The image of the young woman is a symbol of human beauty in the West, and a dominant theme in western art. This article refers to the cardinal direction for other uses see West (disambiguation. Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual

Beauty is a characteristic of a person, place, object or idea that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure, meaning or satisfaction. The term person is used in Common sense to mean an individual Human being. In Geography, location is a position or point in Physical space that something occupies on Earths' surface For other uses of Object see Object. In Philosophy, an object is a thing an Entity, or a Being. An idea is a form (such as a Thought) formed by Consciousness (including Mind) through the Process of ideation. In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. Pleasure is commonly conceptualized as a positive experience Happiness, Entertainment, Enjoyment, ecstasy, and euphoria, but is hard A personal and cultural value is a Relative ethic value, an assumption upon which implementation can be extrapolated Beauty is studied as part of aesthetics, sociology, social psychology and culture. Aesthetics or esthetics ( also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values sometimes called Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Social psychology is the study of how people and groups interact Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic As a cultural creation, beauty has been extremely commercialized. Commercialism, in its original meaning is the practices methods aims and spirit of Commerce or Business.

An "ideal beauty" is a person who is admired, or possesses features widely attributed to beauty in a particular culture. A number of historical individuals have become icons of beauty - for example, women like Cleopatra VII, Helen of Troy and Marilyn Monroe. Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; January 69 BC &ndash 30 BC was a Hellenistic ruler of Egypt This article is about the mythological figure Helen of Troy For other uses see Helen (disambiguation and Helen of Troy (disambiguation. Marilyn Monroe (born Norma Jeane Mortenson, June 1 1926 &ndash August 5 1962 baptized Norma

The subjective experience of "beauty" often involves the interpretation of some entity as being in balance and harmony with nature, which may lead to feelings of attraction and emotional well-being. In Western music, harmony is the use of different pitches simultaneously and chords actual or implied in Music. Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. "Beauty is in the eye of the beholder" is a common phrase that expresses this concept. ^[1]

In its most profound sense, beauty may engender a salient experience of positive reflection about the meaning of one's own existence. This article is about salience in the field of neuroscience for other meanings see Salience. Disambiguation For the Wigwam album see Being (album, for spiritual or religious beingness, see Ego (spirituality An "object of beauty" is anything that reveals or resonates with personal meaning. For other uses of Object see Object. In Philosophy, an object is a thing an Entity, or a Being.

Aesthetics

Images of beauty from Hasht-Behesht palace in Iran. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics.

Understanding the nature and meaning of beauty is one of the key themes in the philosophical discipline known as aesthetics. Aesthetics or esthetics ( also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values sometimes called The composer and critic Robert Schumann distinguished between two kinds of beauty, natural and poetic. Robert Schumann, sometimes given as Robert Alexander Schumann (June 8 1810 &ndash July 29 1856 was a German Composer, Aesthete and influential Music critic The former is found in the contemplation of nature, whereas the latter lies in man's conscious, creative intervention into nature. Schumann indicated that in music, or other art, both kinds of beauty appear, but natural beauty is merely sensual delight. Poetic beauty begins where the natural beauty leaves off.

A Choctaw Belle. The Choctaw are a Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States ( Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana)

The philosopher Immanuel Kant, whose aesthetic theory has been influential, noted that beauty seems to possess both subjective and objective qualities. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Subjectivity refers to a subject's perspective particularly feelings beliefs and desires Objectivity is both an important and very difficult concept to pin down in philosophy ^[2] Arguing for the subjective nature of beauty, he wrote, "The judgment of taste, therefore, is not a cognitive judgment, and so not logical, but is aesthetic – which means that it is one whose determining ground cannot be other than subjective. "^[3] Kant also noted, however, that when someone calls an object beautiful, "he judges not merely for himself, but for all men, and then speaks of beauty as if it were a property of things. "^[3]

A common idea suggests that beauty exists in the appearance of things and people that are good. In Religion, Ethics, and Philosophy, the phrase good and evil refers to the location of objects desires and Behaviors on a two-way A good apple will be perceived as more beautiful than a bruised one. Also, most people judge physically attractive human beings to be good, both physically and on a deeper level. Specifically, they are believed to possess a variety of positive traits and personality characteristics. ^[4]

Further, people's skills can develop and change their sense of beauty. Carpenters may view an out-of-true building as ugly, and many master carpenters can see out-of-true angles as small as half a degree. Many musicians can likewise hear as dissonant a tone that's high or low by as little as two percent of the distance to the next note. Most people have similar aesthetics about the work or hobbies they have mastered.

History of beauty

A famous depiction of male beauty in Michelangelo's David. David is a Masterpiece of Renaissance Sculpture sculpted by Michelangelo from 1501 to 1504

The earliest Western theory of beauty can be found in the works of early Greek philosophers from the pre-Socratic period, such as Pythagoras. "Pythagoras of Samos" redirects here For the Samian statuary of the same name see Pythagoras (sculptor. The Pythagorean school saw a strong connection between mathematics and beauty. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and In particular, they noted that objects proportioned according to the golden ratio seemed more attractive. In Mathematics and the Arts two quantities are in the Golden ratio if the Ratio between the sum of those quantities and the larger one is the Ancient Greek architecture is based on this view of symmetry and proportion. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Modern research also suggests that people whose facial features are symmetric and proportioned according to the golden ratio are considered more attractive than those whose faces are not.

The Taj Mahal, considered by many to be one of the most beautiful buildings in the world, is an example of symmetry in architecture. The Taj Mahal (tɑdʒ The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation

Symmetry is also important because it suggests the absence of genetic or acquired defects. Symmetry, especially facial symmetry, is one of a number of Aesthetic traits including Averageness and Youthfulness, associated with Health Although style and fashion vary widely, cross-cultural research has found a variety of commonalities in people's perception of beauty. Large eyes and a clear complexion, for example, are considered beautiful in both men and women in all cultures. Neonatal features are inherently attractive and youthfulness in general is associated with beauty. In Evolutionary psychology, youthfulness (also called youngness) is one of a number of traits including Averageness and symmetry, associated

There is evidence that a preference for beautiful faces emerges early in child development, and that the standards of attractiveness are similar across different genders and cultures. ^[5] These preferences may be important in helping us identify a healthy mate or they may simply be by-products of the way our brains process information.

The foundations laid by Greek and Roman artists have also supplied the standard for male beauty in western civilization. The ideal Roman was defined as tall, muscular, long-legged, with a full head of thick hair, a high and wide forehead – a sign of intelligence – wide-set eyes, a strong browline, a strong perfect nose and profile, a smaller mouth, and a strong jaw line. This combination of factors would, as it does today, produce an impressive "grand" look of handsome masculinity.

Beauty ideals may contribute to racial oppression. For example, a prevailing idea in American culture has been that black features are less attractive or desirable than white features. The development of the culture of the United States of America — music, cinema, dance, architecture, literature, poetry The idea that blackness was ugly was highly damaging to the psyche of African Americans, manifesting itself as internalized racism. Oppression is the act of using power to empower and/or privilege a group at the expense of disempowering marginalizing silencing and subordinating another group ^[6] The Black is beautiful cultural movement sought to dispel this notion. Black is beautiful is a cultural movement which began in the United States of America, beginning in the 1960s ^[7] Conversely, beauty ideals may also promote racial unity. Mixed race children are often perceived to be more attractive than their parents because their genetic diversity protects them from the inherited errors of their individual parents. ^[8]

Human beauty

The characterization of a person as “beautiful”, whether on an individual basis or by community consensus, is often based on some combination of inner beauty, which includes psychological factors such as personality, intelligence, grace, charm and elegance, and outer beauty, which includes physical factors, such as health, youthfulness, symmetry, averageness, and complexion. Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities The word charisma (origin from the Greek word χάρισμα (kharisma, "gift" or "divine favor" from kharizesthai, "to favor" Elegance is the attribute of being unusually effective and simple Health is a state of complete physical mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity In Evolutionary psychology, youthfulness (also called youngness) is one of a number of traits including Averageness and symmetry, associated Symmetry, especially facial symmetry, is one of a number of Aesthetic traits including Averageness and Youthfulness, associated with Health In Attractiveness studies averageness is one of the characteristics of physical Beauty in which the average Phenotype, i Complexion refers to the natural color texture and appearance of the Skin, especially that of the face

A common way to measure outer beauty, as based on community consensus, or general opinion, is to stage a beauty pageant, such as Miss Universe. A beauty contest or beauty pageant is a competition based mainly though not always entirely on the physical beauty of its contestants and often incorporating Personality Miss Universe is an annual international Beauty contest run by the Miss Universe Organization. Inner beauty, however, is more difficult to quantify, though beauty pageants often claim to take this into consideration as well.

A strong indicator of physical beauty is "averageness", or "koinophilia". In Attractiveness studies averageness is one of the characteristics of physical Beauty in which the average Phenotype, i Koinophilia is a term used in Biology, meaning that when sexual creatures seek a mate they prefer that mate not to have any unusual peculiar or deviant features When images of human faces are averaged together to form a composite image, they become progressively closer to the "ideal" image and are perceived as more attractive. This was first noticed in 1883, when Francis Galton, cousin of Charles Darwin, overlayed photographic composite images of the faces of vegetarians and criminals to see if there was a typical facial appearance for each. Sir Francis Galton FRS ( 16 February 1822 &ndash 17 January 1911) half-cousin of Charles Darwin, was an Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Vegetarianism is the practice of a diet that excludes Meat (including game and slaughter by-products Fish (including Shellfish and other sea In the sociological field, crime is the breach of a rule or Law for which some governing authority or force may ultimately prescribe a Punishment When doing this, he noticed that the composite images were more attractive compared to any of the individual images. Researchers have replicated the result under more controlled conditions and found that the computer generated, mathematical average of a series of faces is rated more favorably than individual faces. ^[9] Evolutionarily it makes sense that sexual creatures should be attracted to mates sporting predominantly common or average features. ^[10] Natural selection results, over the course of generations, in beneficial (or "fit") features replacing their disadvantageous counterparts. Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of Fitness (often denoted w in Population genetics models is a central concept in evolutionary theory. This is the fundamental force which drives evolution, and is the major insight into Biology which immortalized Charles Darwin. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Thus, natural selection causes beneficial features to become increasingly more common with each generation, while the disadvantageous features become increasingly rare. A sexual creature, therefore, wishing to mate with a fit partner, would be expected to avoid individuals sporting unusual features, while being especially attracted to those individuals displaying a predominance of common or average features. In Attractiveness studies averageness is one of the characteristics of physical Beauty in which the average Phenotype, i This is termed "koinophilia". Koinophilia is a term used in Biology, meaning that when sexual creatures seek a mate they prefer that mate not to have any unusual peculiar or deviant features

Another feature of beautiful women that has been explored by researchers is a waist-to-hip ratio of approximately 0. 70 for women. The concept of waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) was developed by psychologist Devendra Singh of the University of Texas at Austin. Waist-hip ratio or Waist-to-hip ratio ( WHR) is the Ratio of the circumference of the Waist to that of the Hips It is calculated by Physiologists have shown that this ratio accurately indicates most women's fertility. Traditionally, in premodern ages when food was more scarce, overweight people were judged more attractive than slender. Beauty is not solely limited to the female gender. Gender comprises a range of differences between men and women extending from the biological to the social More often defined as 'bishounen,' the concept of beauty in men has been particularly established throughout history in East Asia, and most notably, in Japan. is a Japanese term literally meaning "beautiful boy or beautiful youth For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. This is distinct from the idea of being metrosexual, which focuses mainly on the behavior of men in traditionally feminine ways. Metrosexual is a Neologism generally applied to heterosexual men with a strong concern for their appearance or whose lifestyles display attributes stereotypically seen among Bishounen refers to males with distinctly feminine features, physical characteristics establishing the standard of beauty in Japan and typically exhibited in their pop culture idols. Popular culture (or pop culture) is the Culture — patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activities significance and importance — The origin of such a preference is uncertain but it clearly exists even today.

Inner beauty

Inner beauty is a concept used to describe the positive aspects of something that is not physically observable.

While most species use physical traits and pheromones to attract mates, humans claim to rely on the inner beauty of their choices. Qualities including kindness, sensitivity, tenderness or compassion, creativity and intelligence have been said to be desirable since antiquity. However new research comparing what humans claim to find attractive to their actual mating habits underlines the superficiality of "inner beauty," underlining the fact that the human animal relies on physical traits and pheromones just like every other animal to find a mate. That said, whether "inner beauty" does or does not measurably affect humans' mating habits, some traits classified as "inner beauty" do give an evolutionary survival advantage to either the individual or mating couple or group or all three.

Effects on society

Chinese Jade ornament with flower design, Jin Dynasty (1115-1234 AD), Shanghai Museum. Jade is an Ornamental stone. The term jade is applied to two different rocks that are made up of different Silicate minerals. This is an article for the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 For other Chinese dynasties whose names are also rendered "Jin" in Pinyin, see Jin Dynasty The Shanghai Museum ( Chinese: 上海博物館 is a Museum of ancient Chinese art, situated on the People's Square in the Huangpu District

Beauty presents a standard of comparison, and it can cause resentment and dissatisfaction when not achieved. Social comparison is a theory initially proposed by Social psychologist Leon Festinger in 1954. People who do not fit the "beauty ideal" may be ostracized within their communities. The television sitcom Ugly Betty documents the life of a girl faced with hardships due to society's unwelcoming attitudes toward those they deem unattractive. Ugly Betty is an American television Comedy-drama series starring America Ferrera in the title role along with Eric Mabius However, a person may also be targeted for harassment because of their beauty. In Malèna, a strikingly beautiful Italian woman is forced into poverty by the women of the community who refuse to give her work in fear that she may "woo" their husbands. Malèna is a 2000 Italian drama / Romance film starring Monica Bellucci and Giuseppe Sulfaro

Researchers have found that good looking students get higher grades from their teachers than students with an ordinary appearance. Furthermore, attractive patients receive more personalized care from their doctors. Studies have even shown that handsome criminals receive lighter sentences than less attractive convicts. How much money a person earns may also be influenced by physical beauty. One study found that people low in physical attractiveness earn 5 to 10 percent less than ordinary looking people, who in turn earn 3 to 8 percent less than those who are considered good looking. ^[11] Discrimination against others based on their appearance is known as lookism. Lookism is discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance

In a different context, the term "beautiful people" is used to refer to those who closely follow trends in fashion, physical appearance, food, wine, automobiles, and real estate, often at a considerable financial cost. Fashion design is the Applied art dedicated to Clothing and lifestyle Accessories created within the cultural and social influences of a specific time Such people often mirror in appearance and consumer choices the characteristics and purchases of wealthy actors and actresses, models, or other celebrities. A model is a person who is posed or displayed for the purpose of Art, Fashion, or other products and Advertising. The term "beautiful people" originally referred to the musicians, actors and celebrities of the California "Flower Power" generation of the 1960s. A musician is a person who plays or writes Music. Musicians can be classified by their roles in creating or performing music An instrumentalist plays a California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. The Hippie Subculture was originally a Youth movement that began in the United States during the early 1960s and spread around the world With the close of the 1960s, the concept of beautiful people gradually came to encompass fashionistas and the "hip" people of New York City, expanding to its modern definition. Hip is a Slang term meaning fashionably current and in the know. The City of New York

See also

References

External links

• BBC Radio 4's In Our Time programme on Beauty (requires RealAudio)
• Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Theories of Beauty to the Mid-Nineteenth Century