, have proposed the idea that the poem was passed down from reciter to reciter under the theory of Oral-Formulaic Composition, which hypothesizes that epic poems were (at least to some extent) improvised by whomever was reciting them. See also Oral tradition The theory of Oral-Formulaic Composition is the mechanism proposed for how the Homeric epics could have been passed down through In his landmark work, The Singer of Tales, Albert Lord refers to the work of Francis P. Magoun and others, saying “the documentation is complete, thorough and accurate. The Singer of Tales is a book by Albert Lord that discusses the Oral tradition as a theory of literary composition and its applications to Homeric Albert Bates Lord (1912-1991 was a Professor of Slavic and Comparative Literature at Harvard University who after the untimely death of Milman Parry, carried on Francis Peabody Magoun Jr MC ( January 6, 1895 &ndash June 5, 1979) was one of the seminal figures in the study of Medieval This exhaustive analysis is in itself sufficient to prove that Beowulf was composed orally. ”^[11]

Examination of Beowulf and other Anglo-Saxon poetry for evidence of oral-formulaic composition has met with mixed response. While "themes" (inherited narrative subunits for representing familiar classes of event, such as the "arming the hero",^[12] or the particularly well-studied "hero on the beach" theme^[13]) do exist across Anglo-Saxon and other Germanic works, some scholars conclude that Anglo-Saxon poetry is a mix of oral-formulaic and literate patterns, arguing that the poems both were composed on a word-by-word basis and followed larger formulae and patterns. ^[14]

Larry Benson argued that the interpretation of Beowulf as an entirely formulaic work diminishes the ability of the reader to analyze the poem in a unified manner, and with due attention to the poet’s creativity. Instead, he proposed that other pieces of Germanic literature contain "kernels of tradition" from which Beowulf borrows and expands upon. ^[15][16] A few years later, Ann Watts published a book in which she argued against the imperfect application of traditional, Homeric, oral-formulaic theory to Anglo-Saxon poetry. She also argued that the two traditions are not comparable and should not be regarded as such. ^[17][16] Thomas Gardner agreed with Watts, in a paper published four years later which argued that the Beowulf text is of too varied a nature to be completely constructed from formulae and themes. ^[18][16]

John Miles Foley held, specifically with reference to the “Beowulf” debate,^[19] that while comparative work was both necessary and valid, it must be conducted with a view to the particularities of a given tradition; Foley argued with a view to developments of oral traditional theory^{[20] [21][22][23]} that do not assume, or depend upon, finally unverifiable assumptions about composition, and that discard the oral/literate dichotomy focused on composition in favor of a more fluid continuum of traditionality and textuality. John Miles Foley Is a scholar of comparative Oral tradition, Medieval and Old English Literature (particularly Beowulf) Ancient Greek Finally, in the view of Ursula Schaefer^[24], the question of whether the poem was “oral” or “literate” becomes something of a red herring. In this model, the poem is created, and is interpretable, within both noetic horizons. Schaefer’s concept of “vocality” offers neither a compromise nor a synthesis of the views which see the poem as on the one hand Germanic, pagan, and oral and on the other Latin-derived, Christian, and literate, but (in the words of Monika Otter[1]) “…a 'tertium quid', a modality that participates in both oral and literate culture yet also has a logic and aesthetic of its own. ”

Dialect

In the poem mix the West Saxon and Anglian dialects of Old English, though they are predominantly West Saxon, as are other Old English poems copied at the time. West Saxon redirects here For other meanings of Wessex or West Saxon see Wessex (disambiguation. Anglian is a cover term used to refer to two Dialects of Old English, namely the Northumbrian and Mercian dialects

There is a bewildering array of linguistic forms in the Beowulf manuscript. It is this fact that leads some scholars to believe that Beowulf has endured a long and complicated transmission through all the main dialect areas^[6]. The poem retains a complicated mix of the following dialectical forms: Mercian, Northumbrian, Early West Saxon, Kentish and Late West Saxon^[6]. Kiernan argues that it is virtually impossible that there could have been a process of transmission which could have sustained the complicated mix of forms from dialect to dialect, from generation to generation, and from scribe to scribe ^[6].

Kiernan’s argument against an early dating based on a mixture of forms is long and involved, but he concludes that the mixture of forms points to a comparatively straightforward history of the written text as: “an 11th-century MS; an 11-th century Mercian poet using an archaic poetic dialect; and 11th-century standard literary dialect that contained early and late, cross-dialectical forms, and admitted spelling variations; and (perhaps) two 11th century scribes following slightly different spelling practices. ”^[6] Beowulf can largely be seen to be the product of antiquarian interests and that it tells readers more about “an 11th century Anglo-Saxon’s notions about Denmark, and its pre-history, than it does about the age of Bede and a 7th or 8th century Anglo-Saxon’s notions about his ancestors’ homeland”^[6]. Bede (ˈbiːd (also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or (from Latin Beda (beda (c

Form and metre

Main article: Alliterative verse

An Old English poem such as Beowulf is very different from modern poetry. In prosody, alliterative verse is a form of verse that uses Alliteration as the principal structuring device to unify lines of poetry as opposed to Anglo-Saxon poets typically used alliterative verse, a form of verse that uses alliteration as the principal structuring device to unify lines of poetry, as opposed to other devices such as rhyme. In prosody, alliterative verse is a form of verse that uses Alliteration as the principal structuring device to unify lines of poetry as opposed to Alliteration is the repetition of the first Consonant sound in a phrase This article is about the poetic technique For the form of ice see Rime ice. This is a technique in which the first half of the line (the a-verse) is linked to the second half (the b-verse) through similarity in initial sound. In addition, the two halves are divided by a caesura:

The poet has a choice of epithets or formulae to use in order to fulfill the alliteration. In meter, caesura (alternative spellings are cæsura or cesura) is a term to denote an audible pause that breaks up a line of verse An epithet (from Greek ἐπίθετον - epitheton, neut of ἐπίθετος - epithetos, "attributed added" is a When speaking or reading Old English poetry, it is important to remember for alliterative purposes that many of the letters are not pronounced the same way as they are in modern English. The letter "h", for example, is always pronounced (Hroðgar: HROTH-gar), and the digraph "cg" is pronounced like "dj", as in the word "edge". Both f and s vary in pronunciation depending on their phonetic environment. Between vowels or voiced consonants, they are voiced, sounding like modern v and z, respectively. Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Otherwise they are unvoiced, like modern f in "fat" and s in "sat". Some letters which are no longer found in modern English, such as thorn, þ, and eth, ð — representing both pronunciations of modern English "th", as in "cloth" and "clothe" — are used extensively both in the original manuscript and in modern English editions. The voicing of these characters echoes that of f and s. Both are voiced (as in "clothe") between other voiced sounds: oðer, laþleas, suþern. Otherwise they are unvoiced (as in "cloth"): þunor, suð, soþfæst.

Kennings are also a significant technique in Beowulf. A kenning ( Old Norse kenning, Modern Icelandic pronunciation) is a Circumlocution used instead of an ordinary Noun in Old Norse They are evocative poetic descriptions of everyday things, often created to fill the alliterative requirements of the metre. For example, a poet might call the sea the "swan-road" or the "whale-road"; a king might be called a "ring-giver. " There are many kennings in Beowulf, and the device is typical of much of classic poetry in Old English, which is heavily formulaic. The poem also makes extensive use of elided metaphors. Elision is the omission of one or more sounds (such as a Vowel, a Consonant, or a whole Syllable) in a word or phrase producing a result that is easier Metaphor (from the Greek: μεταφορά - metaphora, meaning "transfer" is language that directly compares seemingly unrelated subjects

J.R.R. Tolkien argued that the poem is an elegy. The term " elegy " was originally used for a type of poetic meter ( Elegiac metre but is also used for a Poem of mourning from the Greek ^[1]

Story

Further information: Beowulf (hero) and List of characters and objects in Beowulf

The main protagonist, whose name is Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, comes to the aid of Hroðgar, the king of the Danes, whose great hall, Heorot is plagued by the monster Grendel. Beowulf (ˈBeɪoʊwʊlf/ /ˈBeɪəwʊlf Old English ˈbeːo̯wʊlf is a legendary Geatish hero and later king in the Old English epic poem named after him Beowulf is an Old English heroic Epic poem. Its creation dates to between the 8th and the 11th centuries the only surviving manuscript dating The Protagonist or main character is the central figure of a story. Beowulf (ˈBeɪoʊwʊlf/ /ˈBeɪəwʊlf Old English ˈbeːo̯wʊlf is a legendary Geatish hero and later king in the Old English epic poem named after him Geats, Geatas, Gautar, Goths, Gotar, Gøtar, Götar were a North Germanic tribe inhabiting Götaland Hroðgar, Hrothgar, Hróarr, Hroar, Roar, Roas or Ro was a Legendary Danish king, living in the early 6th century ‎ Heorot (pronounced /hay oh roht/ heɪ əʊ rəʊt is a Mead hall described in the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf as "the foremost of Grendel is one of three Antagonists along with Grendel's mother and the Dragon, in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf Beowulf kills both Grendel and Grendel's mother, the latter with the help of a magical sword, Hrunting. Grendel's mother ( Old English: Grendles modor) is one of three Antagonists (along with Grendel and the Dragon) in the work of Hrunting was a magical sword given to Beowulf by Unferth in the ancient Old English epic of the same name.

Later in his life, Beowulf is himself king of the Geats, and finds his realm terrorized by a dragon whose treasure had been stolen from his hoard in a burial mound. The dragon is a Legendary creature of which some interpretation or depiction appears in almost every culture worldwide He attacked the dragon with his thegns, but they did not succeed. A thegn or thane was an attendant servant retainer or official in Early Medieval Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon culture. Beowulf decided to follow the dragon into its lair, at Earnanæs, but only his young Swedish relative Wiglaf dared join him. Earnanæs ( Old English) Aranæs ( Old Swedish) and Årnäs ( Modern Swedish) is the name of at least two locations in what is today Wiglaf is a character in the Anglo-Saxon Epic poem Beowulf. He is the son of Weohstan, a Swede of the Wægmunding Beowulf finally slays the dragon, but is mortally wounded. He is buried in a barrow by the sea. A tumulus (plural tumuli) is a Mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves

As an epic

Beowulf is considered an epic poem in that the main character is a hero who travels great distances to prove his strength at impossible odds against supernatural demons and beasts. The poet who composed Beowulf, while objective in telling the tale, nonetheless utilizes a certain style to maintain excitement and adventure within the story. An elaborate history of characters and their lineages are spoken of, as well as their interactions with each other, debts owed and repayed, and deeds of valour.

Historical background

Ohthere's mound

The events described in the poem take place in the late 5th century and during the century after the Anglo-Saxons had begun migration and settlement in England, and before it had ended, a time when the Saxons were either newly arrived or in close contact with their fellow Germanic kinsmen in Scandinavia and Northern Germany. This is about the Swedish king Ohthere For the Norwegian voyager by the same name see Ohthere of Hålogaland Ohthere, Ohtere (the The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in Anno Domini / Common Era. For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well Northern Germany is the geographic area in the north of Germany. The poem could have been transmitted in England by people of Geatish origins. Geats, Geatas, Gautar, Goths, Gotar, Gøtar, Götar were a North Germanic tribe inhabiting Götaland ^[25] It has been suggested that Beowulf was first composed in the 7th century at Rendlesham in East Anglia,^[26] as Sutton Hoo also shows close connections with Scandinavia, and also that the East Anglian royal dynasty, the Wuffings, were descendants of the Geatish Wulfings. The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Rendlesham, near Woodbridge Suffolk was a royal centre of authority for the king of the East Saxons, of the Wuffinga line the proximity of the Sutton East Anglia is often used as a shorthand for the Kingdom of the East Angles. Sutton Hoo near Woodbridge, Suffolk, England, is the site of two Anglo-Saxon cemeteries The Wuffings were the ruling dynasty of East Anglia. They took their name from the early East Anglian king Wuffa. Geats, Geatas, Gautar, Goths, Gotar, Gøtar, Götar were a North Germanic tribe inhabiting Götaland Wulfings, Wylfings or Ylfings (the name means the "wolf clan" was a powerful clan in Beowulf, Widsith ^[27] Others have associated this poem with the court of King Alfred, or with the court of King Canute. Alfred the Great (also Ælfred from the Old English Ælfrēd ˈælfreːd (c } Canute the Great, also known as Cnut in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, or Knut ( Old Norse: Knútr inn ríki, Norwegian ^[3]

An approximation of the central regions of the tribes mentioned in Beowulf. The red area is Västergötland (the core region of Geatland), the yellow area is the territory ruled by the Wulfings, the pink area is the Danish territory. is one of the 25 traditional non-administrative Provinces of Sweden ( landskap in Swedish situated in the southwest of Sweden. Götaland ( Gothia, Gothland, Gothenland, Gotland, Gautland, Geatland is one of three lands of Sweden Wulfings, Wylfings or Ylfings (the name means the "wolf clan" was a powerful clan in Beowulf, Widsith The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe The green area is the land of the Swedes. The blue area represents the land of Jutes, while the orange area belongs to Frisians. The Jutes, Iuti, or Iutae were a Germanic people who according to Bede were one of the three most powerful Germanic peoples of the time The Frisians are an ethnic group of Germanic people living in coastal parts of The Netherlands and Germany. For a more detailed discussion on the fragmented political situation of Scandinavia during the 6th century, see Scandza. Scandza was the name given to Scandinavia by Jordanes, in his work Getica.

The poem deals with legends, i. A legend ( Latin, legenda, "things to be read" is a Narrative of human actions that are perceived both by teller and listeners to e. , it was composed for entertainment and does not separate between fictional elements and real historic events, such as the raid by King Hygelac into Frisia, ca. Hygelac, Proto-Norse * Hugilaikaz, Old Norse Hugleikr (d ca 516) was a King of the Geats, but was born in Denmark Frisia ( West Frisian: Fryslân; North Frisian: Fraschlönj, Freesklöön, Freeskluin, Fresklun, and 516. Scholars generally agree that many of the personalities of Beowulf also appear in Scandinavian sources,^[28] but this does not only concern people (e. g. , Healfdene, Hroðgar, Halga, Hroðulf, Eadgils and Ohthere), but also clans (e. Halfdan ( Old Norse) or Healfdene ( Beowulf) or Haldan (Danish Latin sources (late 5th century, early 6th century Hroðgar, Hrothgar, Hróarr, Hroar, Roar, Roas or Ro was a Legendary Danish king, living in the early 6th century Halga, Helgi, Helghe or Helgo was a Legendary Danish king living in the early 6th century. Hrólfr Kraki, Hroðulf, Rolfo, Roluo, Rolf Krage (early 6th century) was a Legendary Danish king who appears both in Eadgils, Adils, Aðils, Adillus, Aðísl at Uppsölum, Athisl, Athislus, Adhel was a Semi-legendary king This is about the Swedish king Ohthere For the Norwegian voyager by the same name see Ohthere of Hålogaland Ohthere, Ohtere (the The Scandinavian clan or ætt (ˈɛtt in Old Norse) was a social group based on common descent or on the formal acceptance into the group at a þing g. , Scyldings, Scylfings and Wulfings) and some of the events (e. Old English Scylding (plural Scyldingas) and Old Norse Skjöldung (plural Skjöldungar) meaning in both languages Shielding Ynglings were the oldest known Scandinavian dynasty It can refer to the following clans: The Scylfings ( Old Norse: Skilfingar) the Wulfings, Wylfings or Ylfings (the name means the "wolf clan" was a powerful clan in Beowulf, Widsith g. , the Battle on the Ice of Lake Vänern). The Battle on the Ice of Lake Vänern was a 6th century battle recorded in the Norse sagas and referred to in the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf. The Scandinavian sources are notably Ynglinga saga, Gesta Danorum, Hrólfr Kraki's saga and the Latin summary of the lost Skjöldunga saga. The Ynglinga saga was originally written in Old Norse by the Icelandic poet Snorri Sturluson about 1225. Gesta Danorum ("Deeds of the Danes" is a work of Danish history by the 12th century author Saxo Grammaticus ("Saxo the Literate" Hrólfs saga kraka, the Saga of King Hrolf kraki, is a late Legendary saga on the adventures of Hrólfr Kraki and his clan, the Skjöldungs The Skjöldunga saga (c 1180 - 1200) was a Norse saga on the legendary Danish dynasty of the Skjöldungs The saga is lost As far as Sweden is concerned, the dating of the events in the poem has been confirmed by archaeological excavations of the barrows indicated by Snorri Sturluson and by Swedish tradition as the graves of Ohthere (dated to c. A tumulus (plural tumuli) is a Mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves Snorri Sturluson (1178 – September 23, 1241) was an Icelandic historian poet and politician This is about the Swedish king Ohthere For the Norwegian voyager by the same name see Ohthere of Hålogaland Ohthere, Ohtere (the 530) and his son Eadgils (dated to c. Eadgils, Adils, Aðils, Adillus, Aðísl at Uppsölum, Athisl, Athislus, Adhel was a Semi-legendary king 575) in Uppland, Sweden. Uppland ( is a historical province or landskap on the eastern coast of Sweden, just north of Stockholm, the capital "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. ^[29][30][31] In Denmark, recent archaeological excavations at Lejre, where Scandinavian tradition located the seat of the Scyldings, i. Lejre is a town and municipality ( Danish, kommune) on the island of Zealand in east Denmark. e. , Heorot, have revealed that a hall was built in the mid-6th century, exactly the time period of Beowulf. ‎ Heorot (pronounced /hay oh roht/ heɪ əʊ rəʊt is a Mead hall described in the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf as "the foremost of ^[32] Three halls, each about 50 metres long, were found during the excavation. ^[32]

The majority view appears to be that people such as King Hroðgar and the Scyldings in Beowulf are based on real people in 6th century Scandinavia. Hroðgar, Hrothgar, Hróarr, Hroar, Roar, Roas or Ro was a Legendary Danish king, living in the early 6th century Old English Scylding (plural Scyldingas) and Old Norse Skjöldung (plural Skjöldungar) meaning in both languages Shielding ^[33] Like the Finnsburg Fragment and several shorter surviving poems, Beowulf has consequently been used as a source of information about Scandinavian personalities such as Eadgils and Hygelac, and about continental Germanic personalities such as Offa, king of the continental Angles. The Finnesburg Fragment is a fragment of an Old English poem of the type called a leoð, or " lay. Eadgils, Adils, Aðils, Adillus, Aðísl at Uppsölum, Athisl, Athislus, Adhel was a Semi-legendary king Hygelac, Proto-Norse * Hugilaikaz, Old Norse Hugleikr (d ca 516) was a King of the Geats, but was born in Denmark Offa ( fl c 450 also Uffo or Uffe, was the (possibly mythical 4th-great-grandfather of Creoda of Mercia, and was reputed to be a great-grandson The Angles is a modern English word for a Germanic-speaking people who took their name from the cultural ancestral region of Angeln, a modern district located in

Eadgils was buried at Uppsala, according to Snorri Sturluson. Eadgils, Adils, Aðils, Adillus, Aðísl at Uppsölum, Athisl, Athislus, Adhel was a Semi-legendary king Gamla Uppsala ("Old Uppsala" is a parish and a village outside Uppsala in Sweden. Snorri Sturluson (1178 – September 23, 1241) was an Icelandic historian poet and politician When Eadgils' mound (to the left) was excavated, in 1874, the finds supported Beowulf and the sagas.

Nineteenth-century archeological evidence may confirm elements of the Beowulf story. Eadgils was buried at Uppsala, according to Snorri Sturluson. Eadgils, Adils, Aðils, Adillus, Aðísl at Uppsölum, Athisl, Athislus, Adhel was a Semi-legendary king Gamla Uppsala ("Old Uppsala" is a parish and a village outside Uppsala in Sweden. Snorri Sturluson (1178 – September 23, 1241) was an Icelandic historian poet and politician When Eadgils' mound (to the left in the photo) was excavated in 1874, the finds supported Beowulf and the sagas. They showed that a powerful man was buried in a large barrow, c 575, on a bear skin with two dogs and rich grave offerings. These remains include a Frankish sword adorned with gold and garnets and a tafl game with Roman pawns of ivory. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group He was dressed in a costly suit made of Frankish cloth with golden threads, and he wore a belt with a costly buckle. There were four cameos from the Middle East which were probably part of a casket. This would have been a burial fitting a king who was famous for his wealth in Old Norse sources. Ongenþeow's barrow (to the right in the photo) has not been excavated. Ongentheow, (Anglo-Saxon Ongenþeow, Ongenþio, Ongendþeow; Swedish Angantyr) (– ca 515 was the name of a semi-legendary Swedish ^[29][30]

Structured by battles

Jane Chance (Professor of English, Rice University) in her 1980 article "The Structural Unity of Beowulf: The Problem of Grendel's Mother" argued that there are two standard interpretations of the poem: one view which suggests a two-part structure (i. William Marsh Rice University (commonly called Rice University and opened in 1912 as The William Marsh Rice Institute for the Advancement of Letters Science and Art e. , the poem is divided between Beowulf's battles with Grendel and with the dragon) and the other, a three-part structure (this interpretation argues that Beowulf's battle with Grendel's mother is structurally separate from his battle with Grendel). Grendel is one of three Antagonists along with Grendel's mother and the Dragon, in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf Grendel's mother ( Old English: Grendles modor) is one of three Antagonists (along with Grendel and the Dragon) in the work of ^[34] Chance stated that, "this view of the structure as two-part has generally prevailed since its inception in J. R. R. Tolkien's Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics in Proceedings of the British Academy 22 (1936). " Beowulf The Monsters and the Critics " was a 1936 lecture given by J "^[34] In contrast, she argued that the three-part structure has become "increasingly popular. "^[34]

First battle: Grendel

Beowulf is challenged by a Danish coast guard, Evelyn Paul (1911).

Beowulf begins with the story of King Hroðgar, who built the great hall Heorot for his people. Hroðgar, Hrothgar, Hróarr, Hroar, Roar, Roas or Ro was a Legendary Danish king, living in the early 6th century ‎ Heorot (pronounced /hay oh roht/ heɪ əʊ rəʊt is a Mead hall described in the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf as "the foremost of In it he, his wife Wealhþeow, and his warriors spend their time singing and celebrating, until Grendel, an outcast from society who is angered by the singing, attacks the hall and kills and devours many of Hroðgar's warriors while they sleep. Wealhþēow (also rendered Wealhtheow or Wealthow) is a legendary queen of the Danes in the Old English poem Beowulf, first Grendel is one of three Antagonists along with Grendel's mother and the Dragon, in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf But Grendel dares not touch the throne of Hroðgar, because he is described as protected by a powerful god. Hroðgar and his people, helpless against Grendel's attacks, abandon Heorot.

Beowulf, a young warrior from Geatland, hears of Hroðgar's troubles and with his king's permission leaves his homeland to help Hroðgar. Beowulf (ˈBeɪoʊwʊlf/ /ˈBeɪəwʊlf Old English ˈbeːo̯wʊlf is a legendary Geatish hero and later king in the Old English epic poem named after him

Beowulf and his men spend the night in Heorot. After they fall asleep, Grendel enters the hall and attacks, devouring one of Beowulf's men. Grendel is one of three Antagonists along with Grendel's mother and the Dragon, in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf Beowulf, who bears no weapon as this would be an unfair advantage over the unarmed beast, has been feigning sleep, and leaps up and clenches Grendel's hand. The two battle until it seems as though the hall might collapse. Beowulf's retainers draw their swords and rush to his aid, but their blades do not pierce Grendel's skin because he is magically immune to human weapons. Finally, Beowulf tears Grendel's arm from his body at the shoulder and Grendel runs to his home in the marshes to die.

Second battle: Grendel's mother

The next night, after celebrating Grendel's death, Hroðgar and his men sleep in Heorot. Grendel's mother appears, however, and attacks the hall. Grendel's mother ( Old English: Grendles modor) is one of three Antagonists (along with Grendel and the Dragon) in the work of She kills Hroðgar's most trusted warrior, Æschere, in revenge for Grendel's death. In the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf, Æschere is Hrothgar '(pronounced hruthgar most trusted warrior who is killed by Grendel's mother

Hroðgar, Beowulf, and their men track Grendel's mother to her lair under an eerie lake. Beowulf prepares himself for battle; he is presented with a sword, Hrunting, by a warrior called Unferð. Hrunting was a magical sword given to Beowulf by Unferth in the ancient Old English epic of the same name. Unferth is a character in the epic poem Beowulf and in John Gardner 's novel Grendel (which is based upon Beowulf) After stipulating a number of conditions (upon his death) to Hroðgar (including the taking in of his kinsmen, and the inheritance by Unferð of Beowulf's estate), Beowulf dives into the lake. There, he is swiftly detected and attacked by Grendel's mother. Unable to harm Beowulf through his armor, Grendel's mother drags him to the bottom of the lake. There, in a cavern containing Grendel's body and the remains of many men that the two have killed, Grendel's mother and Beowulf engage in fierce combat.

Grendel's mother at first prevails, after Beowulf, finding that the sword (Hrunting) given to him by Unferð cannot harm his foe, discards it in fury. Hrunting was a magical sword given to Beowulf by Unferth in the ancient Old English epic of the same name. Again, Beowulf is saved from the effects of his opponent's attack by his armor and, grasping a mighty sword from Grendel's mother's armory (which, the poem tells us, no other man could have hefted in battle), Beowulf beheads her. Travelling further into the lair, Beowulf discovers Grendel's corpse; he severs the head. Beowulf then returns to the surface and to his men at the "ninth hour" (l. 1600, "nōn", about 3pm). ^[35] He returns to Heorot, where Hroðgar gives Beowulf many gifts, including the sword Nægling, his family's heirloom. Nægling is the name of one of the swords used by Beowulf in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem of Beowulf.

Third battle: The dragon

A 1908 depiction of Beowulf fighting the unnamed dragon by J. R. Skelton.

Beowulf returns home and eventually becomes king of his own people. One day, late in Beowulf's life, a slave steals a golden cup from the lair of an unnamed dragon (sometimes referred to as Sua) at Earnaness. The dragon is a Legendary creature of which some interpretation or depiction appears in almost every culture worldwide Earnanæs ( Old English) Aranæs ( Old Swedish) and Årnäs ( Modern Swedish) is the name of at least two locations in what is today When the dragon sees that the cup has been stolen, it leaves its cave in a rage, burning up everything in sight. Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the dragon, but only one of the warriors, a brave young man named Wiglaf, stays to help Beowulf, because the rest are too afraid. Wiglaf is a character in the Anglo-Saxon Epic poem Beowulf. He is the son of Weohstan, a Swede of the Wægmunding Beowulf kills the dragon with Wiglaf's help, but Beowulf dies from the wounds he has received.

After he is cremated, Beowulf is buried in Geatland on a cliff overlooking the sea, where sailors are able to see his barrow. Cremation is the act of reducing a Corpse by burning, generally in a crematorium furnace or crematory fire A tumulus (plural tumuli) is a Mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves The dragon's treasure is buried with him, rather than distributed to his people, as was Beowulf's wish, because of the curse associated with the hoard, and also accordance with Germanic and Scandinavian burial practices.

Structured by funerals

It is widely accepted that there are three funerals in Beowulf. ^[36] These funerals help to outline changes in the poem’s story as well as the audiences’ views on earthly possessions, battle and glory. The funerals are also paired with the three battles described above. ^[36] The three funerals share similarities regarding the offerings for the dead and the change in theme through the description of each funeral. Gale Owen-Crocker (Professor of Anglo-Saxon, University of Manchester) in The Four Funerals in Beowulf (2000) argues that a passage in the poem, commonly known as “The Lay of the Last Survivor” (lines 2247-66), is an additional funeral. The University of Manchester is a " red brick " civic University located in Manchester, England. ^[36] The funerals are themselves involved in the ritual of hoarding: the deposition of sacrificial objects with both religious and socio-economic functions. ^[37] .

Scyld Scefing (lines 1- 52)

The first funeral in the poem is of Scyld Scefing (translated in some versions as "Shield Shiefson") the king of the Danes. Scyld Scefing is a fictional character in the Epic poem Beowulf. ^[38] The first fitt helps the poet illustrate the settings of the poem by introducing Hrothgar’s lineage. The funeral leads to the introduction of the hero, Beowulf and his confrontation with the first monster, Grendel. Beowulf (ˈBeɪoʊwʊlf/ /ˈBeɪəwʊlf Old English ˈbeːo̯wʊlf is a legendary Geatish hero and later king in the Old English epic poem named after him Grendel is one of three Antagonists along with Grendel's mother and the Dragon, in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf This passage begins by describing Scyld’s glory as a “scourge of many tribes, a wrecker of mead-benches. Scyld Scefing is a fictional character in the Epic poem Beowulf. ” ^[38] Scyld’s glory and importance is shown by the prestigious death he obtains through his service as the king of the Danes. Scyld Scefing is a fictional character in the Epic poem Beowulf. ^[36] His importance is proven once more by the grand funeral given to him by his people: his funeral at sea with many weapons and treasures shows he was a great soldier and an even greater leader to his people. ^[36] The poet introduces the concepts of a heroic society through Scyld. Scyld Scefing is a fictional character in the Epic poem Beowulf. The possessions buried with the king are elaborately described to emphasize the importance of such items. ^[36] The importance of these earthly possessions are then used to establish this dead king’s greatness in respect to the treasure. ^[36] Scyld’s funeral helps the poet to elaborate on the glory of battle in a heroic society and how earthly possessions help define a person‘s importance. Scyld Scefing is a fictional character in the Epic poem Beowulf. This funeral also helps the poet to develop the plot to lead into the confrontation between the protagonist, Beowulf, and the main antagonist, Grendel. Grendel is one of three Antagonists along with Grendel's mother and the Dragon, in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf

Hildeburg’s kin (lines 1107-24)

The second funeral in the poem is that of Hildeburg’s kin and is the second fitt of this poem. Hildeburh, introduced in l 1071 of the poem Beowulf, is the daughter of the Danish King Hoc and the wife of the Finn, King of the Frisians ^[38] The funeral is sung in Heorot to celebrate Beowulf's victory over Grendel. ‎ Heorot (pronounced /hay oh roht/ heɪ əʊ rəʊt is a Mead hall described in the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf as "the foremost of Beowulf (ˈBeɪoʊwʊlf/ /ˈBeɪəwʊlf Old English ˈbeːo̯wʊlf is a legendary Geatish hero and later king in the Old English epic poem named after him Grendel is one of three Antagonists along with Grendel's mother and the Dragon, in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf It also signifies the beginning of the protagonist’s battle against Grendel's mother. Grendel's mother ( Old English: Grendles modor) is one of three Antagonists (along with Grendel and the Dragon) in the work of The death of Hildeburg’s brother, son(s), and husband are the results of battle. Hildeburh, introduced in l 1071 of the poem Beowulf, is the daughter of the Danish King Hoc and the wife of the Finn, King of the Frisians The battle also leads to Scyld’s death and mirrors the use of funeral offerings for the dead with extravagant possessions. Scyld Scefing is a fictional character in the Epic poem Beowulf. ^[38] As with the Dane’s king, Hildeburg’s relatives are buried with their armor and gold to signify their importance. Hildeburh, introduced in l 1071 of the poem Beowulf, is the daughter of the Danish King Hoc and the wife of the Finn, King of the Frisians ^[36] However, the relatives’ funeral differs from the first as it was a cremation ceremony. Furthermore, the poet focuses on the strong emotions of those who died while in battle. ^[38] The gory details of “heads melt[ing], gashes [springing] open…and the blood [springing] out from the body’s wounds” ^[38] describes war as a horrifying event instead of one of glory. ^[36] Although the poet maintains the theme of possessions as important even in death, the glory of battle is challenged by the vicious nature of war. The second funeral displays different concepts from the first and a change of direction in the plot that leads to Beowulf's fight against Grendel's Mother. Beowulf (ˈBeɪoʊwʊlf/ /ˈBeɪəwʊlf Old English ˈbeːo̯wʊlf is a legendary Geatish hero and later king in the Old English epic poem named after him Grendel's mother ( Old English: Grendles modor) is one of three Antagonists (along with Grendel and the Dragon) in the work of

Lay of the Last Survivor (lines 2247-66)

"The Lay of the Last Survivor" is arguably an addition to the other three funerals in Beowulf because of the striking similarities that define the importance of the other burials. ^[36] The parallels that identify this passage with the other three funerals are the similar burial customs, changes in setting and plot, and changes of theme. The lament appears to be a funeral because of the Last Survivor’s description of burial offerings that are also found in the funerals of Scyld Scefing, Hildeburg’s kin, and Beowulf. Scyld Scefing is a fictional character in the Epic poem Beowulf. Hildeburh, introduced in l 1071 of the poem Beowulf, is the daughter of the Danish King Hoc and the wife of the Finn, King of the Frisians ^[36] The Last Survivor describes the many treasures left for the dead such as the weapons, armour and gold cups ^[38] that have strong parallels to Scyld’s “well furbished ship…,bladed weapons and coats of mail,”^[38] Hildeburg’s Kin’s “blood-plastered coats of mail [and] boar-shaped helmets”^[38] and Beowulf's treasure from the dragon. Scyld Scefing is a fictional character in the Epic poem Beowulf. ^[38]

An additional argument towards viewing this passage as a funeral lies in the statement, “tumbling hawk [and] swift horse”^[38] mentioned in the poem. This is an animal offering which was a burial custom during the era of the poem. ^[36] Moreover this passage, like the other funerals, signifies changes in setting and plot. ^[36] One can also argue that it is the 3rd part to the poem since it describes the settings during the time lapse for the final battle between Beowulf and the Dragon. The dragon is a Legendary creature of which some interpretation or depiction appears in almost every culture worldwide The poet also describes death in battle as horrifying, a concept continued from the second part of the poem, through the Last Survivor’s eyes. ^[36]

Beowulf’s funeral (lines 3137-82)

The fourth and final funeral of the poem is Beowulf's funeral. Beowulf (ˈBeɪoʊwʊlf/ /ˈBeɪəwʊlf Old English ˈbeːo̯wʊlf is a legendary Geatish hero and later king in the Old English epic poem named after him After the final battle against the dragon, Beowulf receives fatal wounds and dies. The greatness of Beowulf's life is demonstrated through this funeral, particularly through the many offerings of his people. ^[36] In addition, the immense hoard of the dragon is buried with the hero. The dragon is a Legendary creature of which some interpretation or depiction appears in almost every culture worldwide The poet also bestows on Beowulf more significance than the others through his description of the cremation. ^[36] “Weohstan’s son(pause) commanded it be announced to many men(pause) that they should fetch from afar wood for the pyre. ” ^[38] for their leader’s funeral. The dragon’s remains are thrown into the sea, a parallel to Scyld’s burial in his ship. The dragon is a Legendary creature of which some interpretation or depiction appears in almost every culture worldwide Scyld Scefing is a fictional character in the Epic poem Beowulf. Beowulf's funeral is the fourth fitt of the poem and acts as an epilogue for the hero who is the, “most gracious and fair-minded, kindest to his people and keenest to win fame. ” ^[38]

Interpretation and criticism

In historical terms, the poem's characters would have been Germanic pagans, (the historical events of the poem took place before the Christianization of Scandinavia). Germanic paganism refers to the religious beliefs of the Germanic peoples preceding Christianization. The Christianization of Scandinavia refers to the process of conversion to Christianity of the Scandinavian people starting in the 8th century with Beowulf thus depicts a Germanic warrior society, in which the relationship between the lord of the region and those who served under him was of paramount importance. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic M. H. Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt note that:

Although Hrothgar and Beowulf are portrayed as morally upright and enlightened Pagans, they fully espouse and frequently affirm the values of Germanic heroic poetry. Meyer (Mike Howard Abrams (born July 23[[ 912]] is an American Literary critic, known for works on Romanticism Stephen Jay Greenblatt (born November 7, 1943) is a Literary critic, theorist and scholar In the poetry depicting warrior society, the most important of human relationships was that which existed between the warrior - the thane - and his lord, a relationship based less on subordination of one man's will to another's than on mutual trust and respect. A thegn or thane was an attendant servant retainer or official in Early Medieval Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon culture. When a warrior vowed loyalty to his lord, he became not so much his servant as his voluntary companion, one who would take pride in defending him and fighting in his wars. In return, the lord was expected to take care of his thanes and to reward them richly for their valor. ^[39]

This society was strongly defined in terms of kinship; if someone was killed, it was the duty of surviving kin to exact revenge either with their own lives or through weregild, a payment of reparation. Kinship is a relationship between any entities that share a genealogical origin through either biological cultural or historical descent Weregeld (alternative spellings wergild, wergeld, weregeld, etc ^[39]

Stanley B. Greenfield (Professor of English, University of Oregon) has suggested that references to the human body throughout Beowulf emphasize the relative position of thanes to their lord. The University of Oregon (UO is a public, Coeducational Research university in Eugene Oregon, United States. He argues that the term “shoulder-companion” could refer to both a physical arm as well as a thane (Aeschere) who was very valuable to his lord (Hrothgar). Hroðgar, Hrothgar, Hróarr, Hroar, Roar, Roas or Ro was a Legendary Danish king, living in the early 6th century With Aeschere's death, Hrothgar turns to Beowulf as his new "arm. " ^[40] In addition Greenfield argues, the foot is used for the opposite effect, only appearing four times in the poem. It is used in conjunction with Unferth (a man described by Beowulf as weak, traitorous, and cowardly). Unferth is a character in the epic poem Beowulf and in John Gardner 's novel Grendel (which is based upon Beowulf) Greenfield notes that Unferth is described as “at the king’s feet” (line 499). Unferth is also a member of the foot troops, who, throughout the story, do nothing and “generally serve as backdrops for more heroic action. ” ^[41]

At the same time, Richard North (Professor of English, University College London) argues that the Beowulf poet interpreted "Danish myths in Christian form" (as the poem would have served as a form of entertainment for a Christian audience), and states: "As yet we are no closer to finding out why the first audience of Beowulf liked to hear stories about people routinely classified as damned. Norse mythology comprises the indigenous pre-Christian religion, beliefs and Legends of the Scandinavian peoples including those who settled on Iceland A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth This question is pressing, given [. . . ] that Anglo-Saxons saw the Danes as 'heathens' rather than as foreigners. For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world "^[42] Grendel's mother and Grendel are described as descendants of Cain, a fact which some scholars link to The Cain Tradition. Grendel's mother ( Old English: Grendles modor) is one of three Antagonists (along with Grendel and the Dragon) in the work of Grendel is one of three Antagonists along with Grendel's mother and the Dragon, in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf The Cain Tradition refers to the tale of Cain and Abel as seen in the Septuagint and the Vulgate. ^[43]

Allen Cabaniss argues that there are several similarities between Beowulf and the Bible. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin First he argues, for similarities between Beowulf and Jesus: both are brave and selfless in overcoming the evils that oppose them, and both are kings that die to save their people. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) ^[44] Secondly, he argues for a similarity between part of The Book of Revelation (“shall have their part in the lake which burneth with fire and brimstone: which is the second death. The Book of Revelation, also called Revelation to John, Apocalypse of John ( pronounced, from the Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάννου " Revelation 21:8) and the home of Grendel and Grendel's mother. ^[45] Third, he compares the words of Jesus in the Gospel of Luke (when he pardons those who call for his crucifixion) to the portion of the poem when (before plunging into the perilous lake) Beowulf forgives his enemy, Unferth. The Gospel of Luke (Gk Κατά Λουκάν Ευαγγέλιον) is a synoptic Gospel, and is the third and longest of the four canonical Gospels of the ^[45]

Scholars disagree, however, as to the meaning and nature of the poem: a Christian work but set in a Germanic pagan context? The questions suggests that the conversion from the Germanic pagan beliefs to Christian ones was a very slow and gradual process over several centuries, and it remains unclear the ultimate nature of the poems message in respects to religious belief at the time it was written. Robert F. Yeager (Professor of literature, University of North Carolina at Asheville) notes the facts that form the basis for these questions:

That the scribes of Cotton Vitellius A. The University of North Carolina Asheville is a co-educational four year public Liberal arts university XV were Christian is beyond doubt; and it is equally certain that Beowulf was composed in a Christianized England, since conversion took place in the sixth and seventh centuries. Yet the only Biblical references in Beowulf are to the Old Testament, and Christ is never mentioned. The poem is set in pagan times, and none of the characters is demonstrably Christian. In fact, when we are told what anyone in the poem believes, we learn that they are pagans. Beowulf’s own beliefs are not expressed explicitly. He offers eloquent prayers to a higher power, addressing himself to the “Father Almighty” or the “Wielder of All. ” Were those the prayers of a pagan who used phrases the Christians subsequently appropriated? Or, did the poem’s author intend to see Beowulf as a Christian Ur-hero, symbolically refulgent with Christian virtues?^[46]

Translations and glossaries

In 1805 Sharon Turner translated selected verses into English. Sharon Turner ( September 24, 1768 - February 13, 1847) was a Historian. ^[47] This was followed in 1814 by John Josias Conybeare who published an edition "in English paraphrase and Latin verse translation. John Josias Conybeare (1779 &ndash 1824 elder brother of William Daniel Conybeare, was also educated at Christ Church Oxford. " ^[47] In 1815, Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin published the first complete edition in Latin. Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin (1752-1829 was an Icelandic scholar who became the National Archivist of Denmark and Professor of Antiquities at Copenhagen University. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. ^[47] Nikolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig reviewed this edition in 1815 and created the first complete verse translation in Danish in 1820. Nikolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig ( September 8 1783 – September 2 1872) (ˈneg̊olaɪ̯ˀ ˈfʁaðˀʁæg̊ ˈsɛʋəʁin ˈg̊ʁɔnd̥ʋi Danish ( d̥ænsɡ̊ is one of the North Germanic languages (also called Scandinavian languages a sub-group of the Germanic branch of the ^[47] In 1837, J. M. Kemble created an important literal translation in English. John Mitchell Kemble ( 1807 - March 26, 1857) English scholar and Historian, was the eldest son of Charles Kemble the actor ^[47] In 1895, William Morris & A. William Morris (24 March 1834 – 3 October 1896 was an English Architect, Furniture and Textile designer artist writer and socialist associated J. Wyatt's published the ninth English translation. ^[47]

During the early 20th century, Frederick Klaeber's Beowulf and The Fight at Finnsburg (which included the poem in Old English, an extensive glossary of Old English terms, and general background information) became the "central source used by graduate students for the study of the poem and by scholars and teachers as the basis of their translations. Frederick Klaeber ( 01 October 1863 - 04 October 1954) was a professor of Old and Middle English at the University of Minnesota. "^[48] In 1999, Nobel Laureate Seamus Heaney's edition of Beowulf was published by Faber & Faber and includes "Northern Irish diction and turns of phrase. The Nobel Prize in Literature (Nobelpriset i litteratur is awarded annually since 1901 to an author from any country who has in the words from the will of Alfred Faber and Faber, often abbreviated to Faber, is an independent publishing house in the UK, notable in particular for publishing " In 2000, W.W. Norton added it to the Norton Anthology of English Literature. W W Norton & Company is an American book publishing company that has remained independent since its founding The Norton Anthology of English Literature is an anthology of English literature published by the W ^[47]

The barrow of Skalunda, a barrow that was identified by the archaeologist Birger Nerman as Beowulf's burial mound. Skalunda is a village in Västergötland, Sweden. Skalunda was one of the eight royal estates of early medieval Västergötland (cf Birger Nerman ( October 6, 1888 – 1971) was a Swedish Archaeologist and writer ^[49]

Artistic depictions of Beowulf

Main article: List of artistic depictions of Beowulf

Beowulf has been adapted a number of times for other novels, theater, and cinema, including the 2005 film Beowulf and Grendel and the 2007 animated film Beowulf directed by Robert Zemeckis. Beowulf is an Old English Heroic epic poem of anonymous authorship Beowulf & Grendel is a 2005 film loosely based on the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf. Beowulf is a 2007 Performance capture Action film based on the Old English epic poem of the same name. Robert Lee "Bob" Zemeckis (born May 14, 1952) is an Academy Award - and Golden Globe -winning American Film director,

Bibliography

Dictionaries

Text

Hypertext editions:

Modern English translations:

Old English and modern English:

Old English with glossaries:

Audio

Scholarship

References

External links

• Comparison of various English translations
• Resources for the Study of Beowulf - University of Nevada
• Beowulf resources
• Beowulf manuscript in The British Library's Online Gallery
• Beowulf Full text and audio.
• Full summary of Beowulf
• Simple Plot Summary of Beowulf - At Literapedia