| Benito Mussolini | |
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| In office October 31, 1922 – July 25, 1943 |
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| Monarch | Victor Emmanuel III |
| Preceded by | Luigi Facta |
| Succeeded by | Pietro Badoglio (Provisional Military Government) |
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| In office September 23, 1943 – April 26, 1945 |
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| Born | July 29, 1883 Predappio, Italy |
| Died | April 28, 1945 (aged 61) Giulino di Mezzegra, Italy |
| Nationality | Italian |
| Political party | National Fascist Party |
| Spouse | Rachele Mussolini |
| Profession | Politician, Journalist |
| Religion | Converted to Roman Catholicism in 1927, irreligious in earlier life. In Italy, the Prime Minister of Italy (officially the President of the Council of Ministers, Italian Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri) is the country's Events 445 BC – Ezra reads the Book of the Law to the Israelites in Jerusalem (see Nehemiah 91 NLTse Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler Year 1943 ( MCMXLIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Victor Emmanuel III (Vittorio Emanuele III 11 November, 1869 – 28 December, 1947) was a member of the House of Savoy and Luigi Facta ( November 16, 1861 &ndash November 5, 1930) was an Italian politician journalist and last Prime Minister of Italy before Pietro Badoglio 1st Duke of Addis Abeba ( 28 September 1871 &ndash 1 November 1956) was an Italian soldier and politician The Italian Social Republic ( Italian: Repubblica Sociale Italiana or RSI) was a Puppet state of Nazi Germany led by the "Duce of the Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English Year 1943 ( MCMXLIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy. Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar Events 1014 - Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars: Battle of Kleidion: Byzantine emperor Basil II inflicts a decisive defeat Year 1883 ( MDCCCLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Predappio is a Town and Comune in the province of Forlì-Cesena, in the region of Emilia-Romagna in Italy, with a population The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar Giulino (better known as Giulino di Mezzegra) is a Frazione of the Comune of Mezzegra, in the province of Como The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom The National Fascist Party ( Partito Nazionale Fascista; PNF was an Italian party created by Benito Mussolini as the political expression of Donna Rachele Mussolini ( 11 April 1890 – 30 October 1979) was the second wife of Benito Mussolini. A politician (from Greek " Polis " is an individual who is involved in influencing public decision making through the influence of Politics or a person A journalist (also called a newspaperman) is a person who practices Journalism, the gathering and dissemination of information about current events trends Irreligion is a lack of religion indifference to religion or hostility to religion |
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (July 29, 1883 – April 28, 1945) was an Italian who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism. Events 1014 - Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars: Battle of Kleidion: Byzantine emperor Basil II inflicts a decisive defeat Year 1883 ( MDCCCLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest The National Fascist Party ( Partito Nazionale Fascista; PNF was an Italian party created by Benito Mussolini as the political expression of Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology He became the Prime Minister of Italy in 1922 and began using the title Il Duce by 1925. In Italy, the Prime Minister of Italy (officially the President of the Council of Ministers, Italian Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri) is the country's Duce is an Italian word meaning Leader or the second derived from Latin word dux of the same meaning of which Duke is a derivation Mussolini continued on in this role until he was replaced in 1943; for a short period after this until his death Mussolini was the leader of the Italian Social Republic. The Italian Social Republic ( Italian: Repubblica Sociale Italiana or RSI) was a Puppet state of Nazi Germany led by the "Duce of the
Mussolini was among the founders of Italian fascism, which included elements of nationalism, corporativism, national syndicalism, expansionism, social progress and anti-communism in combination with censorship of subversives and state propaganda. The term Italian Fascism denotes the totalitarian Fascismo political movement that ruled Italy from 1922 until 1943 under leader Benito Mussolini The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Historically corporatism (corporativismo refers to a political or Economic system in which power is held by civic assemblies that represent Economic National syndicalism is a variant of Syndicalism typically associated with the Labor movement in Italy which would later become a basis of Benito Mussolini In general expansionism consists of expansionist policies While some have linked the term to promoting Economic growth (in contrast to no growth / Sustainable policies Social progress is defined as the changing of society toward the ideal Anti-communism refers to opposition to Communism. Historically the word "communism" has been used to refer to several types of communal social organization and Censorship is the suppression of speech or deletion of communicative material which may be considered objectionable harmful or sensitive as determined by a censor Subversion refers to an attempt to overthrow structures of Authority, including the State. Propaganda is a concerted set of messages aimed at influencing the opinions or behaviors of large numbers of people In the years following his creation of the fascist ideology, Mussolini influenced, or achieved admiration from, a wide variety of political figures. [1]
Among the domestic achievements of Mussolini from the years 1924–1939 were: his public works programmes such as the taming of the Pontine Marshes, the improvement of job opportunities, and public transport. Public works are the construction or engineering projects carried out by the State on behalf of the Community. The Pontine Marshes ( Agro Pontino in Italian) is a former Marsh area in the Lazio Region of Central Italy southeast of Rome Mussolini also solved the Roman Question by concluding the Lateran Treaty between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See. The Roman Question was a political dispute between the Italian Government and the Papacy from 1861 to 1929 The Lateran Treaty is one of the Lateran Pacts of 1929 or Lateran Accords, three agreements made in 1929 between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, commonly known as the Pope, and is the preeminent Episcopal see of the Roman Catholic He is also credited with securing economic success in Italy's colonies and commercial dependencies. The Italian colonial empire was created after the Kingdom of Italy joined other European powers in establishing colonies overseas during the " Scramble for Africa [2]
Although he initially favoured siding with France against Germany in the early 1930s, Mussolini became one of the main figures of the Axis powers and, on 10 June 1940, Mussolini led Italy into World War II on the side of Axis. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The 1930s were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression. The Axis powers also known as the Axis alliance Axis nations Axis countries or sometimes just the Axis were those Countries Events 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Sally River while leading an army to Jerusalem Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Three years later, Mussolini was deposed at the Grand Council of Fascism, prompted by the Allied invasion. The Grand Council of Fascism (Gran Consiglio del Fascismo was the main body of Mussolini 's Fascist government in Italy. The process Allied invasion of Italy, was the Allied landing on mainland Italy in September 1943 by General Harold Alexander 's 15th Army Group Soon after his incarceration began, Mussolini was rescued from prison in the daring Gran Sasso raid by German special forces. The Gran Sasso raid refers to Operation Eiche ( German for 'Oak' the daring rescue of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini by German Paratroopers Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers In most countries special forces (SF is a generic term for highly-trained Military teams/units that conduct specialized operations such as Reconnaissance
Following his rescue, Mussolini headed the Italian Social Republic in parts of Italy that were not occupied by Allied forces. The Italian Social Republic ( Italian: Repubblica Sociale Italiana or RSI) was a Puppet state of Nazi Germany led by the "Duce of the In late April, 1945, with total defeat looming, Mussolini attempted to escape to Switzerland, only to be captured and summarily executed near Lake Como by Communist Italian partisans. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation A summary execution is a type of Extrajudicial punishment in which a person is killed on the spot without Trial. Execution by firing squad is a method of Capital punishment, particularly common in times of war Lake Como ( Lago di Como in Italian, also known as Lario; Lach de Comm in Insubric; Latin: Larius Lacus) is a Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based The Italian Resistance movement was a partisan force during World War II. His body was taken to Milan where it was hung upside down at a petrol station for public viewing and to provide confirmation of his demise. Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy.
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Early life
Mussolini was born in Dovia di Predappio, a humble rural town in the province of Forlì in Emilia-Romagna. Predappio is a Town and Comune in the province of Forlì-Cesena, in the region of Emilia-Romagna in Italy, with a population Rural areas can be large and isolated (also referred to as "the country" and/or "the countryside over the course of time Forlì ( Latin: Forum Livii) is a Comune and city in Emilia-Romagna, Italy famed as the birthplace of the great painter Melozzo da Forlì Emilia-Romagna is one of the 20 Regions of Italy. The capital is Bologna. The family Mussolini was born into was of a working class background; his father Alessandro Mussolini was a blacksmith and a socialist activist, while his mother Rosa Mussolini (née Maltoni) was a school teacher, unlike her husband she was a devout Catholic. Working class is a term used in academic Sociology and in ordinary conversation to describe depending on context and speaker those employed in specific fields or types blacksmith is a person who creates objects from Iron or Steel by Forging the Metal; i In Education, a teacher is one who helps Students or pupils often in a School, as well as in a Family, religious or [3] Owing to his father's political leanings Mussolini was named Benito after Mexican reformist President Benito Juárez; while his middle names Andrea and Amilcare were from Italian socialists Andrea Costa and Amilcare Cipriani. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Benito Pablo Juárez García (benit̪o paβ̞lo xwaɾes gaɾsia ( March 21, 1806 – July 18, 1872) was a Zapotec Amerindian Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Andrea Costa (1851-1910 was an Italian socialist activist born in Imola. Amilcare Cipriani ( October 18 1843 – March 2 1918) was an Italian anarchist patriot [4] Benito was the eldest of his parent's three children, his siblings Arnaldo and Edvige followed. [5]
In 1891, Mussolini was banned from his local church for throwing stones at the congregation after Mass. The Mass is the Eucharistic celebration in the Latin liturgical rites of the Roman Catholic Church. Mussolini had never been baptized, and would be only in 1927. In Christianity, baptism ( Greek, "immersing" "performing Ablutions " is the ritual act with the use of water by which one is admitted He was sent to boarding school later that year and at age 11 was expelled for stabbing a fellow student in the hand and throwing an inkpot at a teacher. A boarding school is a School where some or all pupils not only study but also live during term time with their fellow students and possibly teachers Expulsion at a School or University is defined as removing a student from the institution for violating rules or Honor codes. He did, however, receive good grades, and qualified as an elementary schoolmaster in 1901. [3][4] In 1902, Mussolini emigrated to Switzerland to find work and to expand his political horizons. "Emigrant" redirects here For the Butterflies, see Catopsilia. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation During a period when he was unable to find a permanent job there, he was arrested for vagrancy and jailed for one night. Later, after becoming involved in the socialist movement, he was deported to Italy and volunteered for military service. Deportation, not to be confused with Extradition, generally means the expulsion of someone from a place or Country.
Political journalist and soldier
Mussolini found a job in February 1908 in the city of Trento, which was ethnically Italian but then under the control of Austria-Hungary. Trento (traditional English Trent; Italian: Trento; German: Trient; Latin: Tridentum; Note that many He did office work for the local socialist party and edited its newspaper L'Avvenire del Lavoratore ("The Future of the Worker"). It did not take him long to make contact with irredentist politician and journalist Cesare Battisti, and to agree to write for and edit his newspaper Il Popolo ("The People") in addition to the work he did for the party. Irredentism is any position advocating Annexation of territories administered by another State on the grounds of common Ethnicity or prior historical possession Cesare Battisti was an a prominent Italian Irrendentist He was born on February 4 1875 in Trento, an Italian-speaking city which at the time was part of
In 1915, he had a son with Ida Dalser, a woman born in Sopramonte, a village near Trento. Benito Albino Mussolini redirects here Ida Irene Dalser (1880 – 11 December 1937) was the first wife of Italian fascist [6][3][4] By the time Mussolini's novel was printed in Il Popolo, Mussolini was already back in Italy. His growing defiance of Royal authority and anti-clericalism got him in trouble with the authorities until he was finally deported at the end of September. Anti-clericalism is a historical movement that opposes Religious (generally Catholic institutional power and influence real or alleged in all aspects of public and political He was prompted to return to Italy once again when his mother became ill. He became a journalist for the socialist newspaper, Avanti! (Forward!). Avanti! ("Forward!" is an Italian daily Newspaper, born as the official voice of the Italian Socialist Party, published since [3][4] After initially writing on numerous occasions against the war in the socialist paper Avanti, Mussolini relented and he and his class were called up in August of 1915 for active duty. [7]
Although his military record was unremarkable, it was without blemish and it has been suggested that he may have been prevented from moving further along in the ranks due to his ongoing political agitation in various periodicals. [7] Mussolini's military experience is told in his work Diario Di Guerra. Overall he totalled about 9 months of active, front-line trench warfare. During this time he contracted paratyphoid fever. [7] His military exploits ended in 1917 when he was wounded accidentally by the explosion of a mortar bomb in his trench. He was left with at least 40 shards of metal in his body[7] He was discharged from the hospital in August 1917 and resumed his editor-in-chief position at his new paper, Il Popolo d'Italia.
Creation of Fascism
By the time Mussolini returned from Allied service in the First World War, he had decided that socialism as a doctrine had largely been a failure, although he still called his paper socialist. Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology The Entente Powers (from Triple Entente) were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All In early 1918, Mussolini called for the emergence of a man "ruthless and energetic enough to make a clean sweep" to revive the Italian nation. [8] Much later in life Mussolini said he felt by 1919 "Socialism as a doctrine was already dead; it continued to exist only as a grudge". [9] On March 23, 1919, Mussolini reformed the Milan fascio as the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (Italian Combat Squad), consisting of 200 members. Events 1174 - Jocelin, Abbot of Melrose, is elected Bishop of Glasgow. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common [8]
An important factor in fascism gaining support in its earliest stages, was the fact that it opposed discrimination based on social class and was strongly opposed to all forms of class war. Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. Class conflict, also class war or class warfare, is both the friction that accompanies social relationships between members or groups of different [10] Fascism instead supported nationalist sentiments such as a strong unity, regardless of class, in the hopes of raising Italy up to the levels of its great Roman past. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC This side of fascism endeered itself to the aristocracy and the bourgeois as it assured to protect their existence, after the Russian Revolution they had greatly feared the prospect of a bloody class war coming to Italy by the hand of the communists and the socialists. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them Mussolini did not ignore the plight of the working class however and gained their support with stances such as those in The Manifesto of the Fascist Struggle, published in June 1919. Working class is a term used in academic Sociology and in ordinary conversation to describe depending on context and speaker those employed in specific fields or types The Manifesto of the Fascist Struggle ( Il manifesto dei fasci di combattimento) was the initial declaration of the political stance of the founders of Italian Fascism [10] In the manifesto he demanded amongst other things; creation of a minimum wage, to show the same confidence in the labor unions (which prove to be technically and morally worthy) as was given to industry executives or public servants, voting rights for women, as well as the systemisation of public transport such as railways. A minimum wage is the lowest hourly daily or monthly Wage that employers may legally pay to employees or workers A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming "Railroad" and "Railway" both redirect here For other uses see Railroad (disambiguation. [10]
Mussolini and the fascists managed to be simultaneously revolutionary and traditionalist,[11][12] because this was vastly different to anything else in the political climate of the time it is sometimes described as "The Third Way". A revolutionary when used as a noun is a person who either actively engages in some kind of Revolution, or advocates the revolution with recognition from some government or [13] The Fascisti, led by one of Mussolini's close confidants, Dino Grandi, formed armed squads of war veterans called Blackshirts (or squadristi) with the goal of restoring order to the streets of Italy with a strong hand. Dino Grandi ( June 4 1895 — May 21 1988) Conte ( Count) di Mordano was an Italian Fascist politician minister For other uses and meanings see Blackshirts (disambiguation. The Blackshirts ( Italian: camicie nere, The blackshirts clashed with communists, socialists and anarchists at parades and demonstrations, all of these factions were also involved in clashed against each other. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i The government rarely interfered with the blackshirts' actions, due in part to a looming threat and widespread fear of a communist revolution. The Fascisti grew so rapidly that within two years, it transformed itself into the National Fascist Party at a congress in Rome. The National Fascist Party ( Partito Nazionale Fascista; PNF was an Italian party created by Benito Mussolini as the political expression of Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Also in 1921, Mussolini was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the first time. The Italian Chamber of Deputies ( Camera dei Deputati) is the Lower house of the Parliament of Italy. [4]
March on Rome and early years in power
- Further information: March on Rome
The March on Rome was a coup d'état by which Mussolini's National Fascist Party came to power in Italy and ousted Prime Minister Luigi Facta. The March on Rome ( Marcia su Roma) was a Coup d'état by which Mussolini 's National Fascist Party ( Partito Nazionale Fascista The National Fascist Party ( Partito Nazionale Fascista; PNF was an Italian party created by Benito Mussolini as the political expression of Italy, united in 1861, has significantly contributed to the cultural and social development of the entire Mediterranean area This article is about the government position For other uses see Prime Minister (disambiguation. Luigi Facta ( November 16, 1861 &ndash November 5, 1930) was an Italian politician journalist and last Prime Minister of Italy before The "march" took place in 1922 between October 27 and October 29. Events 312 - Constantine the Great is said to have received his famous Vision of the Cross. Events 437 - Valentinian III, Western Roman Emperor, marries Licinia Eudoxia, daughter of his cousin Theodosius II On October 28, King Victor Emmanuel III refused his support to Facta and handed over power to Mussolini. Events 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor. 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine Victor Emmanuel III (Vittorio Emanuele III 11 November, 1869 – 28 December, 1947) was a member of the House of Savoy and Mussolini was supported by the military, the business class, and the liberal right-wing.
As Prime Minister, the first years of Mussolini's rule were characterized by a right-wing coalition government composed of Fascists, nationalists, liberals and even two Catholic ministers from the Popular Party. This article is about the government position For other uses see Prime Minister (disambiguation. The Italian People's Party ( Partito Popolare Italiano, PPI was a christian-democratic political party in Italy. The Fascists made up a small minority in his original governments. But, Mussolini's domestic goal was the eventual establishment of a totalitarian state with himself as supreme leader (Il Duce) a message that was articulated by the Fascist newspaper Il Popolo which was now edited by Mussolini's brother Arnaldo. Totalitarianism (or totalitarian rule) is a concept used to describe Political systems where a State regulates nearly every aspect of public and private Duce is an Italian word meaning Leader or the second derived from Latin word dux of the same meaning of which Duke is a derivation To that end, Mussolini obtained dictatorial powers for one year. He favored the complete restoration of state authority, with the integration of the Fasci di Combattimento into the armed forces (the foundation in January 1923 of the Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale) and the progressive identification of the party with the state. In political and social economy, he passed legislation that favored the wealthy industrial and agrarian classes (privatisations, liberalisations of rent laws and dismantlement of the unions). [4]
In 1923, Mussolini sent Italian forces to invade Corfu during the "Corfu Incident. Corfu (Κέρκυρα Kérkyra, ˈkʲe̞ɾkʲiɾa Κέρκυρα or Κόρκυρα Corcyra Corfù is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea The Corfu Incident was a diplomatic emergency in 1923 between Greece and Italy under the newly empowered dictator Benito Mussolini. " In the end, the League of Nations proved powerless and Greece was forced to comply with Italian demands. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία
Acerbo Law
In June 1923, the government passed the Acerbo Law, which transformed Italy into a single national constituency. The Acerbo Law was a Italian electoral law proposed by Baron Giacomo Acerbo and forced through the Italian Parliament in 1923 It also granted a two-thirds majority of the seats in Parliament to the party or group of parties which had obtained at least 25 percent of the votes. This law was punctually applied in the elections of April 6, 1924. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus Year 1924 ( MCMXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The "national alliance", consisting of Fascists, most of the old Liberals and others, won 64 percent of the vote largely by means of violence and voter intimidation. These tactics were especially prevalent in the south.
Squadristi Violence
The assassination of the socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti, who had requested the annulment of the elections because of the irregularities committed, provoked a momentary crisis of the Mussolini government. AssassiNation is the sixth album by Krisiun, released in 2006 on Century Media. Giacomo Matteotti ( 22 May 1885 – 10 June 1924) was an Italian socialist politician Annulment in the Catholic Church See also Annulment (Catholic Church In the Roman Catholic Church, a marriage is considered to be a valid contract The murderer, a squadrista named Amerigo Dumini, reported to Mussolini soon after the murder. Amerigo Dumini (August 27 1894&mdashDecember 25 1967 was an American-born Italian fascist activist who led the group responsible for the 1924 Assassination Mussolini ordered a cover-up, but witnesses saw the car used to transport Matteotti's body parked outside Matteotti's residence, which linked Dumini to the murder. The Matteotti crisis provoked cries for justice against the murder of an outspoken critic of Fascist violence. The government was shocked into paralysis for a few days, and Mussolini later confessed that a few resolute men could have alerted public opinion and started a coup that would have swept fascism away. Dumini was imprisoned for two years. On release he told others that Mussolini was responsible, for which he served further prison time. For the next 15 years, Dumini received an income from Mussolini, the Fascist Party, and other sources. This may have been hush money, for he left a dossier full of incriminating evidence to a Texas lawyer in case of his own death. Hush Money is a 1931 film featuring Joan Bennett, Hardie Albright, Owen Moore, Myrna Loy, and George Raft Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State.
The opposition parties responded weakly or were generally unresponsive. Many of the socialists, liberals and moderates boycotted Parliament in the Aventine Secession, hoping to force Victor Emmanuel to dismiss Mussolini. Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal In Politics and Religion, a moderate is an individual who holds an intermediate position between two viewpoints neither to be extreme or radical by those applying The Aventine Secession is the common reference to an Italian movement reuniting parties in opposition to Fascism and Benito Mussolini Despite the leadership of communists such as Antonio Gramsci, socialists such as Pietro Nenni and liberals such as Piero Gobetti and Giovanni Amendola, a mass antifascist movement never caught fire. Antonio Gramsci ('ɡramʃi ( January 23, 1891 &ndash April 27, 1937) was an Italian Philosopher, Writer, Pietro Sandro Nenni ( February 9, 1891 &mdash January 1, 1980) was an Italian socialist Politician, the Piero Gobetti ( June 19, 1901 – February 15, 1926) was an Italian journalist intellectual and radical liberal Giovanni Amendola ( April 15 1882 – April 7 1926) was an Italian journalist and politician noted as an opponent of Fascism Anti-fascism is the opposition to fascist ideologies organizations governments and people The king, fearful of violence from the Fascist squadristi, kept Mussolini in office. Because of the boycott of Parliament, Mussolini could pass any legislation unopposed. The political violence of the squadristi had worked, for there was no popular demonstration against the murder of Matteotti.
Within his own party, Mussolini faced doubts and dissension during these critical weeks. The militant members of the party were angry that only a few dozen had been killed and a bloodbath ensued, causing thousands of casualties.
On December 31, 1924, 31 MVSN consuls met with Mussolini and gave him an ultimatum--crush the opposition or they would do so without him. Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia. Fearing a revolt by his own militants, Mussolini decided to drop all trappings of democracy. [14] On January 3, 1925, Mussolini made a truculent speech before the Chamber in which he took responsibility for squadristi violence (though he did not mention the assassination of Matteotti). Events 1431 - Joan of Arc is handed over to the Bishop Pierre Cauchon. Year 1925 ( MCMXXV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. He also promised a crackdown on dissenters. Before his speech, MVSN detachments beat up the opposition and prevented opposition newspapers from publishing. Mussolini correctly predicted that as soon as public opinion saw him firmly in control the "fence-sitters", the silent majority and the "place-hunters" would all place themselves behind him. This is considered the onset of Mussolini's dictatorship. From late 1925 until the mid-1930s, fascism experienced little and isolated opposition, although that which it did was memorable.
While failing to outline a coherent program, Fascism evolved into a new political and economic system that combined totalitarianism, nationalism, anti-communism, anti-capitalism and anti-liberalism into a state designed to bind all classes together under a corporatist system (the "Third Way"). Totalitarianism (or totalitarian rule) is a concept used to describe Political systems where a State regulates nearly every aspect of public and private The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Anti-communism refers to opposition to Communism. Historically the word "communism" has been used to refer to several types of communal social organization and Anti-capitalism describes a wide variety of movements ideas and attitudes which oppose Capitalism. Historically corporatism (corporativismo refers to a political or Economic system in which power is held by civic assemblies that represent Economic This was a new system in which the state seized control of the organisation of vital industries. Under the banners of nationalism and state power, Fascism seemed to synthesise the glorious Roman past with a futuristic utopia. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Utopia is a name for an ideal community taken from the title of a book written in 1516 by Sir Thomas More describing a fictional Island in the
Building a dictatorship
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Assassination Attempts
Mussolini's influence in propaganda was such that he had surprisingly little opposition to suppress. Nonetheless, he was "slightly wounded in the nose" when he was shot on April 7, 1926 by Violet Gibson, an Irish woman and sister of Baron Ashbourne. Events 529 - First draft of Corpus Juris Civilis (a fundamental work in Jurisprudence) is issued by Eastern Roman Emperor Year 1926 ( MCMXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Violet Albina Gibson ( 1876 - May 2, 1956) the daughter of Edward Gibson 1st Baron Ashbourne, is best known for shooting Benito Mussolini The Irish people ( Irish: Muintir na hÉireann, na hÉireannaigh, na Gaeil) are a Western European Ethnic group who originate Baron Ashbourne, of Ashbourne in the County of Meath is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. [15] In January 1927, 15 year old Anteo Zamboni attempted to shoot Mussolini in Bologna. Zamboni was lynched on the spot. [16] Mussolini also survived a failed assassination attempt in Rome by anarchist Gino Lucetti,[17] and a planned attempt by American anarchist Michael Schirru, which ended with Schirru's capture and execution. Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i Gino Lucetti ( August 31 1900 - September 17 1943) was an Italian Anarchist and would-be assassin The United States of America —commonly referred to as the [18]
Police state
At various times after 1922, Mussolini personally took over the ministries of the interior, foreign affairs, colonies, corporations, defense, and public works. Sometimes he held as many as seven departments simultaneously, as well as the premiership. He was also head of the all-powerful Fascist Party and the armed local fascist militia, the MVSN or "Blackshirts," who terrorised incipient resistances in the cities and provinces. For other uses and meanings see Blackshirts (disambiguation. The Blackshirts ( Italian: camicie nere, He would later form the OVRA, an institutionalised secret police that carried official state support. The Organizzazione per la Vigilanza e la Repressione dell'Antifascismo ( OVRA; Italian for " Organisation for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism Secret police (sometimes political police) are a Police agency which operates in Secrecy to maintain National security against internal In this way he succeeded in keeping power in his own hands and preventing the emergence of any rival.
Over the next two years, Mussolini progressively dismantled virtually all constitutional and conventional restraints on his power, thereby building a police state. The term police state describes a State in which the government exercises rigid and repressive controls over the social economic and political A law passed on Christmas Eve 1925 changed Mussolini's formal title from "president of the Council of Ministers" to "head of the government. Christmas Eve, December 24, is the day before Christmas Day, the celebrated birthday of Jesus. " He was no longer responsible to Parliament and could only be removed by the king. While the Italian constitution stated that ministers were only responsible to the sovereign, in practice it had become all but impossible to govern against the express will of Parliament. The Statuto Albertino or Albertine Statute was the Constitution that King Charles Albert I of Sardinia conceded to the Kingdom of Sardinia The Christmas Eve law ended this practice, and also made Mussolini the only person competent to determine the body's agenda. Local autonomy was abolished, and podestas appointed by the Italian Senate replaced elected mayors and councils. For information on the phantom island of the same name see Podesta (island. The Italian Senate ( Italian: Senato della Repubblica, 'Senate of the Republic' is the Upper house of the Parliament of Italy.
All other parties were outlawed in 1928, though in practice Italy had been a one-party state since Mussolini's 1925 speech. In the same year, an electoral law abolished parliamentary elections. Instead, the Grand Council of Fascism selected a single list of candidates to be approved by plebiscite. The Grand Council of Fascism (Gran Consiglio del Fascismo was the main body of Mussolini 's Fascist government in Italy. The Grand Council had been created five years earlier as a party body but was "constitutionalised" and became the highest constitutional authority in the state. The Grand Council also had the power to recommend Mussolini's removal from office, and was thus theoretically the only check on his power. However, only Mussolini could summon the Grand Council and determine its agenda.
Economic policy
Mussolini launched several public construction programs and government initiatives throughout Italy to combat economic setbacks or unemployment levels. Unemployment occurs when a person is available to work and currently seeking work but the person is without work. His earliest, and one of the best known, was Italy's equivalent of the Green Revolution, known as the "Battle for Grain", in which 5,000 new farms were established and five new agricultural towns on land reclaimed by draining the Pontine Marshes. The Green Revolution refers to the transformation of Agriculture that began in 1945 at the request of the Mexican government to establish an agricultural research station to The Pontine Marshes ( Agro Pontino in Italian) is a former Marsh area in the Lazio Region of Central Italy southeast of Rome This plan diverted valuable resources to grain production, away from other less economically viable crops. The huge tariffs associated with the project promoted widespread inefficiencies, and the government subsidies given to farmers pushed the country further into debt. For other uses of this word see Tariff (disambiguation. A tariff is a tax imposed on goods when they are moved across a political boundary In Economics, a subsidy (also known as a subvention is a form of financial assistance paid to a business or economic sector Mussolini also initiated the "Battle for Land", a policy based on land reclamation outlined in 1928. Land reclamation is either of two distinct practices One involves creating new land from sea- or riverbeds the other refers to restoring an area to a more natural state (such as after The initiative had a mixed success; while projects such as the draining of the Pontine Marsh in 1935 for agriculture were good for propaganda purposes, provided work for the unemployed and allowed for great land owners to control subsidies, other areas in the Battle for Land were not very successful. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Unemployment occurs when a person is available to work and currently seeking work but the person is without work. This program was inconsistent with the Battle for Grain (small plots of land were inappropriately allocated for large-scale wheat production), and the Pontine Marsh was lost during World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Fewer than 10,000 peasants resettled on the redistributed land, and peasant poverty remained high. A peasant is an agricultural worker who subsists by working a small plot of ground The Battle for Land initiative was abandoned in 1940.
He also combated an economic recession by introducing the "Gold for the Fatherland" initiative, by encouraging the public to voluntarily donate gold jewellery such as necklaces and wedding rings to government officials in exchange for steel wristbands bearing the words "Gold for the Fatherland". A recession is a contraction phase of the Business cycle. The U Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Jewellery (also spelled jewelry, see spelling differences) is a personal Ornament, such as a necklace ring or bracelet made from Gemstones A necklace is an article of Jewellery which is worn around the Neck. A wedding ring or wedding band consists of a Metal ring, often set with diamonds or other precious stones Steel is an Alloy consisting mostly of Iron, with a Carbon content between 0 Wristbands are encircling strips worn on the Wrist, made of any of a variety of materials depending on the purpose Even Rachele Mussolini donated her own wedding ring. Donna Rachele Mussolini ( 11 April 1890 – 30 October 1979) was the second wife of Benito Mussolini. The collected gold was then melted down and turned into gold bars, which were then distributed to the national banks. The term national Bank has several meanings especially in Developing countries, a bank owned by the State an ordinary private
Mussolini pushed for government control of business: by 1935, Mussolini claimed that three quarters of Italian businesses were under state control. That same year, he issued several edicts to further control the economy, including forcing all banks, businesses, and private citizens to give up all their foreign-issued stocks and bonds to the Bank of Italy. In 1938, he also instituted wage and price controls. [19] He also attempted to turn Italy into a self-sufficient autarky, instituting high barriers on trade with most countries except Germany. An autarky is an economy that is self-sufficient and does not take part in International trade, or severely limits trade with the outside world Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.
Government by propaganda
As dictator of Italy, Mussolini's foremost priority was the subjugation of the minds of the Italian people and the use of propaganda to do so; whether at home or abroad, and here his training as a journalist was invaluable. Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology Propaganda is a concerted set of messages aimed at influencing the opinions or behaviors of large numbers of people Press, radio, education, films—all were carefully supervised to create the illusion that fascism was the doctrine of the twentieth century, replacing liberalism and democracy.
The principles of this doctrine were laid down in the article on fascism, written by Giovanni Gentile and signed by Mussolini that appeared in 1932 in the Enciclopedia Italiana. Giovanni Gentile (dʒoˈvɑnni dʒenˈtile May 30, 1875 April 15, 1944) was an Italian neo- Hegelian Idealist The Enciclopedia Italiana di scienze lettere ed arti ("Italian Encyclopaedia of Science Letters and Arts" best known as Enciclopedia Treccani or simply In 1929, a concordat with the Vatican was signed, the Lateran treaties, by which the Italian state was at last recognised by the Roman Catholic Church, and the independence of Vatican City was recognised by the Italian state. The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, commonly known as the Pope, and is the preeminent Episcopal see of the Roman Catholic The Lateran Treaty is one of the Lateran Pacts of 1929 or Lateran Accords, three agreements made in 1929 between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy Vatican City, officially the State of the Vatican City (Stato della Città del Vaticano is a Landlocked sovereign City-state whose territory In 1927, Mussolini was baptised by a Roman Catholic priest in order to take away certain Catholic opposition, who were still very critical of a regime which had taken away papal property and virtually blackmailed the Vatican. In Christianity, baptism ( Greek, "immersing" "performing Ablutions " is the ritual act with the use of water by which one is admitted A priest or priestess is a person having the authority or power to administer religious rites in particular rites of sacrifice to and propitiation of a deity or deities Blackmail is the crime of threatening to reveal substantially true information about a person to the public a family member or associates unless a demand made upon the However, Mussolini was never known to be a practicing Catholic, and was privately very hostile to the church. Since 1927, and more even after 1929, Mussolini, with his anti-Communist doctrines, convinced many Catholics to actively support him. In the encyclical Non abbiamo bisogno, Pope Pius XI attacked the Fascist regime for its policy against the Catholic Action and certain tendencies to overrule Catholic education morals. Pope Pius XI ( Latin: Pius PP XI; Italian: Pio XI; May 31 1857 &ndash February 10 1939) born Catholic Action was the name of many groups of lay Catholics who were attempting to encourage a Catholic influence on society
The law codes of the parliamentary system were rewritten under Mussolini. A parliamentary system, also known as parliamentarianism (and parliamentarism in American English) is a System of government in which All teachers in schools and universities had to swear an oath to defend the fascist regime. Newspaper editors were all personally chosen by Mussolini and no one who did not possess a certificate of approval from the fascist party could practice journalism. These certificates were issued in secret; Mussolini thus skillfully created the illusion of a "free press". The trade unions were also deprived of any independence and were integrated into what was called the "corporative" system. Corporate Statism is an approach to state organization the likes of which Othmar Spann, Benito Mussolini and others are credited with developing The aim (never completely achieved), inspired by medieval guilds, was to place all Italians in various professional organizations or "corporations", all of which were under clandestine governmental control.
Large sums of money were spent on highly visible public works, and on international prestige projects such as the SS Rex Blue Riband ocean liner and aeronautical achievements such as the world's fastest seaplane the Macchi M.C.72 and the transatlantic flying boat cruise of Italo Balbo, who was greeted with much fanfare in the United States when he landed in Chicago. History Following North German Lloyd 's successful capture of the Blue Riband with its and duo of ocean liners the Rex was intended to be Italy's effort to For use of the related term "Blue Ribbon" see Blue ribbon (disambiguation. A seaplane is a Fixed-wing aircraft capable of taking off and landing (alighting on water WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Italo Balbo ( 5 June 1896 - 28 June 1940) was an Italian Blackshirt ( Camicie Nere, or CCNN leader The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Chicago (ʃɪˈkɑːgoʊ is the largest City by population in the state of Illinois and the American Midwest of the United States.
Foreign policy
In foreign policy, Mussolini soon shifted from the pacifist anti-imperialism of his lead-up to power to an extreme form of aggressive nationalism. Foreign Policy is a bimonthly American Magazine founded in 1970 by Samuel P Imperialism has two meanings one describing an action and the other describing an attitude He dreamt of making Italy a nation that was "great, respected and feared" throughout Europe, and indeed the world. An early example was his bombardment of Corfu in 1923. Corfu (Κέρκυρα Kérkyra, ˈkʲe̞ɾkʲiɾa Κέρκυρα or Κόρκυρα Corcyra Corfù is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea Soon after he succeeded in setting up a puppet regime in Albania and in ruthlessly consolidating Italian power in Libya, which had been loosely a colony since 1912. A puppet state is a State that is nominally independent but in reality under the control of another power This article is about the country in southern Europe For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Albania topics. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab It was his dream to make the Mediterranean mare nostrum ("our sea" in Latin), and he established a large naval base on the Greek island of Leros to enforce a strategic hold on the eastern Mediterranean. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Leros ( Greek: Λέρος Italian: Lèro) is a Greek Island and municipality in the Dodecanese prefecture However, his first 'baby steps' into foreign policy seemed to portray him as a 'statesman', for he participated in the Locarno Treaties of 1925 and the attempted Four Power Pact of 1933 was Mussolini's brainchild. Locarno is the capital of the Locarno district, located on the northern tip of Lake Maggiore ( Lago Maggiore) in the Swiss canton of The Four-Power Pact also known as a Quadripartite Agreement (treaty between four states or four commercial parties was an international Treaty initialed on June Following the Stresa Front against Germany in 1935, however, Mussolini's policy took a dramatic turning point and revealed itself once again to be that of an aggressive nature. The Stresa Front was an agreement made in Stresa, a town on the banks of Lake Maggiore in Italy between French foreign minister Pierre Laval, British In Psychology and other social and Behavioral sciences aggression refers to behavior that is intended to cause harm This domino-effect of war began with the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. See also First Italo-Ethiopian War. The Second Italo–Abyssinian War (also referred to as the Second Italo-Ethiopian War) was a
Conquest of Ethiopia
In an effort to realise an Italian Empire or the New Roman Empire as supporters called it,[20] Italy set its sights on Ethiopia with an invasion that was carried out rapidly. See also First Italo-Ethiopian War. The Second Italo–Abyssinian War (also referred to as the Second Italo-Ethiopian War) was a The Italian colonial empire was created after the Kingdom of Italy joined other European powers in establishing colonies overseas during the " Scramble for Africa The Italian colonial empire was created after the Kingdom of Italy joined other European powers in establishing colonies overseas during the " Scramble for Africa The Ethiopian Empire, also known as Abyssinia, was in what is now Ethiopia and Eritrea. Italy's forces were far superior to the Abyssinian forces, especially in regards to air power and were soon declared victors. See also First Italo-Ethiopian War. The Second Italo–Abyssinian War (also referred to as the Second Italo-Ethiopian War) was a Emperor Haile Selassie was forced to flee the country, with Italy entering the capital Addis Ababa to proclaim an Empire by May 1936, making Ethiopia part of Italian East Africa. Haile Selassie I ( Ge'ez: am ኃይለ፡ ሥላሴ "Power of the Trinity " 23 July 1892 &ndash 27 August 1975 born Tafari Makonnen, was Addis Ababa (sometimes spelled Addis Abeba, the spelling used by the official Ethiopian Mapping Authority Amharic Italian East Africa ( Italian: Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI was a short-lived (1936-1941 Italian Colony in Africa consisting of [21]
Despite the fact that all of the major European powers of the time had also colonised parts of Africa, including some who maintained power by particularly brutal means such as the French[22] and British,[23] detractors of Mussolini commonly choose to single out Italy's actions. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Retroactively, Italy was criticised for its use of mustard gas and phosgene against its enemies and also for its zero tolerance approach to enemy guerrillas, allegedly authorised by Mussolini. The sulfur mustards, of which mustard gas ( Bis (2-chloroethyl sulfide is a member are a class of related Cytotoxic, Vesicant Chemical Phosgene is the Chemical compound with the formula COCl2 This colorless gas gained infamy as a Chemical weapon during World War I [21]
When Rodolfo Graziani the viceroy of Ethiopia was nearly assassinated at an official ceremony, with the guerrilla bomb actually exploding among the people there, a very stronghanded reaction followed against the guerrillas, including those who were prisoners according to the International Red Cross. Rodolfo Graziani Marchese di Neghelli ( August 11, 1882 &mdash January 11, 1955) was an officer in the Italian Royal A viceroy is a royal official who governs a country or province in the name of and as representative of the Monarch. The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is an International humanitarian movement with approximately 97 million volunteers worldwide who stated [21] The IRC also alleged that Italy bombed their tents in areas of guerrillas military encampment; though Italy denied it had intended to, insisting that the rebels were targeted. [21] It wasn't until the East African Campaign's conclusion in 1941 that Italy lost its East African territories, after taking on a fourteen nation allied force. The East African Campaign refers to the battles fought in East Africa during World War II.
Spanish Civil War
His active intervention in 1936–1939 on the side of Franco in the Spanish Civil War ended any possibility of reconciliation with France and Britain. The Spanish Civil War had large numbers of non-Spanish citizens participating in combat and advisory positions The Corps of Volunteer Troops ( Corpo Truppe Volontarie, or CTV was an Italian expeditionary force which was sent to Spain to support General Francisco Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco y Bahamonde (born December 4, 1892 in Ferrol, died November 20, 1975 in Madrid The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located As a result, his relationship with Adolf Hitler became closer, and he chose to accept the German annexation of Austria in 1938 and the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia in 1939. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately Annexation ( Latin ad, to and nexus, joining is the legal incorporation of some territory into another geo-political entity (either adjacent or non-contiguous Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. At the Munich Conference in September 1938, he posed as a moderate working for European peace, helping Nazi Germany seize control of the Sudetenland. The Munich Agreement (Mnichovská dohoda Mníchovská dohoda Münchner Abkommen Accords de Munich was an agreement regarding the Sudetenland, which were areas along borders Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Sudetenland ( Czech and Polish: Sudety) is the German name used in English in the first half of the 20th century for the western regions of His "axis" with Germany was confirmed when he made the "Pact of Steel" with Hitler in May 1939, as the previous "Rome-Berlin Axis" of 1936 had been unofficial. The Pact of Steel, known formally as the Pact of Friendship and Alliance between Germany and Italy, was an agreement between Fascist The Axis powers also known as the Axis alliance Axis nations Axis countries or sometimes just the Axis were those Countries Members of TIGR, a Slovene anti-fascist group, plotted to kill Mussolini in Kobarid in 1938, but their attempt was unsuccessful. TIGR, abbreviation for T rst ( Trieste) I stra ( Istria) G orica ( Gorizia) and R eka ( Rijeka) was Kobarid (Caporetto Karfreit is a town and a municipality in the upper Soča (Italian Isonzo) valley western Slovenia, near the Italian
Axis power
Rome-Berlin relations
The relationship between Mussolini and Adolf Hitler was a contentious one early on. The Axis powers also known as the Axis alliance Axis nations Axis countries or sometimes just the Axis were those Countries The Pact of Steel, known formally as the Pact of Friendship and Alliance between Germany and Italy, was an agreement between Fascist While Hitler cited Mussolini as an influence, Mussolini had gone as far as deriding Hitler as "a barbarian, a criminal and a pederast"[24] after the Nazis had assassinated his friend and ally, Engelbert Dollfuss the Austrofascist dictator of Austria in 1933. "Barbarian" is a pejorative term for an uncivilized person either in a general reference to a member of a nation or Ethnos perceived Pederasty or paederasty refers to an erotic relationship sexually expressed or not between an adolescent boy and an adult male outside his immediate family Austrofascism (Austrofaschismus is a term which is frequently used by historians to describe the authoritarian rule installed in Austria between 1934 and 1938 Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Both movements focused heavily on the state and conquest, though there was some conflicting views of ideology: while Hitler lauded racialism and anti-semitism, Mussolini and the Italian fascists did not. ConQuesT is an annual Science fiction convention held in the Kansas City Missouri, area by the Kansas City Science Fiction and Fantasy Society Racialism is an emphasis on race or racial considerations Racialism entails a belief in the existence and significance of racial categories but not necessarily in a Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility Mussolini viewed himself as a modern day Roman Emperor, a cultural elite and wished to "Italianise" the parts of the Italian Empire he had desired to build. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic Elite (also spelled Élite) is taken originally from the Latin, eligere, "to elect" Italianization is a term used to describe a process of Cultural assimilation in which ethnically non- or partially- Italian people or territory become Italian The Italian colonial empire was created after the Kingdom of Italy joined other European powers in establishing colonies overseas during the " Scramble for Africa [25] A cultural superiority, rather than a view of racialism. [25] The difference being that a culture can be learned, while a race cannot.
| “ | "Race! It is a feeling, not a reality: ninety-five percent, at least, is a feeling. The term race or racial group usually refers to the concept of categorizing Humans into Populations or groups on the basis of various sets Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today. [. . . ] National pride has no need of the delirium of race. Patriotism is commonly defined as love of and/or devotion to one's country " | ” |
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—Benito Mussolini, 1933. [26] |
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Incidentally, the British would question even the Germans claims of "racial purity" by commonly deriding the Nazis as "Huns",[27][28] a reference to the fact that Germany was once conquered and made part of the Hunnic Empire, a mongoloid people. The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy Hunnic Empire, the empire of the Huns.The Huns were a confederation of Eurasian tribes especially Turkic ones from the Steppes of The term " Mongoloid " is a variation of the word "Mongol" meaning "Mongol-like" [29][30] Regardless of some differences in ideology, Hitler's Nazi Germany had clearly established itself as a formidable power that was rising quickly in prominence by the mid-1930s and in November 1936, Mussolini had coined the term Axis Powers to refer to the Rome-Berlin relationship between the states. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The Axis powers also known as the Axis alliance Axis nations Axis countries or sometimes just the Axis were those Countries [31] Ideologically Italian fascism did not discriminate against the Italian Jewish community: Mussolini recognised that a small contingent had lived there "since the days of the Kings of Rome" and should "remain undisturbed". Italian Jews can be used in a broad sense to mean all Jews living in Italy or in a narrower sense to mean the ancient community who use the Italian rite as distinct from newer The King of Rome ( Latin: rex regis) was the Chief magistrate of the Roman Kingdom. [32] There was even some Jews in the National Fascist Party, such as Ettore Ovazza who in 1935 founded the Jewish Fascist paper La Nostra Bandiera[33] ("Our Flag"). The National Fascist Party ( Partito Nazionale Fascista; PNF was an Italian party created by Benito Mussolini as the political expression of However by 1938, the enormous influence Hitler now had over Mussolini became clear with the introduction of the Manifesto of Race. The Manifesto of Race ( Manifesto della razza) sometimes known as the Charter of Race was a set of Laws enacted in Fascist Italy during July 1938 The Manifesto, which was closely modeled on the Nazi Nuremberg laws[14], stripped Jews of their Italian citizenship and with it any position in the government or professions. The Nuremberg Laws ( German: Nürnberger Gesetze) of 1935 were denaturalization laws passed in Nazi Germany. Nationality law in Italy, like that of many European countries favors Jus sanguinis. The German influence on Italian policy upset the established balance in Fascist Italy and proved highly unpopular to most Italians, to the extent that Pope Pius XII sent a letter to Mussolini protesting against the new laws. Pope [34]
Munich Conference, war looming
The Allies still regarded Mussolini as approachable at this point and Il Duce acted as the go-between at the Munich Agreement. The Allies of World War II were the countries officially opposed to the Axis powers during the Second World War. The Munich Agreement (Mnichovská dohoda Mníchovská dohoda Münchner Abkommen Accords de Munich was an agreement regarding the Sudetenland, which were areas along borders This was an effort to avoid all-out warfare between the powers, which was signed by Neville Chamberlain of Britain, Édouard Daladier of France, as well as Mussolini and Hitler. Arthur Neville Chamberlain (18 March 1869 &ndash 9 November 1940 was a British Conservative Politician and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Édouard Daladier (18 June 1884 - 10 October 1970 was a French Radical politician and Prime Minister of France at the start of the Second World [35] However the Italia irredenta stance, desired the returning of lands which previous belonged to older states now incorporated inside of Italy, to complete the Italian unification. Italian Unification ( Italian: il Risorgimento, or "The Resurgence" was the political and social movement that unified different states of the Italian [36] This included Nice which was part of the Kingdom of Sardinia until 1860 as well as Savoy,[37] Corsica which was part of the Republic of Genoa until 1768,[38] Dalmatia which was part of the Republic of Venice until 1797 and Malta which was part of the Kingdom of Sicily until 1530. The County of Nice or Niçard Country ( French: Comté de Nice / Pays Niçois, Italian: Contea di Nizza / Paese Nizzardo, Niçard Kingdom of Sardinia, also known as Piedmont-Sardinia or Sardinia-Piedmont, was the name given to the possessions of the House of Savoy in 1720 when the For the early history of Savoy, before it was raised to a duchy see County of Savoy and March of Turin. Corsica (Corse Corsican and Italian: Corsica) is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily The Most Serene Republic of Genoa (Repubblica di Genova was an independent state in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast from the 11th century Dalmatia ( Croatian: Dalmacija, see names in other languages) is a region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, situated mostly in modern The Most Serene Republic of Venice ((Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia Serenissima Repubblica Malta, officially the Republic of Malta (Repubblika ta' Malta is a European Microstate, comprising an Archipelago of three islands The Kingdom of Sicily (Regnum Siciliae or Sicilie Regno di Sicilia, commonly abbreviated Regno) was a state that existed in the south of Italy [39]
Mussolini had imperial designs on Tunisia which had some support in that country. Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. [36] In April 1939 with world focus on Hitler's invasion of Czechoslovakia, looking to restore honour from a much older defeat Italy invaded Albania. Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Italian invasion of Albania ( April 7 &ndash April 12, 1939) was a brief military campaign by the Kingdom of Italy against the Albanian Italy defeated Albania within just five days forcing king Zog to flee, setting up a period of Albania under Italy. The Albanian Kingdom ( Gheg Albanian: Mbretnija Shqiptare, Standard Albanian Mbretëria Shqiptare) was the constitutional monarchal rule Zog I Skanderbeg III of the Albanians ref> (born Ahmet Zogolli, later changed to Ahmet Zogu) (October 8 1895 &ndash April 9 1961 was King Albania existed as a Protectorate of the Kingdom of Italy officially known as the Albanian Kingdom ( Gheg Albanian: Mbretnija Shqiptare Until May 1939, the Axis had not been entirely official, however during that month the Pact of Steel treaty was made outlining the "friendship and alliance" between Germany and Italy, signed by each of its foreign ministers. The Pact of Steel, known formally as the Pact of Friendship and Alliance between Germany and Italy, was an agreement between Fascist Friendship is a term used to denote co-operative and supportive behavior between two or more beings [40] Italy's king Victor Emanuel III was also wary of the pact, favouring the more traditional Italian allies of Britain and France. Victor Emmanuel III (Vittorio Emanuele III 11 November, 1869 – 28 December, 1947) was a member of the House of Savoy and The Entente Powers (from Triple Entente) were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. [41]
Hitler was intent on invading Poland, though Galeazzo Ciano warned this would likely lead to war with the Allies. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Gian Galeazzo Ciano Count of Cortellazzo and Buccari ( March 18, 1903 – January 11, 1944) was Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs Hitler dismissed Ciano's comment, predicting that instead the West would back down like with Czechoslovakia and suggested that Italy should invade Yugoslavia. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia (Serbo-Croato-Slovene ie Serbo-Croatian, Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, Slovene: Kraljevina Jugoslavija [42] The offer was tempting to Mussolini, but at that stage world war would be a disaster for Italy as the armaments situation from building the Italian Empire thus-far was lean. A weapon is a Tool used either in Hunting, or attack or defence in Combat for the purpose of subduing enemy personnel or to destroy enemy weapons The Italian colonial empire was created after the Kingdom of Italy joined other European powers in establishing colonies overseas during the " Scramble for Africa Most significantly, Victor Emmanuel had demanded neutrality in the dispute. [42] Thus when World War II in Europe began on September 1, 1939 with the German invasion of Poland eliciting the response of the United Kingdom and France declaring war on Germany, Italy remained non-belligerent in the conflict. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Events 462 - Possible start of first Byzantine indiction cycle. Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Invasion of Poland (1939 precipitated World War II. It was carried out by Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, and a small German-allied The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. A non-belligerent is a person who or a State or other organization that does not fight in a given conflict [42]
War declared
As World War II began, Ciano and Viscount Halifax were holding secret phone conversations. During the era of World War II (1939 - 1945 the Kingdom of Italy had a very varied and tumultuous Military history. Edward Frederick Lindley Wood 1st Earl of Halifax, KG, OM, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, PC ( 16 April 1881 &ndash The British wanted Italy on their side against Germany as it had been in World War I. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All [42] French government opinion was more geared towards action against Italy, they were itching to attack Italy in Libya. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Though in September 1939, France swung to the opposite extreme, offering to discuss issues with Italy, but as the French were unwilling to discuss Corsica, Nice and Savoy, Mussolini did not answer. [42]
| “ | "So long as the Duce lives, one can rest assured that Italy will seize every opportunity to achieve its imperialistic aims. " | ” |
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—Adolf Hitler, late November 1939. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately [42] |
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Convinced that the war would soon be over, with a German victory looking likely at that point, Mussolini decided to enter the war on the Axis side. Accordingly, Italy declared war on Britain and France on June 10, 1940. Events 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Sally River while leading an army to Jerusalem Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [43] Italy joined the Germans in the Battle of France, fighting the fortified Alpine Line at the border: just eleven days later France surrendered to the Axis powers, included in Italian controlled France was most of Nice and other south-eastern counties. In World War II, the Battle of France, also known as the Fall of France, was the German invasion of France and the Low Countries The Alpine Line ( French: Ligne Alpine) or Little Maginot Line (French Petite Ligne Maginot) was the component of the Maginot Line The Axis powers also known as the Axis alliance Axis nations Axis countries or sometimes just the Axis were those Countries Fascist Italy occupied a small section of south-east France during World War II, during the time of the Vichy Government under The County of Nice or Niçard Country ( French: Comté de Nice / Pays Niçois, Italian: Contea di Nizza / Paese Nizzardo, Niçard [43] Meanwhile in Africa, Mussolini's Italian East Africa forces attacked the British in their Sudan, Kenya and British Somaliland colonies, in what would become known as the East African Campaign. Italian East Africa ( Italian: Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI was a short-lived (1936-1941 Italian Colony in Africa consisting of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan referred to the manner by which Sudan was administered between 1899 and 1956, when it was a condominium of Egypt British East Africa was an area of East Africa controlled by the British in the late 19th century which became a Protectorate covering roughly the area of present-day British Somaliland was a British Protectorate in the north part of the Horn of Africa. The East African Campaign refers to the battles fought in East Africa during World War II. [44] British Somaliland was conquered and became part of Italian East Africa on August 3, 1940, there were Italian advances in Sudan and Kenya. Events 8 - Roman Empire General Tiberius defeats Dalmatians on the river Bathinus. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [45]
Just over a month later, the Italian Tenth Army commanded by General Rodolfo Graziani crossed from Italian Libya into Egypt where British forces were located; this would become the Western Desert Campaign. The Italian Tenth Army was based in the eastern side of Libya in Cyrenaica. Rodolfo Graziani Marchese di Neghelli ( August 11, 1882 &mdash January 11, 1955) was an officer in the Italian Royal Italian Libya was a unified colony of Italian North Africa ( Africa Settentrionale Italiana, or ASI established in 1934 in what represents present-day Libya Introduction See also History of Modern Egypt In 1882 Egypt became a de facto British colony The Western Desert Campaign, also known as the Desert War was the initial stage of the North African Campaign of The Second World War. Advances were successful, but the Italians stopped at Sidi Barrani waiting for logistic supplies to catch up. Sidi Barrani (سيدي برّاني is a Village in Egypt, near the Mediterranean Sea, about95 km Military Logistics is the art and science of planning and carrying out the movement and maintenance of military forces During October 25, 1940, Mussolini sent the Italian Air Corps to Belgium, where the airforce took part in the Battle of Britain for around two months. Events 1147 - The Portuguese, under Afonso I, and Crusaders from England and Flanders conquer Lisbon after a Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The " Italian Air Corps " ( Corpo Aereo Italiano, or CAI) was an Italian expeditionary force that participated in the Battle of Britain during the The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those The Battle of Britain (German ''Luftschlacht um England'' is the name given to the sustained strategic effort by the German Luftwaffe during the summer and [46] In October, Mussolini also sent Italian forces into Greece starting the Greco-Italian War, after initial success this backfired, as the Greek counterattack proved relentless, resulting in Italy losing one quarter of Albania. The Kingdom of Greece ( Greek:, Vasíleion tīs Elládos) was a state established in 1832 in the Convention of London by the Great The Greco-Italian War ( Ελληνοϊταλικός Πόλεμος Ellēnoїtalikós Pólemos or Πόλεμος Germany soon committed forces to the Balkans to fight the gathering Allies. The Allies of World War II were the countries officially opposed to the Axis powers during the Second World War. [47]
Events in Africa had changed by early 1941, Operation Compass had forced the Italians back into Libya, with some additional losses. Operation Compass was the first major Allied military operation of the Western Desert Campaign during World War II. [48] Also in the East African Campaign, a three pronged Allied invasion against Italian East Africa took place, though the Italians fought back hard, the mulitple-nation force they faced was too much and after the Battle of Keren defense started to crumble. The Battle of Keren ( Cheren) was fought as part of the East African Campaign during World War II.
With mounting losses for the Italian armed forces being spoken of in the public spotlight, in February 1941 Mussolini informed the Italian people that the armed forces were indeed facing serious difficulties in North Africa and that the Fascist regime was not diminishing this in any way:
| “ | "It was during October and November that Great Britain gathered and lined up against us the mass of her imperial forces, recruited from three continents and armed by a fourth. She concentrated in Egypt fifteen divisions and a considerable mass of armored means and hurled them against our lines in Marmarica where on the first line were Libyan divisions, brave and faithful but unsuited to bear the attack of enemy machines. On Dec. a battle was thus started, which was only five or ten days in advance of ours, and which brought the enemy to Bengazi. "
"We are not like the English. . . We haven't elevated lying into a government art nor into a narcotic for the people the way the London government has done. We call bread bread and wine wine, and when the enemy wins a battle it is useless and ridiculous to seek, as the English do in their incomparable hypocrisy, to deny or diminish it. " |
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—Mussolini, February 23, 1941. |
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Germany finally supported Italy with the Afrika Korps, with fighting continuing on long into 1941 when Gondar was lost in November. The German Afrikakorps ( German: Deutsches Afrikakorps DAK) was the original German blocking force (Sperrverband = Armored Blocking Force in Libya The Battle of Gondar was the last stand of the Italian forces in Italian East Africa during the Second World War. [49] Italy was part of the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia, which was greatly successful, the same month the Battle of Greece ended in Italian victory with Axis support. The Battle of Greece (also known as Operation Marita, Unternehmen Marita was a World War II battle that occurred on the Greek mainland and in southern Albania [50] With the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Mussolini declared war on the Soviet Union in June 1941 and sent an army to fight there. Operation Barbarossa ( Unternehmen Barbarossa) was the Codename for Nazi Germany 's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Italian participation in the Eastern Front of World War II began after the launch of Operation Barbarossa ( Unternehmen Barbarossa After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, he declared war on the United States. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The attack on Pearl Harbor (or Hawaii Operation, as it was called by the Imperial General Headquarters) was a surprise Military strike conducted by The United States of America —commonly referred to as the [47]
Dismissed and arrested
Italy's position had become untenable by the summer of 1943. The Allies had defeated the Axis in the Tunisia Campaign, and there were also major setbacks on the Eastern Front. The Tunisia Campaign (also known as the Battle of Tunisia was a series of World War II battles that took place in Tunisia in the North African Campaign The Eastern Front of World War II (die Ostfront 1941-1945, der Rußlandfeldzug 1941-1945 (Russian campaign or der Ostfeldzug 1941-1945 (Eastern Campaign Only two months after the Allied victory in Tunisia, the war came to the nation's very doorstep with the Allied invasion of Sicily. The Allied invasion of Sicily, codenamed Operation Husky, was a major World War II campaign in which the Allies took Sicily from the Axis [51] Earlier, Mussolini had begged Hitler to make a separate peace with Stalin and send German troops to the west to guard against an expected Allied invasion of Italy, believing it was the next step for Dwight Eisenhower's armies after the losses in North Africa. Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (October 14 1890 – March 28 1969 was President of the United States from 1953 until 1961 and a five-star general Within a few days of the Allied landings on Sicily, it was obvious Mussolini's army was on the brink of collapse. This led Hitler to summon Mussolini to a meeting in northern Italy on July 19. Events 711 - Muslim forces under Tariq ibn Ziyad defeat the Visigoths led by their king Roderic. By this time, Mussolini was so shaken that he could no longer stand Hitler's boasting. His mood darkened further when that same day, the Allies bombed Rome--the first time that city had ever been the target of enemy bombing. [52] The home front was also in bad shape as the Allied bombings were taking their toll. The factories were ground to a virtual standstill due to a lack of raw materials, coal and oil. A raw material is something that is acted upon or used by Organisms, or by human labour or Industry, for use as a Building material to create some product Additionally, there was a chronic shortage of food, and what food was available was being sold at nearly confiscatory prices. Some Italians began to lose trust in governmental reports and turned to Vatican Radio or Radio London for more accurate news coverage. Vatican Radio ( Radio Vaticana) is the official Broadcasting service of the Vatican. Discontent came to a head in March with a wave of strikes in the industrial north--the first large-scale strikes since 1925. [53] Also in March, some of the major factories in Milan and Turin stopped production to secure evacuation allowances for workers' families. Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. The physical German presence in Italy had sharply turned public opinion against Mussolini; for example, when the Allies took Sicily, the public welcomed them as liberators. [54]
Some prominent members of the Italian Fascist government had turned against Mussolini by this point. The term Italian Fascism denotes the totalitarian Fascismo political movement that ruled Italy from 1922 until 1943 under leader Benito Mussolini Among them were Grandi and Mussolini's son-in-law Ciano. With several of his colleagues close to revolt, il Duce was forced to summon the Grand Council of Fascism on July 24. The Grand Council of Fascism (Gran Consiglio del Fascismo was the main body of Mussolini 's Fascist government in Italy. Events 1132 - Battle of Nocera between Ranulf II of Alife and Roger II of Sicily. When he announced that the Germans were thinking of evacuating the south, Grandi launched a blistering attack on him. [51] Grandi moved a resolution asking the king to resume his full constitutional powers--a vote of no confidence in Mussolini. A motion of no confidence (also vote of no confidence, censure motion, no-confidence motion, or confidence motion) is a Parliamentary motion This motion carried by a 19-7 margin. Despite this sharp rebuke, Mussolini showed up for work the next day as usual. He allegedly viewed the Grand Council as merely an advisory body and didn't think the vote would have any substantive effect. [53] That afternoon, he was summoned to the royal palace by King Victor Emmanuel III, who had been planning to oust Mussolini earlier. Victor Emmanuel III (Vittorio Emanuele III 11 November, 1869 – 28 December, 1947) was a member of the House of Savoy and When Mussolini tried to tell the king about the meeting, Victor Emmanuel cut him off and told him that he was being replaced by Marshal Pietro Badoglio. Pietro Badoglio 1st Duke of Addis Abeba ( 28 September 1871 &ndash 1 November 1956) was an Italian soldier and politician [53] After Mussolini left the palace, he was arrested on the king's orders. [55] By this time, discontent with Mussolini was such that when the news of his ouster was announced on the radio, there was no resistance. [53] In an effort to conceal his location from the Germans, Mussolini was moved around before being sent to Campo Imperatore, a mountain resort in Abruzzo where he was completely isolated. Campo Imperatore is a mountain Grassland formed by a high basin shaped Plateau located in the Province of L'Aquila in the Abruzzo region of [51]
Due to the large Nazi presence in Italy, Badoglio announced that "the war continues at the side of our Germanic ally" in the hopes that chaos and Nazi retaliation against civilians could be avoided. [51] Even as Badolglio was keeping up the appearance of loyalty to the Axis, he dissolved the Fascist Party two days after taking over. Also, his government was negotiating an armistice with the Allies, which was signed on September 3, 1943. An armistice is a situation where the warring parties agree to stop fighting Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius Year 1943 ( MCMXLIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Its announcement five days later threw Italy into chaos, a civil war of sorts. A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state Badoglio and the king fled Rome, leaving the Italian Army without orders. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 The Italian Army (Esercito Italiano is the ground defense force of the Military of Italy. After a period of anarchy, Italy finally declared war on Nazi Germany on October 13 from Malta; thousands of troops were supplied to fight against the Germans, others refused to switch sides and had joined the Germans. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Malta, officially the Republic of Malta (Repubblika ta' Malta is a European Microstate, comprising an Archipelago of three islands The Badoglio government held a social truce with the leftist partisans for the sake of Italy and to rid the land of the Nazis. The Italian Resistance movement was a partisan force during World War II. [51]
Italian Social Republic
Meanwhile, only two months after Mussolini had been dismissed and arrested, he was rescued from prison in the Gran Sasso raid by German special forces on September 12, 1943; this was carried out by Otto Skorzeny. The Gran Sasso raid refers to Operation Eiche ( German for 'Oak' the daring rescue of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini by German Paratroopers Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers In most countries special forces (SF is a generic term for highly-trained Military teams/units that conduct specialized operations such as Reconnaissance Events 1213 - Albigensian Crusade: Simon de Montfort 5th Earl of Leicester, defeats Peter II of Aragon at the Year 1943 ( MCMXLIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Otto Skorzeny ( June 12 1908 – July 6 1975) was an Obersturmbannführer in the German Waffen-SS [55] The rescue saved Mussolini from being turned over to the Allies, as per the armistice. [51] Hitler had made plans to arrest the king, Crown Prince Umberto, Badoglio and the rest of the government and restore Mussolini to power in Rome, but the government's escape south likely foiled those plans. Umberto II, occasionally anglicized as Humbert II, (September 15 1904 - March 18 1983 the last King of Italy, nicknamed the King of May ( Re [52]
By this time, Mussolini was in very poor health and wanted to retire. However, he was immediately taken to Germany for an audience with Hitler in his East Prussia hideaway. East Prussia (Ostpreußen; Rytų Prūsija or Rytprūsiai; Prusy Wschodnie Восточная Пруссия or Vostochnaya Prussiya) refers to the main part There, Hitler told him that unless he agreed to return to Italy and set up a new fascist state, the Germans would destroy Milan, Genoa and Turin. Feeling that he had to do what he could to blunt the edges of Nazi repression, Mussolini agreed to set up a new regime, the Italian Social Republic. The Italian Social Republic ( Italian: Repubblica Sociale Italiana or RSI) was a Puppet state of Nazi Germany led by the "Duce of the [51] informally known as the Salò Republic because of its administration from the town of Salò. For other meanings of Salò or Salo see Salo (disambiguation.
Mussolini lived in Gargnano on Lake Garda in Lombardy during this period, but he was little more than a puppet ruler under the protection of his German liberators. Gargnano is a town and Comune in the Province of Brescia, in Lombardy. Lake Garda ( Italian Lago di Garda or Benaco) is the largest Lake in Italy. Lombardy (Lombardia Latin: Langobardia, Western Lombard: Lumbardìa, Eastern Lombard: Lombardia) is one of the A puppet state is a State that is nominally independent but in reality under the control of another power After yielding to pressures from Hitler and the remaining loyal fascists who formed the government of the Republic of Salo, Mussolini helped orchestrate a series of executions of some of the fascist leaders who had betrayed him at the last meeting of the Fascist Grand Council. One of those executed included his son-in-law, Galeazzo Ciano. Gian Galeazzo Ciano Count of Cortellazzo and Buccari ( March 18, 1903 – January 11, 1944) was Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs As Head of State and Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Italian Social Republic, Mussolini used much of his time to write his memoirs. Along with his autobiographical writings of 1928, these writings would be combined and published by Da Capo Press as My Rise and Fall. Da Capo Press, a Publishing company with offices in New York City, Cambridge Massachusetts, Philadelphia and Emeryville California
Death
.ogg/mid-Execution_of_Mussolini_(1945).ogg.jpg)
Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci were stopped by communist partisans and identified by the Political Commissar of the partisans' 52nd Garibaldi Brigade, Urbano Lazzaro, on April 27, 1945, near the village of Dongo (Lake Como), as they headed for Switzerland to board a plane to escape to Spain. Clara Petacci ( Claretta Petacci) ( 28 February 1912 &ndash 28 April 1945) was an upper class Roman who became Italian dictator Urbano Lazzaro ( 1924 - January 3, 2006) was an Italian Resistance fighter who is credited as capturing Benito Mussolini Events 1124 - David I becomes King of Scotland. 1296 - Battle of Dunbar: The Scots are defeated Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar Dongo is a Comune in the Province of Como in the Italian region Lombardy. Lake Como ( Lago di Como in Italian, also known as Lario; Lach de Comm in Insubric; Latin: Larius Lacus) is a Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Mussolini had been traveling with retreating German forces and was apprehended while attempting to escape recognition by wearing a German military uniform. After several unsuccessful attempts to take them to Como they were brought to Mezzegra. Como is a City in Lombardy, Italy, north of Milan. Situated at the southern tip of the south-west arm of Lake Como, it Mezzegra is a Comune (municipality in the Province of Como in the Italian region Lombardy. They spent their last night in the house of the De Maria family.
The next day, Mussolini and his mistress were both summarily executed, along with most of the members of their 15-man train, primarily ministers and officials of the Italian Social Republic. The shootings took place in the small village of Giulino di Mezzegra. Giulino (better known as Giulino di Mezzegra) is a Frazione of the Comune of Mezzegra, in the province of Como According to the official version of events, the shootings were conducted by "Colonel Valerio" (Colonnello Valerio). Valerio's real name was Walter Audisio. Walter Audisio ( Alessandria, June 28, 1909 – Rome, October 11, 1973) was a Italian Partisan and Audisio was the communist partisan commander who was reportedly given the order to kill Mussolini by the National Liberation Committee. When Audisio entered the room where Mussolini and the other fascists were being held, he reportedly announced: "I have come to rescue you!. . . Do you have any weapons?", He then had them loaded into transports, driven a short distance, Audisio ordered "get down", Petacci hugged Mussolini and refused to move away from him when they were taken to an empty space. Shots were fired and Petacci fell down, just then Mussolini opened his Jacket and screamed "Shoot me in the chest!". Audisio shot him in the chest, Mussolini fell down but he didn't die, he was breathing heavily, Audisio went near and he shot one more bullet in his chest. Mussolini's face looked as if it he had significant pain, Audisio said to his driver "Look at his face, the emotions on his face don't suit him". The other members were also lined up before a firing squad later the same night. [56]
Mussolini's body
On April 29, 1945, the bodies of Mussolini and his mistress were taken to the Piazzale Loreto (in Milan) and hung upside down on meathooks from the roof of a gas station, then stoned by civilians from below. Events 1429 - Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orleans. Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. This was done both to discourage any fascists from continuing the fight and as an act of revenge for the hanging of many partisans in the same place by Axis authorities. The corpse of the deposed leader became subject to ridicule and abuse.
After his death, and the display of his corpse in Milan, Mussolini was buried in an unmarked grave in Musocco, the municipal cemetery to the north of the city. On Easter Sunday 1946 his body was located and dug up by Domenico Leccisi and two other neo-Fascists. Easter ( Greek: Πάσχα Pascha or Pasxa) is the most important religious feast in the Christian Liturgical year. This page specifically pertains to fascism after World War II Making off with their hero, they left a message on the open grave: "Finally, O Duce, you are with us. We will cover you with roses, but the smell of your virtue will overpower the smell of those roses. "
On the loose for months—and a cause of great anxiety to the new Italian democracy—the Duce's body was finally 'recaptured' in August, hidden in a small trunk at the Certosa di Pavia, just outside Milan. The Certosa di Pavia or Charterhouse of Pavia (built c 1396 - 1465) is a famous Monastery complex in Lombardy, Italy Two Fransciscan brothers were subsequently charged with concealing the corpse, though it was discovered on further investigation that he had been constantly on the move. The term Franciscan is commonly used to refer to members of Catholic Unsure what to do, the authorities held the remains in a kind of political limbo for 10 years, before agreeing to allow them to be re-interred at Predappio in Romagna, his birth place, after a campaign headed by Leccisi and the Movimento Sociale Italiano. Predappio is a Town and Comune in the province of Forlì-Cesena, in the region of Emilia-Romagna in Italy, with a population Romagna is an Italian historical region that approximately corresponds to the south-eastern portion of present-day Emilia-Romagna.
Leccisi, now a fascist deputy, went on to write his autobiography, With Mussolini Before and After Piazzale Loreto. Adone Zoli, the Prime Minister of the day, contacted Donna Rachele, the former dictator's widow, to tell her he was returning the remains, as he needed the support of the far-right in parliament, including Leccisi himself. Adone Zoli ( December 16, 1887 &ndash February 20, 1960) was an Italian politician and member of the Christian Democratic Donna Rachele Mussolini ( 11 April 1890 – 30 October 1979) was the second wife of Benito Mussolini. In Predappio the dictator was buried in a crypt (the only posthumous honour granted to Mussolini). In terms of European architecture a crypt (from the Latin crypta and the Greek κρυπτη, kryptē) is a stone chamber or His tomb is flanked by marble fasces and a large idealised marble bust of himself sits above the tomb. Marble is a nonfoliated Metamorphic rock resulting from the Metamorphism of Limestone, composed mostly of Calcite (a crystalline form of Fasces (ˈfæsiːz a Plurale tantum, from the Latin word fascis, meaning "bundle" symbolize summary power and Jurisdiction A bust is a sculpted or cast representation of the upper part of the human figure depicting a person's head and Neck, as well as a variable portion of For the New York prison see The Tombs. A Tomb is a repository for the remains of the dead.
Legacy
Mussolini was survived by his wife, Donna Rachele Mussolini, two sons, Vittorio and Romano Mussolini, and his daughter Edda, the widow of Count Ciano and Anna Maria. Donna Rachele Mussolini ( 11 April 1890 – 30 October 1979) was the second wife of Benito Mussolini. Vittorio Mussolini ( September 21, 1916 - June 12, 1997) was an Italian film critic and producer the second son of Italian dictator Romano Mussolini ( September 26, 1927 - February 3, 2006) was the third and youngest son of Benito Mussolini, fascist dictator of Italy Edda Mussolini ( September 1, 1910 – April 9, 1995) was the eldest child of Benito Mussolini. A third son, Bruno, was killed in an air accident while flying a P108 bomber on a test mission, on August 7, 1941. Events 322 BC - Battle of Crannon between Athens and Macedon following the death of Alexander the Great. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [57] Sophia Loren's sister, Anna Maria Scicolone, was formerly married to Romano Mussolini, Mussolini's son. Sophia Loren (born September 20 1934 is an Academy Award winning Italian film actress born Sofia Villani Scicolone Mussolini's granddaughter Alessandra Mussolini is currently a member of the European Parliament for the extreme right-wing party Alternativa Sociale; other relatives of Edda (Castrianni) moved to England after World War II. Alessandra Mussolini (born December 30 1962 is an Italian Conservative Politician, previously an Actress and model. The European Parliament ( Europarl or EP) is the only directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union (EU In Politics, right-wing, the political right, and the Right are positions that uphold traditional values and/or authorities Alternativa Sociale ( Social Alternative) was a Coalition of neo-fascist political parties in Italy. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland
Mussolini's National Fascist Party was banned in the postwar Constitution of Italy, but a number of successor neo-fascist parties emerged to carry on its legacy. The National Fascist Party ( Partito Nazionale Fascista; PNF was an Italian party created by Benito Mussolini as the political expression of The Constitution of the Italian Republic (Costituzione della Repubblica Italiana was enacted by the Constituent Assembly on 22 December 1947 with 453 votes in favour and 62 Mussolini's granddaughter, Alessandra Mussolini, runs one of the primary neo-fascist parties in modern Italy, Azione Sociale. Alessandra Mussolini (born December 30 1962 is an Italian Conservative Politician, previously an Actress and model. Social Action ( Azione Sociale, AS previously known as Freedom of Action ( Libertà d'Azione, LdA is a national-conservative political Historically, the strongest neo-fascist party was MSI (Movimento Sociale Italiano), which was declared dissolved in 1995 and replaced by the National Alliance, which distanced itself from Fascism (its leader Gianfranco Fini once declared that Fascism was "an absolute evil"). The Italian Social Movement, later Italian Social Movement–National Right ( Movimento Sociale Italiano–Destra Nazionale, MSI-DN was a neo-fascist National Alliance ( Alleanza Nazionale, AN is a conservative Italian political party. Gianfranco Fini (born January 3 1952 is an Italian Politician, President of the Italian Chamber of Deputies and current leader of National Alliance These parties were united under Silvio Berlusconi's House of Freedoms coalition and the leader of the National Alliance, Gianfranco Fini, was one of Berlusconi's most trusted advisors. (born 29 September 1936 is an Italian politician, Entrepreneur, Real estate and Insurance Tycoon, Bank and Media proprietor Casa delle Libertà ( CDL; Italian for House of Freedoms) was a major Italian Center-right Political alliance led by Gianfranco Fini (born January 3 1952 is an Italian Politician, President of the Italian Chamber of Deputies and current leader of National Alliance In 2006, the House of Freedoms coalition was narrowly defeated by Romano Prodi's coalition, L'Unione. Casa delle Libertà ( CDL; Italian for House of Freedoms) was a major Italian Center-right Political alliance led by (born 9 August 1939 is an Italian politician and statesman He served as President of the Council of Ministers (prime minister of Italy twice from 17 May The Union ( Italian: L'Unione) was an Italian Centre-left Political party coalition led by Romano Prodi, the
In popular culture
Charlie Chaplin's 1940 film The Great Dictator satirizes Mussolini as "Benzino Napaloni", portrayed by Jack Oakie. The Great Dictator is a Comedy film directed by and starring Charlie Chaplin. Jack Oakie (November 12 1903 &ndash January 23 1978 was an American Actor, starring mostly in Films, but also working on stage, More serious biographical depictions include a look at at the last few days of Mussolini's life in Carlo Lizzani's movie Mussolini: Ultimo atto (Mussolini: The last act, 1974) and George C. Scott's portrayal in the 1985 television mini-series Mussolini: The Untold Story. Carlo Lizzani (born 1922 April 3) is an Italian Film director, Scriptwriter and critic George Campbell Scott (October 18 1927 - September 22 1999 was an American stage and film Actor, director, and producer. Actor Antonio Banderas also played the title role in Benito - The Rise and Fall of Mussolini in 1993, which covered his life from his school teacher days to the beginning of World War I, prior to his rise as dictator. José Antonio Domínguez Banderas (born August 10, 1960) better known as Antonio Banderas, is a Spanish film Actor and Singer Benito is an Italian TV film regarding the story of Benito Mussolini 's early rise to power in the Socialist International and his relationship with Mussolini is also depicted in the films Tea with Mussolini and Lion of the Desert. Tea with Mussolini ( 1999) is a semi-autobiographical Film directed by Franco Zeffirelli, telling the story of young Italian boy Lion of the Desert is a 1981 historical film starring Anthony Quinn as Libyan tribal leader Omar Mukhtar fighting Mussolini 's
Mussolini has been referenced less seriously in television episodes of The Simpsons and The Young Ones. The Young Ones was a popular British sitcom, first seen in 1982, on BBC2. *Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle's Inferno, a 1976 modern take on Dante's Inferno, has the protagonist being guided by an analog of Virgil who is ultimately revealed to be Mussolini. Laurence van Cott Niven (born April 30, 1938 Los Angeles California) is a US Science fiction author. Jerry Eugene Pournelle (born August 7, 1933) is an American Science fiction Writer, Essayist and Journalist Inferno is a Science fiction novel written by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle, published in 1976. The Divine Comedy Publius Vergilius Maro ( October 15, 70 BCE &ndash September 21, 19 BCE later called Virgilius, and known in English as Virgil or
See also
References
- ^ Hakim, Joy (1995). The Faisceau ( French for bundle, fascicle) was a short-lived French Fascist Political party. Margherita Sarfatti ( April 8, 1880 &mdash October 30, 1961) was an Italian journalist Art critic, patron collector Squadrismo was the use of violence by Italian Fascists gangs from 1918 - 1922 A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6.
- ^ Warwick Palmer, Alan. Who's Who in World Politics: From 1860 to the Present Day. Routledge. ISBN 0415131618.
- ^ a b c d "Benito Mussolini", Grolier. com, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ a b c d e f Living History 2; Chapter 2: Italy under Fascism - ISBN 1-84536-028-1
- ^ "Alessandro Mussolini", GeneAll. net, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ Real History and Benito Mussolini
- ^ a b c d Mussolini: A Study In Power, Ivone Kirkpatrick, Hawthorne Books, 1964. ISBN 0-837-18400-2
- ^ a b The Rise of Benito Mussolini (8 January 2008). Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ ""We're all fascists now"", Salon. com, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ a b c "Flunking Fascism 101", WND. com, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "Fascist Modernization in Italy: Traditional or Revolutionary", Roland Sarti, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "Mussolini's Italy", Appstate. edu, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ Macdonald, Hamish. Mussolini and Italian Fascism. Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0748733868.
- ^ a b Paxton, Robert (2004). Robert Paxton (b 1932) is an American Historian specializing in Vichy France and Europe during the World War II era The Anatomy of Fascism. New York City: Alfred A. Knopf. Alfred A Knopf Inc is a New York publishing house founded by Alfred A ISBN 1-4000-4094-9.
- ^ The Times, Thursday, April 8, 1926; pg. Events 217 - Roman Emperor Caracalla is Assassinated (and succeeded by his Praetorian Year 1926 ( MCMXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. 12; Issue 44240; col A
- ^ The Reader's Digest February 1927
- ^ The attempted assassination of Mussolini in Rome
- ^ 1931: The murder of Michael Schirru
- ^ The Vampire Economy: Italy, Germany, and the US, Jeffrey Herbener, Mises Institute, October 13, 2005
- ^ "A Brief History of Italy: From the Etruscans to today", LifeinItaly. Events 54 - Nero ascends to the Roman throne 409 - Vandals and Alans crossed the Pyrenees Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. com, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ a b c d "Ethiopia 1935-36", icrc. org, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "French Colonialism in Africa", acdis. uiuc. edu, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "British, Masters Of Colonialism", CounterCurrents. org, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "Left-wing Fascism: An Intellectual Disorder", FrontPageMag. com, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ a b "Mussolini's Cultural Revolution: Fascist or Nationalist?", jch. sagepub. com, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ Montagu, Ashley. Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 0803946481.
- ^ ""Guns for the Huns"", Time. com, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "Hun", FirstWorldWar. com, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "The Huns", AllEmpires. com, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "Attila the Hun: Biography", GreatKat. com, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "History of World War II", HistoryWorld. net, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ Hollander, Ethan J. Italian Fascism and the Jews. University of California. ISBN 0803946481.
- ^ "The Italian Holocaust: The Story of an Assimilated Jewish Community", ACJNA. org, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "Mussolini and the Roman Catholic Church", HistoryLearningSite. co. uk, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "The Years Before the War", orange-papers. org, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ a b Lowe, CJ. Italian Foreign Policy 1870-1940. Routledge. ISBN 0415265975.
- ^ "Kingdom of Sardinia", Britannica. com, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "Pasquale Paoli & Corsican Independence from Genoa", Age-of-the-Sage. org, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "The Order of Saint John and the Kingdom of Sicily", Regalis. com, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "The Italo-German Alliance, May 22, 1939", astro. temple. edu, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "Victor Emanuel III", Questia. com, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ a b c d e f Knox, MacGregor. Mussolini Unleashed, 1939-1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521338352.
- ^ a b "Italy Declares War", ThinkQuest. org, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ Samson, Anne. Britain, South Africa and East African Campaign: International Library of Colonial History. I B Tauris & Co Ltd. ISBN 0415265975.
- ^ "1940 World War II Timeline", WorldWarIIHistory. info, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ Mollo, Andrew. The Armed Forces of World War II. I B Tauris & Co Ltd. ISBN 978-0517544785.
- ^ a b "Chronology of the Second World War", Spartacus. SchoolNet. co. uk, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "World War II: Operation Compass", About. com, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "Battle of Gondar", The Probert Encyclopaedia, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ "The Invasion and Battle for Greece (Operation Marita)", Feldgrau. com, 8 January 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f g Moseley, Ray. Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce. Taylor Trade. ISBN 1589790952.
- ^ a b Shirer, William (1960). William Lawrence Shirer ( February 23, 1904 – December 28, 1993) was an American journalist and historian The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich by Journalist William L Shirer was the first definitive history of Nazi Germany in English. New York City: Simon & Schuster. The City of New York Simon & Schuster Inc, a division of CBS Corporation, is a Publisher founded in New York in 1924 by Richard L ISBN 0-671-72868-7.
- ^ a b c d Whittam, John. Fascist Italy. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0719040043.
- ^ "Modern era", BestofSicily. com, 8 January 2008. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
- ^ a b Annussek, Greg. Hitler's Raid to Save Mussolini. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81396-2.
- ^ Benito Mussolini
- ^ Commando Supremo: Events of 1941
Bibliography
- Mussolini. Bosworth, R. J. B. , London, Hodder, 2002 (hardback ISBN 0340731443); (paperback ISBN 0340809884).
- "Mussolini's Italy: Life Under the Dictatorship 1915-1945". Bosworth, R. J. B. , London, Allen Lane, 2006 (hardback ISBN 0713996978, paperback 2006 ISBN 0141012919).
- The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution, Zeev Sternhell, with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri, trans. Zeev Sternhell (born 1935 is an Israeli historian and one of the world's leading experts on Fascism. by David Maisel, Princeton University Press, NJ, 1994. pg 214.
- Mussolini's Cities: Internal Colonialism in Italy, 1930-1939, Cambria Press: 2007
- Mussolini's Rome: rebuilding the Eternal City, Borden W. Painter, Jr. , 2005
- Mussolini: A biography, Denis Mack Smith ,New York: Random House 1982
- Mussolini, Renzo De Felice, Torino : Einaudi, 1995. Renzo De Felice ( 8 April 1929 - 25 May 1996) was one of the most important Italian historians of Fascism.
- Mussolini: A New Life, Nicholas Farrell, London: Phoenix Press, 2003, ISBN 1842121235.
- Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce, Ray Moseley, Dallas: Taylor Trade Publishing, 2004.
- Mussolini in the First World War: The Journalist, the Soldier, the Fascist. O'Brien, Paul. Oxford: Berg Publishers, 2004 (hardback, ISBN 1-84520-051-9; (paperback, ISBN 1-84520-052-7).
- Mastering Modern World History by Norman Lowe "Italy, 1918-1945: the first appearance of fascism.
- Europe 1870-1991 by Terry Morris and Derrick Murphy
- Il Duce - Christopher Hibbert
- The Last Centurion by Rudolph S. Daldin www. benito-mussolini. com ISBN 0-921447-34-5
- Hitler and Mussolini. The Secret Meetings by Santi Corvaja translated by Robert L. Miller Enigma 2001 ISBN1-929631-00-6
- Mussolini. The Secrets of his Death by Luciano Garibaldi Enigma 2004 ISBN1-929631-23-5
Writings of Mussolini
- Giovanni Hus (Jan Hus), il veridico Rome (1913) Published in America under John Hus (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1929) Republished by the Italian Book Co. Jan Hus ( (ˈjan ˈɦus alternative spellings John Hus, Jan Huss, John Huss) (c , NY (1939) under John Hus, the Veracious.
- The Cardinal's Mistress (trans. Hiram Motherwell, New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1928)
- There is an essay on "The Doctrine of Fascism" credited to Benito Mussolini but ghost written by Giovanni Gentile that appeared in the 1932 edition of the Enciclopedia Italiana, and excerpts can be read at Doctrine of Fascism. Giovanni Gentile (dʒoˈvɑnni dʒenˈtile May 30, 1875 April 15, 1944) was an Italian neo- Hegelian Idealist The Enciclopedia Italiana di scienze lettere ed arti ("Italian Encyclopaedia of Science Letters and Arts" best known as Enciclopedia Treccani or simply " The Doctrine of Fascism " (" La dottrina del fascismo " is a seminal essay signed by Benito Mussolini and officially attributed to him although There are also links to the complete text.
- La Mia Vita ("My Life"), Mussolini's autobiography written upon request of the American Ambassador in Rome (Child). Mussolini, at first not interested, decided to dictate the story of his life to Arnaldo Mussolini, his brother. The story covers the period up to 1929, includes Mussolini's personal thoughts on Italian Politics and the reasons that motivated his new revolutionary idea. It covers the march on Rome and the beginning of the dictatorship and includes some of his most famous speeches in the Italian Parliament (Oct 1924, Jan 1925).
- From 1951 to 1962 Edoardo and Duilio Susmel worked for "La Fenice" publisher in order to print opera omnia (all the works) of Mussolini in 35 volumes.
External links
- Mussolini In pictures
- Commando Supremo: Benito Mussolini
- Did Mussolini really make the trains run on time?
- Is Mussolini quote on corporatism accurate?
- 2 Mussolini autobiographies in one book. English. Searchable. Click on the result titled "My Rise and Fall" (usually the top result). Then use the search form in the left column titled "search within this book. "
- The 1928 autobiography of Benito Mussolini. Online. My Autobiography. Book by Benito Mussolini; Charles Scribner's Sons, 1928.
- Michael Schirru's failed attempt on Mussolini's life
- The Jewish mother of Fascism Haaretz article on Margherita Sarfatti by Saviona Mane
- Il Duce 'sought Hitler ban', BBC News 27 September, 2003
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Luigi Facta |
Prime Minister of Italy 1922 – 1943 |
Succeeded by Pietro Badoglio |
| Preceded by Carlo Schanzer |
Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1922 – 1929 |
Succeeded by Dino Grandi |
| Preceded by Dino Grandi |
Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1932 – 1936 |
Succeeded by Galeazzo Ciano |
| Preceded by Galeazzo Ciano |
Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1943 |
Succeeded by Raffaele Guariglia |
| Preceded by Paolino Taddei |
Italian Minister of the Interior 1922 – 1924 |
Succeeded by Luigi Federzoni |
| Preceded by Luigi Federzoni |
Italian Minister of the Interior 1926 – 1943 |
Succeeded by Bruno Fornaciari |
| Preceded by New Title |
Head of the Fascist Grand Council 1928 – 1944 |
Succeeded by Pietro Badoglio |
| Preceded by New Title |
Head of State of the Italian Social Republic 1943 – 1945 |
Succeeded by End Title |
| Preceded by New Title |
Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Italian Social Republic 1943 – 1945 |
Succeeded by End Title |
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| NAME | Mussolini, Benito Amilcare Andrea |
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES | Mussolini, Benito |
| SHORT DESCRIPTION | Prime-Minister and fascist dictator of Italy |
| DATE OF BIRTH | July 29, 1883 |
| PLACE OF BIRTH | Dovia di Predappio, Italy |
| DATE OF DEATH | April 28, 1945 |
| PLACE OF DEATH | Giulino di Mezzegra, Italy |
Luigi Facta ( November 16, 1861 &ndash November 5, 1930) was an Italian politician journalist and last Prime Minister of Italy before In Italy, the Prime Minister of Italy (officially the President of the Council of Ministers, Italian Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri) is the country's Pietro Badoglio 1st Duke of Addis Abeba ( 28 September 1871 &ndash 1 November 1956) was an Italian soldier and politician As in most countries in Italy the Minister of Foreign Affairs is one of the most important ministerial positions Dino Grandi ( June 4 1895 — May 21 1988) Conte ( Count) di Mordano was an Italian Fascist politician minister Dino Grandi ( June 4 1895 — May 21 1988) Conte ( Count) di Mordano was an Italian Fascist politician minister As in most countries in Italy the Minister of Foreign Affairs is one of the most important ministerial positions Gian Galeazzo Ciano Count of Cortellazzo and Buccari ( March 18, 1903 – January 11, 1944) was Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs Gian Galeazzo Ciano Count of Cortellazzo and Buccari ( March 18, 1903 – January 11, 1944) was Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs As in most countries in Italy the Minister of Foreign Affairs is one of the most important ministerial positions This is a list of Italian Ministers of the Interior since 1861 This is a list of Italian Ministers of the Interior since 1861 The Grand Council of Fascism (Gran Consiglio del Fascismo was the main body of Mussolini 's Fascist government in Italy. Pietro Badoglio 1st Duke of Addis Abeba ( 28 September 1871 &ndash 1 November 1956) was an Italian soldier and politician Head of state is the generic term for the individual or collective office that serves as the chief public representative of a Monarchic or Republican Nation-state The Italian Social Republic ( Italian: Repubblica Sociale Italiana or RSI) was a Puppet state of Nazi Germany led by the "Duce of the A minister for foreign affairs, or foreign minister, is a governmental cabinet minister who helps form the Foreign policy of a sovereign nation The Italian Social Republic ( Italian: Repubblica Sociale Italiana or RSI) was a Puppet state of Nazi Germany led by the "Duce of the Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Events 1014 - Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars: Battle of Kleidion: Byzantine emperor Basil II inflicts a decisive defeat Year 1883 ( MDCCCLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Predappio is a Town and Comune in the province of Forlì-Cesena, in the region of Emilia-Romagna in Italy, with a population Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar Giulino (better known as Giulino di Mezzegra) is a Frazione of the Comune of Mezzegra, in the province of Como Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest
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