Battle of Greece Part of Balkans Campaign, World War II Nazi Germany's attack on Greece Date April 6 – April 30, 1941 Location Greece Result Axis victory, occupation of Greece Belligerents Germany Italy Bulgaria Greece United Kingdom Australia New Zealand Commanders Wilhelm List Alexander Papagos, Henry Maitland Wilson, Bernard Freyberg Thomas Blamey Strength Germany:[1] 680,000 men, 1200 tanks 700 aircraft 1Italy:[2] 565,000 men 1Greece:[3] 430,000 men British Commonwealth:[4] 262,612 men 100 tanks 200-300 aircraft Casualties and losses 1Italy:[5] 13,755 dead, 63,142 wounded, 25,067 missing 1Germany:[6] 1,099 dead, 3,752 wounded, 385 missing 1Greece:[5] 13,325 dead, 62,663 wounded, 1,290 missing British Commonwealth:[4] 903 dead, 1,250 wounded, 13,958 captured 1Statistics about the strength and casualties of Italy and Greece refer to both the Greco-Italian War and the Battle of Greece (at least 300,000 Greek soldiers fought in Albania[7]). The Balkans Campaign was the Axis Powers ' invasion of Greece and Yugoslavia during World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus Events 313 - Roman emperor Licinius unifies the entire Eastern Roman Empire under his rule Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers This articles covers the history of Italy as a monarchy and in the World Wars. The military history of Bulgaria during World War II encompasses an initial period of neutrality until 1 March 1941, a period of alliance The Kingdom of Greece ( Greek:, Vasíleion tīs Elládos) was a state established in 1832 in the Convention of London by the Great The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Siegmund Wilhelm List ( May 14, 1880 &ndash August 17, 1971) was a German Field marshal during World War II Marshal Alexander Papagos ( Αλέξανδρος Παπάγος, December 9, 1883, Athens — October 4, 1955, Athens Field Marshal Henry Maitland Wilson 1st Baron Wilson, GCB, GBE, DSO ( 5 September 1881 &ndash 31 December Lieutenant General Bernard Cyril Freyberg 1st Baron Freyberg VC, GCMG, KCB, KBE, DSO and three Bars (21 March 1889 Field Marshal Sir Thomas Albert Blamey GBE, KCB, CMG, DSO, ED, ( 24 January 1884 – 27 Statistics about Germany's casualties refer to the Balkans Campaign as a whole, and are based on Hitler's statements to the Reichstag on May 4, 1941. The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [8] 2Including Cypriots and Palestinians. Palestinian people or Palestinians ( الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha`b al-filasTīni; الفلسطينيون, al-filasTīnīyyūn British, Australian and New Zealand troops were c. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island 58,000. [4]

The Battle of Greece (also known as Operation Marita, German: Unternehmen Marita)^[9] was a World War II battle that occurred on the Greek mainland and in southern Albania. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including This article is about the country in southern Europe For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Albania topics. The battle was fought between the Allied (Greece and the British Commonwealth) and Axis (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Bulgaria) forces. The Allies of World War II were the countries officially opposed to the Axis powers during the Second World War. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία The Axis powers also known as the Axis alliance Axis nations Axis countries or sometimes just the Axis were those Countries Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian With the Battle of Crete and several naval actions, the Battle of Greece is considered part of the wider Aegean component of the Balkans Campaign of World War II. The Battle of Crete ( German Luftlandeschlacht um Kreta; Greek Μάχη της Κρήτης) was a battle during World War II Etymology In ancient times there were various explanations for the name Aegean. The Balkans Campaign was the Axis Powers ' invasion of Greece and Yugoslavia during World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including

The Battle of Greece is generally regarded as a continuation of the Greco-Italian War, which began when Italian troops invaded Greece on October 28, 1940. The Greco-Italian War ( Ελληνοϊταλικός Πόλεμος Ellēnoїtalikós Pólemos or Πόλεμος Events 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor. 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Within weeks the Italians were driven from Greece and Greek forces pushed on to occupy much of southern Albania. This article is about the country in southern Europe For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Albania topics. In March 1941, a major Italian counterattack failed, and Germany was forced to come to the aid of its ally. Operation Marita began on April 6, 1941, with German troops invading Greece through Bulgaria in an effort to secure its southern flank. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian The combined Greek and British forces fought back with great tenacity, but were vastly outnumbered and outgunned, and finally collapsed. Athens fell on April 27. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Events 1124 - David I becomes King of Scotland. 1296 - Battle of Dunbar: The Scots are defeated However, the British Commonwealth managed to evacuate about 50,000 troops. ^a[›] The Greek campaign ended in a quick and complete German victory with the fall of Kalamata in the Peloponnese; it was over within twenty-four days. Kalamata (Καλαμάτα Kalamáta, formerly Καλάμαι Kalámai) is the second-largest city of the Peloponnese in southern Greece The Peloponnese or Peloponnesus ( Greek: Πελοπόννησος Pelopónnisos; see also List of Greek place names) is a large Peninsula Nevertheless, both German and Allied officials have expressed their admiration for the strong resistance of the Greek soldiers.

Some historians regard the German campaign in Greece as decisive in determining the course of World War II, maintaining that it fatally delayed the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union. The Eastern Front of World War II (die Ostfront 1941-1945, der Rußlandfeldzug 1941-1945 (Russian campaign or der Ostfeldzug 1941-1945 (Eastern Campaign Others hold that the campaign had no influence on the launching of Operation Barbarossa, and characterize British intervention in Greece as a hopeless undertaking, a "political and sentimental decision" or even a "definite strategic blunder. Operation Barbarossa ( Unternehmen Barbarossa) was the Codename for Nazi Germany 's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II "

Prelude

Greco-Italian War

For more details on this topic, see Greco-Italian War. The Greco-Italian War ( Ελληνοϊταλικός Πόλεμος Ellēnoїtalikós Pólemos or Πόλεμος

At the outbreak of World War II, Ioannis Metaxas, the Prime Minister of Greece, sought to maintain a position of neutrality. Gian Galeazzo Ciano Count of Cortellazzo and Buccari ( March 18, 1903 – January 11, 1944) was Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs General Ioannis Metaxas (Ιωάννης Μεταξάς ( April 12, 1871 January 29, 1941) was a Greek General and The Prime Minister of Greece ( Πρωθυπουργός της Ελλάδος) is the Head of government of the Hellenic Republic and the leader of For other uses of Neutral and Neutrality see Neutral A neutral country takes no side in a War between other parties However, Greece was increasingly subject to pressures from Italy, which culminated in the Italian submarine Delfino's torpedoing of the Greek cruiser Elli on August 15, 1940. See also List of shipwrecks in 1940 Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^[11] Mussolini was irritated that Nazi leader Adolf Hitler had not consulted with him on his war policy, and wished to establish his independence,^b[›] and to match the military success of the Germans through a victorious attack on Greece, a country he regarded as an easy opponent. Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately ^[12] On October 15, 1940, Mussolini and his closest advisers decided to invade Greece. Events 533 - Byzantine General Belisarius makes his formal entry into Carthage, having conquered it from the Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^c[›] In the early hours of October 28, Italian Ambassador Emmanuel Grazzi presented Metaxas with a three-hour ultimatum, in which he demanded free passage for troops to occupy unspecified "strategic sites" within Greek territory. Events 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor. 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine ^[13] Metaxas rejected the ultimatum (the refusal is commemorated as Okhi Day, a national holiday in Greece), but even before its expiration, Italian troops had invaded Greece through Albania. Celebrated throughout Greece, Cyprus and the Greek communities around the world on October 28 each year Okhi Day (also spelled Ohi Day, ^d[›] The principal Italian thrust was directed at Pindus, near the city of Ioannina, and initially made progress. This article is about the mountain range called Pindus for other uses of these names see Pindus (disambiguation The Pindus (Πίνδος Ioannina (Ιωάννινα, often el Γιάννενα or el Γιάννινα / is a city of Epirus, north-western Greece, with a metropolitan population of The Italians then crossed the Thyamis (Kalamas) river, but were driven back and pursued into Albania. The Thyamis,a Greek Hydronym, is a river in the Epirus region of Greece, which is also known as the Kalamas River. ^[14] Within three weeks, Greek territory was clear of the invaders, and a successful counterattack was underway. ^[15] A few villages of South Albania fell to Greek forces, and neither a change in Italian commanders, nor the arrival of a substantial number of reinforcements had much effect. ^[16]

First Italian offensive October 28 – November 13, 1940. Events 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor. 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine Events 1002 - English king Ethelred orders the killing of all Danes in England, known today as the St Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.	Greek counter-offensive November 14, 1940 – March, 1941. Events 1533 - Conquistadors from Spain under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro arrive in Cajamarca, Inca Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

After weeks of inconclusive winter warfare, the Italians launched a full-scale counterattack across the entire front on March 9, 1941, which, despite the superiority of the Italian armed forces, failed. Events 590 - Bahram Chobin is crowned as king Barham VI of Persia. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. After one week and 12,000 casualties, Mussolini called off the counterattack, and left Albania twelve days later. ^[17] Modern analysts believe that the Italian campaign failed because Mussolini and his generals initially allocated meagre military resources to the campaign (an expeditionary force of 55,000 men),^[18] failed to reckon with the autumn weather, and launched an attack without the advantage of surprise and without the support of the Bulgarians. The Bulgarians (българи balgari) are a South Slavic people generally associated with the Republic of Bulgaria and the Bulgarian language ^[19] Even elementary precautions, such as the issue of winter clothing had not been taken. ^[20] Nor had Mussolini taken into consideration the recommendations of the Italian Commission of War Production, which had warned that Italy would not be able to sustain a full year of continuous warfare until 1949. ^[21]

Second Italian offensive March 9 – April 23, 1941. Events 590 - Bahram Chobin is crowned as king Barham VI of Persia. Events 215 BC - A temple is built on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to Venus Erycina to commemorate the Roman defeat at Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

During the six month fight against Italy, the Greek army made local gains by eliminating enemy salients. Nevertheless, Greece did not have a substantial armaments industry, and both its equipment and ammunition supplies relied on stocks captured by British forces from defeated Italian armies in North Africa. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan In order to feed the battle in Albania, the Greek command was forced to make withdrawals from Eastern Macedonia and Western Thrace. Macedonia ( Μακεδονία, Makedonía,) is a geographical and historical region of Greece in southeastern Europe Area - Demographics The approximate area of Thrace is 8578 km² with a population of 368993 (2006 est Anticipation of a German attack expedited the need to reverse the position; the available forces were proving unable to sustain resistance on both fronts. The Greek command decided to support its success in Albania, regardless of how the situation might develop under the impact of a German attack from the Bulgarian border. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian ^[22]

Hitler's decision to attack and British aid to Greece

Hitler intervened on November 4, 1940, four days after the British took both Crete and Lemnos. Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the Lemnos (Λήμνος is an island in the northern part of the Aegean Sea. The Führer ordered his Army General Staff to prepare for an invasion of Northern Greece via Romania and Bulgaria. His plans for this campaign were incorporated into a master plan aimed at depriving the British of their Mediterranean bases. ^[24] On November 12, the German Armed Forces High Command issued Directive No. Events 764 - Tibetan troops occupy Chang'an, the capital of the Chinese Tang Dynasty, for fifteen days For other uses of OKW see OKW (disambiguation. The Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( OKW) ( English: "High Command 18, in which they scheduled simultaneous operations against Gibraltar and Greece for the following January. Gibraltar (dʒɨˈbrɒltər is a British overseas territory located near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar However, in December 1940, German ambition in the Mediterranean underwent considerable revision when Spain's General Francisco Franco rejected plans for an attack on Gibraltar. Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco y Bahamonde (born December 4, 1892 in Ferrol, died November 20, 1975 in Madrid ^[25] Consequently, Germany's offensive in Southern Europe was restricted to the campaign against Greece. The term Southern Europe can have four definitions geographical political climatic phytogeographic The Armed Forces High Command issued Directive No. 20 on December 13, 1940. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The document outlined the Greek campaign under the code designation "Operation Marita", and planned for German occupation of the northern coast of the Aegean Sea by March, 1941. Etymology In ancient times there were various explanations for the name Aegean. It also planned for the seizure of the entire Greek mainland, if that became necessary. ^[26] During a hastily called meeting of Hitler's staff after the unexpected March 27 coup d'état against the Yugoslav government, orders for the future campaign in Yugoslavia were drafted, as well as changes to the plan for the attack on Greece. Events 196 BC - Ptolemy V ascends to the throne of Egypt. 1309 - Pope Clement V excommunicates The Kingdom of Yugoslavia (Serbo-Croato-Slovene ie Serbo-Croatian, Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, Slovene: Kraljevina Jugoslavija On April 6, both Greece and Yugoslavia were to be attacked. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus ^[27]

Australian soldiers in Alexandria, Egypt embarking for Greece (Australian War Memorial, Canberra). Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Australian War Memorial is Australia 's national memorial to the members of all its armed forces and supporting organisations who have died or participated Canberra ( is the capital city of Australia With a population of over 340000 it is Australia's largest inland City.

Britain was bound to assist Greece by the declaration of 1939, which stated that in the event of a threat to Greek or Romanian independence, "His Majesty's Government would feel themselves bound at once to lend the Greek or Romanian Government [. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located . . ] all the support in their power. "^[29] The first British effort was the deployment of RAF squadrons commanded by John d'Albiac, which were sent in November 1940. Air Marshal Sir John Henry D'Albiac KCVO, KBE, CB, DSO ( 28 January 1894 &ndash 20 August ^[30] With the consent of the Greek government, British forces were dispatched to Crete on October 31 to guard Suda Bay, enabling the Greek government to redeploy the 5th Cretan Division to the mainland. Events 445 BC – Ezra reads the Book of the Law to the Israelites in Jerusalem (see Nehemiah 91 NLTse ^[31]

On November 17, 1940, Metaxas proposed to the British government the undertaking of a joint offensive in the Balkans with the Greek strongholds in South Albania as the base of the operations. Events 284 - Diocletian is proclaimed emperor by his soldiers Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The British side however was reluctant to discuss Metaxas' proposal, because the deployment of the troops the implementation of the Greek plan demanded would seriously endanger the Commonwealth military operations in North Africa. ^[32] During a meeting of British and Greek military and political leaders in Athens on January 13, 1941 General Alexandros Papagos, Commander-in-Chief of the Hellenic Army, asked Britain for nine fully-equipped divisions and corresponding air support. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Events 532 - Nika riots in Constantinople. 888 - Odo Count of Paris becomes King of the Franks Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. For the board game see Stratego. "Strategus" redirects here Marshal Alexander Papagos ( Αλέξανδρος Παπάγος, December 9, 1883, Athens — October 4, 1955, Athens A commander-in-chief is the Commander of a nation's Military forces or significant element of those forces Mission The Hellenic Army's objective is to defend Greece's independence borders and terrain and also to guarantee the country's defense The British responded that, because of their commitment to the fight in North Africa, and all they could offer was the immediate dispatch of a small token force of less than divisional strength. This offer was rejected by the Greeks who feared that the arrival of such a contingent would precipitate a German attack without giving them any sizable assistance. ^e[›] British help would be requested if and when German troops crossed the Danube from Romania into Bulgaria. ^[33]

Churchill held to his ambition to recreate a Balkan Front comprising Yugoslavia, Greece and Turkey,^[34] and ordered Anthony Eden and Sir John Dill to resume negotiations with the Greek government. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Robert Anthony Eden 1st Earl of Avon, KG, MC, PC (12 June 1897 &ndash 14 January 1977 was a British Conservative Politician Field Marshal Sir John Greer Dill, GCB, CMG, DSO ( 25 December 1881 - 4 November 1944) was a A meeting attended by Eden and the Greek leadership, including King George II, Prime Minister Alexandros Koryzis—the successor of Metaxas, who had died on January 29, 1941—and Papagos took place in Athens on February 22. Early life first period of kingship and exile George was born at the royal villa at Tatoi, near Athens, the eldest son of Constantine I King of the Hellenes Alexandros Korizis ( Αλέξανδρος Κοριζής, 1885 – April 18, 1941) was the Prime Minister of Greece briefly in 1941 Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Events 1495 - King Charles VIII of France enters Naples to claim the city's throne There the decision to send a British Commonwealth expeditionary force was made. ^[35] German troops had been massing in Romania and on March 1, 1941, Wehrmacht forces began to move into Bulgaria. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Wehrmacht (literally "defense force" was the name of the unified Armed forces of Germany from 1935 to 1945 At the same time, the Bulgarian Army mobilized and took up positions along the Greek frontier. The Bulgarian Army (Българска армия represents the Armed Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria. ^[34] On March 2 Operation Lustre, the transportation of troops and equipment to Greece, began and 26 troopships arrived at the port of Piraeus. Events 986 - Louis V becomes King of the Franks. 1127 - Assassination of Charles the Good Operation Lustre was an action during World War II, involving the dispatch of British Australian New Zealand and Polish troops from Egypt to Greece in A troopship (also troop ship or troop transport or trooper) is a Ship used to carry Soldiers either in peacetime or wartime Piraeus (pɪˈræʊs Πειραιάς, piɾeˈas Πειραιεύς, piɾeˈefs is a city in the periphery of Attica, Greece, and a ^[36] On April 3, during a meeting of British, Yugoslav, and Greek military representatives, the Yugoslavs promised to block the Strimon valley in case of a German attack across their territory. Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England. Strymon redirects here For the Strymon Gulf see Strymonian Gulf. ^[37] During this meeting, Papagos laid stress on the importance of a joint Greco-Yugoslavian offensive against the Italians, as soon as the Germans launched their offensive against the two countries. ^f[›] Until April 24, more than 62,000 Commonwealth troops (British, Australians, New Zealanders, Palestinians and Cypriots) were sent to Greece, comprising the 6th Australian Division, the New Zealand 2nd Division, and the British 1st Armoured Brigade. Events 1479 BC - Thutmose III ascends to the throne of Egypt, although power effectively shifts to Hatshepsut (according to For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Palestinian people or Palestinians ( الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha`b al-filasTīni; الفلسطينيون, al-filasTīnīyyūn The 6th Division of the Australian Army was a unit in the Second Australian Imperial Force (2nd AIF during World War II. The 2nd New Zealand Division was New Zealand's major land formation during much of World War II. The 1st Armoured Brigade was a regular British Army unit formed from the redesignation of the 1st Light Armoured Brigade on 3 September 1939. ^[38] The three formations later became known as 'W' Force, after their commander, Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson. Field Marshal Henry Maitland Wilson 1st Baron Wilson, GCB, GBE, DSO ( 5 September 1881 &ndash 31 December ^g[›]

Military preparations

Topography

To enter Northern Greece, the German army was compelled to cross the Rhodope mountains, which possessed few river valleys or passes capable of accommodating the movement of large military units. The Rhodopes (Родопи Rodopi, usually used with a definite article Родопите Rodopite, sometimes also called Родопа Rodopa or Родопа Two invasion courses were located west of Kyustendil; another was along the Yugoslav-Bulgarian border, via the Strimon valley to the south. Kyustendil (Кюстендил historically bg Велбъжд Velbazhd) is a town in the very west of Bulgaria, and the capital of Kyustendil Province Strymon redirects here For the Strymon Gulf see Strymonian Gulf. Greek border fortifications had been adapted for the terrain, and a formidable defense system covered the few available roads. The Strimon and Nestos rivers cut across the mountain range along the Greek-Bulgarian frontier, and both of their valleys were protected by strong fortifications, as part of the larger Metaxas Line. The Mesta (Места or Nestos (Νέστος is a river in Bulgaria and Greece. The Metaxas Line was a chain of fortifications constructed along the line of the Greco-Bulgarian border designed to protect Greece in case of a Bulgarian invasion This system of concrete pillboxes and field fortifications was constructed along the Bulgarian border in the late 1930s, and was based on principles similar to those applied to the Maginot Line. The Maginot Line (IPA, Ligne Maginot named after French Minister of Defense André Maginot, was a line of concrete Fortifications tank obstacles artillery Its strength resided mainly in the inaccessibility of the intermediate terrain leading up to the defense positions. ^[39]

Strategic factors

The mountainous terrain of Greece favored a defensive strategy, and the high ranges of the Rhodope, Epirus, Pindus, and Olympus mountains offered many opportunities to stop an invader. Epirus (from Ionic Greek Ήπειρος - Ēpeiros, Doric Greek: Ἅπειρος - Apeiros, in Albanian This article is about the mountain range called Pindus for other uses of these names see Pindus (disambiguation The Pindus (Πίνδος Mount Olympus (Όλυμπος also transliterated as Ólympos, and on Greek maps Óros Ólimbos) is the highest Mountain in Greece However, sufficient air power was required to prevent defending ground forces from becoming trapped in the many defiles. Defile is a geographic term for a narrow pass or gorge between mountains or hills Although an invading force from Albania can be stopped by a relatively small number of troops positioned in the high Pindus mountains, the northeastern part of the country was difficult to defend against an attack from the north. ^[40]

Following a conference in Athens that March, the British command believed that they would combine with Greek forces to occupy the Haliacmon Line—a short front facing northeastward along the Vermion Mountains, and the lower Haliacmon river. The Vermion Mountains are a mountain range in between Imathia and Kozani Prefecture in west-central Greek region of Macedonia. The Haliacmon ( Attic:, Haliákmōn; Ionic: Aliákmōn; Modern Greek: Αλιάκμονας Aliákmonas; South Slavic Papagos awaited clarification from the Yugoslav government, and later proposed to hold the Metaxas Line—by then a symbol of national security to the Greek populace—and not withdraw any of his divisions from Albania. ^[41] He argued that to do so would be seen as a concession of victory to the Italians. The strategically important port of Thessaloniki lay practically indefensible, and transportation of British troops to the city remained dangerous. Thessaloniki (Θεσσαλονίκη), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of Macedonia ^[42] Papagos proposed to take advantage of the area's difficult terrain and prepare fortifications, while at the same time protecting Thessaloniki.

Winston Churchill believed it was vital for the UK to take every measure possible to support Greece. On January 8, 1941, he stated that "there was no other course open to us but to make certain that we had spared no effort to help the Greeks who had shown themselves so worthy. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. "^[43]

General Dill described Papagos' attitude as "unaccommodating and defeatist",^[44] and argued that his plan disregarded the fact that Greek troops and artillery were capable of only token resistance. The British believed that the Greek rivalry with Bulgaria—the Metaxas line was designed specifically for use in the event of war with Bulgaria—as well as their traditionally good terms with the Yugoslavs, left their north-western border largely undefended. ^[45] Despite their concerns over the vulnerability of the border system, and their awareness that it was likely to collapse in the event of a German thrust from the Strimon and Axios rivers, the British eventually conceded to the Greek command. The Vardar or Axios ( Αξιός Axiós or Βαρδάρης Vardárīs; Latin: Axius) is the longest and major River in the On March 4, Dill accepted the plans for the Metaxas line, and on March 7, agreement was ratified by the British Cabinet. Events 51 - Nero, later to become Roman Emperor, is given the title Princeps iuventutis (head of the youth Events 161 - Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius dies and is succeeded by co-Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus In the Politics of the United Kingdom, the Cabinet is a formal body composed of the most senior government ministers chosen by the Prime Minister ^[46] The overall command was to be retained by Papagos, and the Greek and British commands resigned themselves to fighting a delaying action in the northeastern part of the country. ^[40] Nevertheless, the British did not move their troops, because General Wilson regarded them as too weak to maintain such a broad front line. Instead, he took a position some forty miles west of the Axios, across the Haliacmon Line. ^[47] The two main objectives in establishing this position were to maintain contact with the Greek First Army in Albania, and to deny German access to Central Greece. This had the advantage of requiring a smaller force than other options, while still allowing more time for preparation. However, it meant abandoning nearly the whole of Northern Greece, and was thus unacceptable to the Greeks for both political and psychological reasons. Moreover, the left flank of the line was susceptible to flanking from Germans operating through the Monastir gap in Yugoslavia. ^[48] However, the possibility of a rapid disintegration of the Yugoslav Army, and a German thrust into the rear of the Vermion position, was not taken into consideration. Vermio (Βέρμιο is a municipality that lies in Western Macedonia, Greece in the Prefecture of Kozani. ^[40]

The German strategy was based on utilization of the blitzkrieg tactics which had proved successful during the invasions of Western Europe, and confirmed their effectiveness during the invasion of Yugoslavia. Blitzkrieg (German for "lightning war" is a popular name for an Offensive operational-level Military doctrine which involves an initial The German command planned to couple an attack of ground troops and tanks with support from the air, and make a rapid thrust into the territory. Once Thessaloniki was captured, Athens and the port of Piraeus would be the next principal targets. Piraeus (pɪˈræʊs Πειραιάς, piɾeˈas Πειραιεύς, piɾeˈefs is a city in the periphery of Attica, Greece, and a With Piraeus and the Isthmus of Corinth in German hands, the withdrawal and evacuation of British and Greek forces would be fatally compromised. The Isthmus of Corinth is the narrow landbridge which connects the Peloponnese peninsula with the mainland of Greece, near the city of Corinth ^[40]

Defense and attack forces

Lieutenant General Sir Thomas Blamey, commander of Australian I Corps, Lieutenant General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson, commanding general of the Commonwealth expeditionary force ('W' Force), and Major General Bernard Freyberg, commander of the New Zealand 2nd Division, in 1941 in Greece. Field Marshal Sir Thomas Albert Blamey GBE, KCB, CMG, DSO, ED, ( 24 January 1884 – 27 I Corps of the Australian Army was the main frontline Corps of the army during World War II. Lieutenant General Bernard Cyril Freyberg 1st Baron Freyberg VC, GCMG, KCB, KBE, DSO and three Bars (21 March 1889 (Australian War Memorial, Canberra)

The Fifth Yugoslav Army was given responsibility for the defense of the southeastern border between Kriva Palanka and the Greek border. Kriva Palanka (Крива Паланка) is a town located in the northeastern part of the Republic of Macedonia. At the time of the German attack, the Yugoslav troops were not yet fully mobilized, and lacked a sufficient amount of modern equipment or weapons to be fully effective. Following the entry of German forces into Bulgaria, the majority of Greek troops were evacuated from Western Thrace. Area - Demographics The approximate area of Thrace is 8578 km² with a population of 368993 (2006 est By this time, the total strength of the Greek forces defending the Bulgarian border totaled roughly 70,000 men, under the command of the Greek Second Army. The remainder of the Greek forces—the First Army, composed of fourteen divisions—was committed in Albania. The Greek First Army (Α' Στρατιά is the highest formation of the Hellenic Army and its only extant Field army. ^[49]

On March 28, the Greek forces in Central Macedonia—the 12th and 20th Infantry Divisions—were put under the command of General Wilson, who established his headquarters northwest of Larissa. Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate. Larissa ( Greek: Λάρισα, Lárisa) is the capital city of the Thessaly periphery of Greece, and capital of the The New Zealand division took a position north of Mount Olympus, while the Australian division blocked the Haliacmon valley up to the Vermion range. The Royal Air Force continued to operate from airfields in Central and Southern Greece; however, few planes could be diverted to the theater. The British forces were near to fully motorized, but their equipment was more suited to desert warfare than to the steep mountain roads of Greece. There was a shortage of tanks and anti-aircraft guns, and the lines of communication across the Mediterranean were vulnerable, because each convoy had to pass close to enemy-held islands in the Aegean; despite the fact that the British Navy dominated the Aegean Sea. Etymology In ancient times there were various explanations for the name Aegean. These logistical problems were aggravated by the limited availability of shipping and capacity of the Greek ports. Logistics is the management of the flow of Goods, Information and other resources including Energy and people between the point of origin and the point ^[50]

The German Twelfth Army, under the command of Field Marshal Wilhelm List, was charged with the execution of Operation Marita. For other meanings see Field Marshal (disambiguation Field marshal is a military officer rank Siegmund Wilhelm List ( May 14, 1880 &ndash August 17, 1971) was a German Field marshal during World War II His army was composed of six units:

1. First Panzer Group, under the command of General Ewald van Kleist.
2. XL Panzer Corps, under Lieutenant General Georg Stumme. XL Panzer Corps was a tank corps in the German Army during World War II. Georg Stumme ( 1886 - October 24, 1942) was a World War II German general most notable for his brief command of the Axis forces at the beginning
3. XVIII Mountain Corps, under Lieutenant General Franz Böhme. Franz Friedrich Böhme (15 April 1885 Austria – 29 May 1947 was a general in the German Army, serving as Commander of the Twentieth Mountain Army
4. XXX Infantry Corps, under Lieutenant General Otto Hartmann.
5. L Infantry Corps, under Lieutenant General Georg Lindemann. Georg Lindemann ( 8 March 1884 &ndash 25 September 1963) was a German Cavalry officer and Field
6. 16th Panzer Division, deployed behind the Turkish-Bulgarian border to support the Bulgarian forces in case of a Turkish attack. ^[51]

German plan of attack and assembly

The German plan of attack was informed by their army's experiences during the Battle of France. In World War II, the Battle of France, also known as the Fall of France, was the German invasion of France and the Low Countries Their strategy was to create a diversion through the campaign in Albania, thus stripping the Greek Army of sufficient manpower for the defense of their Yugoslavian and Bulgarian borders. By driving armored wedges through the weakest links of the defense chain, the ability to penetrate into enemy territory would be more easily achieved, and would not necessitate the maneuver of their armor behind an infantry advance. Once the weak defense system of Southern Yugoslavia were overrun by German armor, the Metaxas Line could be outflanked by highly mobile forces thrusting southward from Yugoslavia. Thus possession of Monastir and the Axios valley leading to Thessaloniki became essential for such an outflanking maneuver. ^[52]

The Yugoslav coup d'état led to a sudden change in the plan of attack, and confronted the Twelfth Army with a number of difficult problems. According to the March 28 Directive No. 25, the Twelfth Army was to regroup its forces in such a manner that a mobile task force would be available to attack via Niš toward Belgrade. Belgrade (Београд Beograd is the Capital and largest city of Serbia. With only nine days left before D-Day, every hour became valuable, and each fresh assembly of troops would need time to mobilize. D-Day may also refer to Decimal Day in the United Kingdom. D-Day is a term often used in Military parlance to denote By the evening of April 5, each attack force intended to enter either Southern Yugoslavia or Greece had been assembled. Events 456 - St Patrick returns to Ireland as a missionary bishop ^[53]

German invasion

Thrust across Southern Yugoslavia and drive to Thessaloniki

German advance until April 9, 1941, when the 2nd Panzer Division seized Thessaloniki. Events 193 - Septimius Severus is proclaimed Roman Emperor by the army in Illyricum (in the Balkans) Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

On the dawn of April 6, the German armies invaded Greece, while the Luftwaffe began an intensive bombardment of Belgrade. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus ( German 'luftvafe is a generic German term for an Air force. Belgrade (Београд Beograd is the Capital and largest city of Serbia. The XL Panzer Corps—which had been intended for use in an attack across southern Yugoslavia—began their assault at 05:30 a. m. , and made thrusts across the Bulgarian frontier at two separate points. By the evening of April 8, the 1st SS Division Adolf Hitler captured Prilep, thus severing an important rail line between Belgrade and Thessaloniki, and isolating Yugoslavia from its allies. Events 217 - Roman Emperor Caracalla is Assassinated (and succeeded by his Praetorian The Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler ( SS-LAH) founded in September 1933 was Adolf Hitler 's personal Bodyguard Regiment. Prilep (Прилеп) is a city of 66246 citizens in the Republic of Macedonia and the fourth largest city in the country The Germans were now in possession of terrain which was favorable to the continuation of the offensive. On the evening of April 9, General Stumme deployed his forces north of Monastir, in preparation for the extension of the attack across the Greek border toward Florina. Events 193 - Septimius Severus is proclaimed Roman Emperor by the army in Illyricum (in the Balkans) Flórina (Φλώρινα local Slavic: Лерин Lerin; known also by several alternative names) is a town in mountainous northwestern Macedonia This position threatened to encircle the Greeks in Albania and W Force in the area of Florina, Edessa, and Katerini. Edessa (Έδεσσα Édessa, ˈe̞ðe̞sa local Slavic: Voden) is an ancient town of 25000 inhabitants in Central part of Macedonia Katerini (Κατερίνη Old name Ekaterini Old name in Greek Αικατερίνη is a town in Central Macedonia Greece, the capital of Pieria ^[54] While weak security detachments covered the rear of his corps against a surprise attack from central Yugoslavia, elements of the 9th Panzer Division drove westward to link up with the Italians at the Albanian border. The German 9th Panzer Division ( Neunte Panzerdivision) came into existence after 4th Light Division was reorganized in January 1940. ^[55]

The 2nd Panzer Division (XVIII Mountain troops) entered Yugoslavia from the east on the morning of April 6, and advanced westward through the Strimon Valley. The 2nd Panzer Division ( 2 Panzer-Division) was created in 1935 and stationed in Austria after the Anschluss. It encountered little enemy resistance, but was delayed by road clearance demolitions, land mines, and muddy roads. A land mine is an Explosive device designed to be placed on or in the ground to explode when triggered by an operator or the Proximity of a vehicle person Nevertheless, the division was able to reach the objective of the day, the town of Strumica. Strumica (Струмица) is a town situated in the south-east of the Republic of Macedonia (close to the Novo Selo-Petrich border crossing with Bulgaria On April 7, a Yugoslav counter attack against the northern flank of the division was repelled, and the following day the division forced its way across the mountains and overran the Greek 19th Motorized Infantry Division Units stationed south of Doiran lake. Events 529 - First draft of Corpus Juris Civilis (a fundamental work in Jurisprudence) is issued by Eastern Roman Emperor Dojran Lake ( Macedonian: Доjранско Езеро Dojransko Ezero; Greek: Λίμνη Δοϊράνη Límni Doïráni) is a Lake Despite many delays along the narrow mountain roads, an armored advance guard dispatched in the direction of Thessaloniki succeeded in entering the city by the morning of April 9. The seizure of Thessaloniki took place without struggle, following the collapse of the Greek Second Army. ^[56]

Metaxas Line

Greek soldiers leaving their positions after the surrender of the Greek Army in Macedonia. In the front, a Greek and a Bulgarian soldier support a wounded Greek.

The Metaxas Line was defended by the Eastern Macedonia Army Section, which comprised the 7th, 14th and 17th Infantry Divisions under the command of Lieutenant General Konstantinos Bakopoulos. The line ran for c. 170 km along the river Nestos to the east, and then to the east following the Bulgarian border as far as Mount Beles near the Yugoslav border. This article is about the mountain range For the football teams see PFC Belasitsa Petrich and FK Belasica. The fortifications were designed to garrison an army of over 200,000 troops, but due to a lack of available manpower, the actual number was roughly 70,000. As a result of the low numbers, the line's defenses were thinly spread. ^[57]

The initial German attacks against the line were undertaken by a single German infantry unit reinforced by two mountain divisions of the XVIII Mountain Corps. These first forces encountered strong resistance, and had limited success. ^[58] A German report at the end of the first day described how the German 5th Mountain Division "was repulsed in the Rupel Pass despite strongest air support and sustained considerable casualties". The German 5th Mountain Division (5th Gebirgs Division was established in the Austrian Tirol in October 1940 out of regiments taken from the ''1 ^[59] Of the twenty-four forts which made up the Metaxas Line, only two had fallen, and then only after they had been destroyed. ^[60]

The line was penetrated following a three-day struggle during which the Germans pummeled the forts with artillery and dive bombers. Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine A dive bomber is a Bomber aircraft that Dives directly at its targets in order to provide greater accuracy and limit the exposure to and effectiveness of The main credit for this achievement must be given to the 6th Mountain Division, which crossed a 7,000-foot (2,100 m) snow-covered mountain range and broke through at a point that had been considered inaccessible by the Greeks. The German 6th Mountain Division was established in June 1940 and was deployed to France for occupation duties The force reached the rail line to Thessaloniki on the evening of April 7. The other XVIII Mountain Corps units advanced step by step under great hardship. The 5th Division, together with the reinforced 125th Infantry Regiment, penetrated the Strimon defenses on April 7, and attacked along both banks of the river, clearing one bunker after another as they passed. Nevertheless the unit suffered heavy casualties, to the extent that it was withdrawn from further action after it had reached its objective location. The 72d Infantry Division advanced from Nevrokop across the mountains, and, although it was handicapped by a shortage of pack animals, medium artillery, and mountain equipment, it managed to break through the Metaxas Line on the evening of April 9, when it reached the area northeast of Serres. Gotse Delchev (Гоце Делчев is a town in Blagoevgrad Province of Bulgaria with a population of 23573 Sérres or Sérrhae ( Greek: Σέρρες older form Σέρραι is a city in Macedonia, Greece. ^[61] Even after General Bakopoulos surrendered the Metaxas Line, isolated fortresses held out for days, and were not taken until heavy artillery was utilised against them. Some field troops and soldiers manning the frontier continued to fight on, and as a result a number were able to evacuate by sea. ^[62]

Capitulation of the Greek Second Army

The XXX Infantry Corps on the left wing reached its designated objective on the evening of April 8, when the 164th Infantry Division captured Xanthi. Events 217 - Roman Emperor Caracalla is Assassinated (and succeeded by his Praetorian Xanthi (Ξάνθη Xánthi, ˈksanθi is a city in northern Greece, in the East Macedonia and Thrace periphery The 50th Infantry Division advanced far beyond Komotini towards the Nestos river, which both divisions reached on the next day. Komotini or Komotene (Κομοτηνή Gümülcine is a city in north-eastern Greece. On April 9, the Greek Second Army capitulated unconditionally following the collapse of Greek resistance east of the Axios river. In an April 9 estimate of the situation, Field Marshal List expressed the opinion that as a result of the swift advance of the mobile units, his 12th Army was now in a favorable position to gain access to Central Greece by breaking the enemy buildup behind the Axios river. On the basis of this estimate List requested the transfer of the 5th Panzer Division from First Panzer Group to the XL Panzer Corps. He reasoned that its presence would give additional punch to the German thrust through the Monastir gap. For the continuation of the campaign he formed two attack groups, an eastern one under the command of XVIII Mountain Corps, and a western group led by XL Panzer Corps. XL Panzer Corps was a tank corps in the German Army during World War II. ^[63]

Breakthrough to Kozani

See also: Battle of Vevi (1941)

The dispositions of forces in the Florina Valley, April 10, 1941. The Battle of Vevi (or Veve in Greece, also known as the Battle of the Klidi Pass, was part of the Greek campaign of World War II. Events 879 - Louis III becomes King of the Western Franks. 1407 - the lama Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The blue arrows indicate German advances and the Allied lines are shown in red. Vevi and the Klidi Pass are upper centre, the Australian 19th Brigade HQ is in the centre and Mackay Force HQ is at Perdika, lower centre.

By the morning of April 10, the XL Panzer Corps had finished its preparations for the continuation of the offensive, and continued the advance in the direction of Kozani. Events 879 - Louis III becomes King of the Western Franks. 1407 - the lama Kozani (Κοζάνη is a city in northern Greece, capital of Kozani Prefecture and of West Macedonia Periphery. Against all expectations, the Monastir gap had been left open, and the Germans exploited their chance. First contact with Allied troops was made north of Vevi at 11:00 a. Vevi, rarely Veve (Βεύη also known as Banitsa ( Greek: Μπάνιτσα, Πάνιτσα, Slavic Баница m. on April 10. SS troops seized Vevi on April 11, but were stopped at the Klidi Pass just south of the town, where a mixed Commonwealth-Greek formation, known as Mackay Force, was assembled to, as Wilson put it, ". Vevi, rarely Veve (Βεύη also known as Banitsa ( Greek: Μπάνιτσα, Πάνιτσα, Slavic Баница Events 491 - Flavius Anastasius becomes Byzantine Emperor, with the name of Anastasius I. Lieutenant General Sir Iven Giffard Mackay KBE CMG DSO VD ( 7 April 1882 - 30 September . . . stop a blitzkrieg down the Florina valley. "^[64] During the next day the SS regiment reconnoitered the enemy positions, and at dusk launched a frontal attack against the pass. Following heavy fighting, the Germans overcame the enemy resistance, and broke through the defense. ^[65] By the morning of April 14, the spearheads of the 9th Panzer Division reached Kozani. Events 43 BC - Battle of Forum Gallorum: Mark Antony, besieging Julius Caesar 's assassin Decimus Junius Brutus in The German 9th Panzer Division ( Neunte Panzerdivision) came into existence after 4th Light Division was reorganized in January 1940.

Olympus and Servia passes

Front line on April 15, 1941

Wilson faced the prospect of being pinned by Germans operating from Thessaloniki, while being flanked by the German XL Panzer Corps descending through the Monastir Gap. A front line is a line of confrontation in an Armed conflict, most commonly a War. Events 1450 - Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. On April 13, he decided to withdraw all British forces to the Haliacmon river, and then to the narrow pass at Thermopylae. Events 1111 - Henry V is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. 1204 - The Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople Thermopylae (θɚˈmɒpəli (Ancient and Katharevousa Greek, Demotic Θερμοπύλες: "hot gateway" is a location in Greece ^[66] On April 14 the 9th Panzer Division established a bridgehead across the Haliacmon river, but an attempt to advance beyond this point was stopped by intense enemy fire. This defense had three main components: the Platamon tunnel area between Olympus and the sea, the Olympus pass itself, and the Servia pass to the southeast. Platamon (Πλαταμώνας also spelled as Platamonas, is a town and sea-side resort in south Pieria prefecture Central Macedonia, Greece Servia ( Greek: Σέρβια Serfice is a town in the prefecture of Kozani, Macedonia, Greece. By channelling the attack through these three defiles, the new line offered far greater defensive strength for the limited forces available. The defenses of the Olympus and Servia passes consisted of the 4th New Zealand Brigade, 5th New Zealand Brigade, and the 16th Australian Brigade. For the next three days the advance of the 9th Panzer Division was stalled in front of these resolutely held positions. ^[67]

A ruined castle dominated the ridge across which the coastal pass led to Platamon. During the night of April 15 a German motorcycle battalion supported by a tank battalion attacked the ridge, but the Germans were repulsed by the 21st New Zealand Battalion under Colonel Macky, which suffered heavy losses in the process. Events 1450 - Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English The 2nd New Zealand Division was New Zealand's major land formation during much of World War II. Later that day a German armored regiment arrived and struck the coastal and inland flanks of the battalion, but the New Zealanders held their ground. After being reinforced during the night of the 15th-16th, the Germans managed to assemble a tank battalion, infantry battalion, and motor cycle battalion. The German infantry attacked the New Zealanders' left company at dawn, while the tanks attacked along the coast several hours later. ^[68]

Australian anti-tank gunners resting, soon after their withdrawal from the Vevi area.

The New Zealand battalion withdrew, crossed the Pineios river, and by dusk reached the western exit of the Pineios Gorge, suffering only light casualties. See also Pineios River (Peloponnese. The Pineiós (Greek Πηνειός also Peneus) is a River ^[68] Macky was informed that it was "essential to deny the gorge to the enemy till April 19 even if it meant extinction". Events 1012 - Martyrdom of Alphege in Greenwich London. 1529 - At the Second Diet of Speyer ^[69] He sank the crossing barge at the western end of the gorge once all his men were across and began to set up defenses. The 21st battalion was reinforced by the Australian 2/2nd Battalion and later by the 2/3rd, this force became known as Allen force after Brigadier "Tubby" Allen. The 2/2nd Battalion was raised at Victoria Barracks Sydney on 24 October 1939 as part of the 16th Brigade of the 6th Australian Division. Formation The 2/3rd Australian Infantry Battalion was a Battalion of the 6th Australian Division raised as part of the Second Australian Imperial Major General Arthur Samuel "Tubby" Allen CB CBE DSO VD (10 March 1894-25 January 1959 was an Australian soldier The 2/5th and 2/11th battalions moved to the Elatia area south-west of the gorge and were ordered to hold the western exit possibly for three or four days. The 2/5th Australian Infantry Battalion was a Battalion of the 6th Australian Division raised as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force for World The 2/11th Australian Infantry Battalion was a Battalion of the 6th Australian Division raised as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force for Elatia (Ελάτια is a municipality on the island of Zakynthos, Greece. ^[70]

On April 16 General Wilson met General Papagos at Lamia and informed him of his decision to withdraw to Thermopylae. Events 1178 BC - A Solar eclipse may have marked the return of Odysseus, legendary King of Ithaca, to his kingdom General Blamey divided responsibility between generals Mackay and Freyberg during the leapfrogging move back to Thermopylae. Lieutenant General Bernard Cyril Freyberg 1st Baron Freyberg VC, GCMG, KCB, KBE, DSO and three Bars (21 March 1889 Mackay would protect the flanks of the New Zealand Division as far south as an east-west line through Larissa and would control the withdrawal through Domokos to Thermopylae of the Savige and Zarkos Forces, and finally of Lee Force; the 1st Armored Brigade would cover the withdrawal of Savige Force to Larissa and thereafter the withdrawal of the 6th Division under whose command it would come; Freyberg would control the withdrawal of Allen Force which was to move along the same route as the New Zealand Division. Domokos (Δομοκός is a municipality in Phthiotis, Greece. Lieutenant General Sir Stanley George Savige KBE, CB, DSO, MC, ED ( June 26 1890 &ndash The 1st Armoured Brigade was a regular British Army unit formed from the redesignation of the 1st Light Armoured Brigade on 3 September 1939. The British Commonwealth forces remained under constant attack throughout the entire withdrawal. ^[71]

On the morning of April 18 the struggle for the Pineios gorge was over, when German armored infantry crossed the river on floats and the 6th Mountain Division troops worked their way around the New Zealand battalion, which was subsequently annihilated. Events 1025 - Bolesław Chrobry is crowned in Gniezno, becoming the first King of Poland. On April 19 the first XVIII Mountain Corps troops entered Larissa and took possession of the airfield, where the British had left their supply dumps intact. Events 1012 - Martyrdom of Alphege in Greenwich London. 1529 - At the Second Diet of Speyer The seizure of ten truckloads of rations and fuel enabled the spearhead units to continue their drive without ceasing. The port of Volos, at which the British had re-embarked numerous units during the last few days, fell on April 21; there, the Germans captured large quantities of valuable diesel and crude oil. Volos (Βόλος is a coastal port city situated at the center of the Greek mainland about 326 km north from Athens and 215 km south from Thessaloniki Events 753 BC - Romulus and Remus found Rome ( traditional date) ^[72]

Withdrawal and surrender of the Greek First Army

Tsolakoglou discusses in Thessaloniki (April 23, 1941) the third and final protocol of surrender of the Greek Army of Epirus with German General Alfred Jodl and Italian General Ferrero. Events 215 BC - A temple is built on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to Venus Erycina to commemorate the Roman defeat at Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Alfred Jodl (10 May 1890 – 16 October 1946 was a German military commander attaining the position of Chief of the Operations Staff of the Armed Forces High

As the invading Germans advanced deep into Greek territory, the Greek First Army operating in Albania was reluctant to retreat. General Wilson described this unwillingness as "the fetishistic doctrine that not a yard of ground should be yielded to the Italians. "^[73] It was not until April 13 that the first Greek elements began to withdraw toward the Pindus mountains. Events 1111 - Henry V is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. 1204 - The Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople The Allies' retreat to Thermopylae uncovered a route across the Pindus mountains by which the Germans might flank the Greek army in a rearguard action. An SS regiment was given the mission of cutting off the Greek First Army's line of retreat from Albania by driving westward to the Metsovon pass, and from there to Ioannina. Metsovo (Μέτσοβο Aminciu formerly Metsovon, is a town in Epirus on the mountains of Pindus in northern Greece, between Ioannina ^[74] On April 14, heavy fighting took place at Kastoria pass, where the Germans blocked the Greek withdrawal. Events 43 BC - Battle of Forum Gallorum: Mark Antony, besieging Julius Caesar 's assassin Decimus Junius Brutus in The withdrawal extended across the entire Albanian front, with the Italians in hesitant pursuit. ^[75]

General Papagos rushed Greek units to the Metsovon pass where the Germans were expected to attack. On April 18, a pitched battle between several Greek units and the Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler brigade—which had by then reached Grevena— erupted. Events 1025 - Bolesław Chrobry is crowned in Gniezno, becoming the first King of Poland. Grevena (Γρεβενά Grevená, ɣɾe̞ve̞ˈna is a town and municipality in Greece, capital of the Grevena Prefecture. ^[75] The Greek units lacked the equipment necessary to fight against a motorised unit and were soon encircled and overwhelmed. The Germans advanced further and on April 19 captured Ioannina, the final supply route of the Greek First Army. Events 1012 - Martyrdom of Alphege in Greenwich London. 1529 - At the Second Diet of Speyer ^[76] Allied newspapers dubbed the Greek army's fate as a modern day Greek tragedy. Historian and former war-correspondent, Christopher Buckley, when describing the fate of the Greek army, states that "one experience[d] a genuine Aristotelian catharsis, an awe-inspiring sense of the futility of all human effort and all human courage. Catharsis ( Κάθαρσις) is a Greek word meaning "purification" "cleansing" or "clarification "^[77]

On April 20, the commander of the Greek forces in Albania, General Georgios Tsolakoglou, realized the hopelessness of the situation and offered to surrender his army, which then consisted of fourteen divisions. Events 1303 - The University of Rome La Sapienza is instituted by Pope Boniface VIII. Georgios Tsolakoglou ( Γεώργιος Τσολάκογλου, Agrafa, April 1886 - Athens, May 1948 was a Greek military officer who became the country's ^[75] World War II historian John Keegan writes that Tsolakoglou "was so determined [. Sir John Desmond Patrick Keegan OBE (born 15 May, 1934) is a British Military historian, lecturer and journalist . . ] to deny the Italians the satisfaction of a victory they had not earned that [. . . ] he opened quite unauthorized parley with the commander of the German SS division opposite him, Sepp Dietrich, to arrange a surrender to the Germans alone. Josef "Sepp" Dietrich ( May 28, 1892 –April 21/22 1966 was a German Waffen-SS general an SS-Oberstgruppenführer "^[78] On strict orders from Hitler negotiations were kept secret from the Italians, and the surrender was accepted. ^[75] Outraged by this decision Mussolini ordered counterattacks against the Greek forces, which were repulsed. It took personal representation from Mussolini to Hitler to bring together an armistice in which Italy was included on April 23. Events 215 BC - A temple is built on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to Venus Erycina to commemorate the Roman defeat at ^[79] Greek soldiers were not treated as prisoners of war, and were allowed instead to go home after the demobilization of their units, while their officers were permitted to retain their side arms. ^[80]

Thermopylae position

For more details on this topic, see Battle of Thermopylae (1941). The Battle of Thermopylae during World War II occurred in 1941 following the retreat from the Olympus and Servia passes

As early as April 16, the German command realized that the British were evacuating troops on ships at Volos and Piraeus. Events 1178 BC - A Solar eclipse may have marked the return of Odysseus, legendary King of Ithaca, to his kingdom The whole campaign had taken on the character of a pursuit. For the Germans it was now primarily a question of maintaining contact with the retreating British forces, and foiling their evacuation plans. German infantry divisions were withdrawn from action due to a lack of mobility. The 2d and 5th Panzer Divisions, the 1st SS Motorized Infantry Regiment, and both mountain divisions launched a pursuit on enemy forces. ^[81]

To allow an evacuation of the main body of British forces, Wilson ordered the rear guard to make a last stand at the historic Thermopylae pass, the gateway to Athens. General Freyberg was given the task of defending the coastal pass, while Mackay was to hold the village of Brallos. After the battle Mackay was quoted as saying "I did not dream of evacuation; I thought that we'd hang on for about a fortnight and be beaten by weight of numbers. "^[82] When the order to retreat was received on the morning of April 23 it was decided that each of the two positions was to be held by one brigade each. Events 215 BC - A temple is built on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to Venus Erycina to commemorate the Roman defeat at These brigades, the Australian 19th and 6th New Zealand were to hold the passes as long as possible, allowing the other units to withdraw. The Germans attacked on April 24 at 11:30 a. Events 1479 BC - Thutmose III ascends to the throne of Egypt, although power effectively shifts to Hatshepsut (according to m. , met fierce resistance, lost fifteen tanks and sustained considerable casualties. ^[83] The Allies held out the entire day; with the delaying action accomplished, they retreated in the direction of the evacuation beaches and set up another rearguard at Thebes. ^[84] The Panzer units launching a pursuit along the road leading across the pass made slow progress because of the steep gradient and a large number of difficult hairpin bends. ^[85]

German Drive on Athens

After abandoning the Thermopylae area, the British rear guards withdrew to an improvised switch position south of Thebes, where they erected a last obstacle in front of Athens. Thebes ( Classic Greek Θῆβαι, Mod Θήβα) is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range which divides The motorcycle battalion of the 2nd Panzer Division, which had crossed to the island of Euboea to seize the port of Chalcis, and had subsequently returned to the mainland, was given the mission of outflanking the British rear guard. For the mythological figure see Euboea (mythology Euboea ( Modern Greek, Εύβοια - Évia &mdash Chalcis or Chalkida, Halkida, Halkis or Chalkis ( Greek, Modern Χαλκίδα xal'ciða Ancient/ Katharevousa: -ίς The motorcycle troops encountered only slight resistance, and on the morning of April 27, 1941, the first Germans entered Athens, followed by armored cars, tanks, and infantry. Events 1124 - David I becomes King of Scotland. 1296 - Battle of Dunbar: The Scots are defeated Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. A military armored (or armoured) car (see spelling differences) is a wheeled armored vehicle lighter than other armored fighting vehicles primarily A tank is a tracked, Armoured fighting vehicle designed for Front-line combat which combines Operational mobility and tactical The Infantry is the oldest and most numerous of the Combat Arms in the Armed forces, and consists They captured intact large quantities of POL (petroleum, oil and lubricants) several thousand tons of ammunition, ten trucks loaded with sugar and ten truckloads of other rations in addition to various other equipment, weapons, and medical supplies. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit An oil is a substance that is in a viscous Liquid state ( "oily") at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer and is A lubricant (sometimes referred to as a "Lube" is a substance (often a liquid introduced between two moving surfaces to reduce the Friction between them improving ^[87] The people of Athens had been expecting the Germans to enter the city for several days and kept themselves confined to their homes with their windows shut. The previous night Athens Radio had made the following announcement:

You are listening to the voice of Greece. Greeks, stand firm, proud, and dignified. You must prove yourselves worthy of your history. The valor and victory of our army has already been recognized. The righteousness of our cause will also be recognized. We did our duty honestly. Friends! Have Greece in your hearts, live inspired with the fire of her latest triumph and the glory of our army. Greece will live again and will be great, because she fought honestly for a just cause and for freedom. Brothers! Have courage and patience. Be stouthearted. We will overcome these hardships. Greeks! With Greece in your minds you must be proud and dignified. We have been an honest nation and brave soldiers. ^[88]

Damage from the German bombing of Piraeus on April 6, 1941(Australian War Memorial, Canberra). Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

The Germans drove straight to the Acropolis and raised the Nazi flag. The Acropolis of Athens is the best known Acropolis (high city The "Sacred Rock" in the world The flag of Germany is a Tricolour consisting of three equal horizontal bands displaying the national colours of Germany: Black, According to the most popular account of the events, the Evzone soldier on guard duty, Konstantinos Koukidis, took down the Greek flag, refusing to hand it to the invaders wrapped himself in it, and jumped off the Acropolis. The Evzones, or Evzoni, (Εύζωνες Ευζώνοι is the name of several historical elite Light infantry and Mountain units of the Greek Konstandinos Koukidis was the Greek Evzonas on flag guard duty on the 27th of April 1941 at the Athens Acropolis The Flag of Greece ( Σημαία της Ελλάδος, popularly referred to as the Γαλανόλευκη or the Κυανόλευκη ^[89] Whether the story was true or not, many Greeks believed it and viewed the soldier as a martyr. The term martyr ( Greek μάρτυς martys "witness" is most commonly used today to describe an individual who sacrifices their life (or personal freedom ^[90]

Evacuation of Commonwealth forces

In the morning of April 15, 1941, Wavell sent to Wilson the following message: "We must of course continue to fight in close cooperation with Greeks but from news here it looks as if early further withdrawal necessary. Sir Robert Gordon Menzies, KT, AK, CH, QC (20 December 1894 - 15 May 1978 Australian politician was the twelfth person to serve Events 1450 - Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. "^[92]

General Archibald Wavell, the commander of British Army forces in the Middle East, when in Greece on April 11–13, had warned Wilson that he must expect no reinforcements, and had authorised Major General Freddie de Guingand to discuss evacuation plans with certain responsible officers. Field Marshal Archibald Percival Wavell 1st Earl Wavell GCB, GCSI, GCIE, CMG, MC, PC (5 May 1883 – 24 May Major General Sir Francis Wilfred de Guingand KBE, CB, DSO (1900 - 1979 better known as Freddie de Guingand, was a British Nevertheless, the British could not at this stage adopt or even mention this course of action; the suggestion had to come from the Greek Government. The following day Papagos made the first move when he suggested to Wilson that W Force should be withdrawn. Wilson informed Middle East Headquarters and on 17 April Rear admiral H. Rear admiral is a Naval Commissioned officer rank above that of a Commodore and Captain, and below that of a Vice Admiral. T. Baillie-Grohman was sent to Greece to prepare for the evacuation. ^[93] That day Wilson hastened to Athens where he attended a conference with the King, Papagos, d'Albiac and Rear admiral Turle. In the evening, Koryzis after telling the King that he felt he had failed him in the task entrusted to him, committed suicide. ^[94] On April 21 the final decision for the evacuation of the Commonwealth forces to Crete and Egypt was taken, and Wavell, in confirmation of verbal instructions, sent his written orders to Wilson. Events 753 BC - Romulus and Remus found Rome ( traditional date) Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. ^[95]

5,200 men, most of which belonged to the 5th New Zealand Brigade were evacuated on the night of April 24 from Porto Rafti of East Attica, while the 4th New Zealand Brigade remained to block the narrow road to Athens, which was dubbed the 24 Hour Pass by the New Zealanders. Geography The city is surrounded by two hills ( Merenta peak 613 m above sea level and Perati) so it is isolated from the rest of Attica East Attica is one of the Prefectures of Greece. It is part of the periphery of Attica. ^[96] On April 25 (Anzac Day), the few RAF squadrons left Greece (d'Albiac established his headquarters in Heraklion, Crete), and some 10,200 Australian troops were evacuated from Nauplion and Megara. Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar. Heraklion or Iraklion (Ηράκλειο Irákleio, iˈɾaklio̞ Candia is the largest city and capital of Crete. Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the Nafplion (Ναύπλιο in the Peloponnese in Greece, is a seaport town that has expanded up the hillsides near the north end of the Argolic Gulf Megara ( Greek:, "Big Houses" is an ancient city (pop ^[97] 2,000 more men had to wait until April 27, because Ulster Prince ran aground in shallow waters close to Nauplion. Events 1124 - David I becomes King of Scotland. 1296 - Battle of Dunbar: The Scots are defeated Because of this event, the Germans realized that the evacuation was also taking place from the ports of East Peloponnese. ^[98]

On April 25, the Germans staged an airborne operation to seize the bridges over the Corinth canal, with the double aim of both cutting off the British line of retreat and securing their own way across the isthmus. Events 69 - After the First Battle of Bedriacum, Vitellius becomes Roman Emperor. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Corinth Canal is a Canal that connects the Gulf of Corinth with the Saronic Gulf in the Aegean Sea. The Isthmus of Corinth is the narrow landbridge which connects the Peloponnese peninsula with the mainland of Greece, near the city of Corinth The attack met with initial success, until a stray British shell destroyed the bridge. ^[100] The 1st SS Motorized Infantry Regiment, assembled at Ioannina, thrust along the western foothills of the Pindus Mountains via Arta to Messolonghi, and crossed over to the Peloponnese at Patras in an effort to gain access to the isthmus from the west. Arta (Άρτα is a city with a rich history in north-western Greece, capital of the Arta Prefecture which is part of the Epirus province Messolonghi ( Greek: Μεσολόγγι, Mesolóngi, older forms Mesolongi, Misolonghi, Mesolongion) is a town of about Patras ( Demotic Greek: Πάτρα, Pátra, ˈpatra Classical Greek: Πάτραι, Pátrai, Patrae is Greece Upon their arrival at 5:30 p. m. on April 27 the SS forces learned that the paratroops had already been relieved by Army units advancing from Athens. Events 1124 - David I becomes King of Scotland. 1296 - Battle of Dunbar: The Scots are defeated ^[87]

The erection of a temporary span across the Corinth canal permitted 5th Panzer Division units to pursue the enemy forces across the Peloponnese. Driving via Argos to Kalamata, from where most Allied units had already begun to evacuate, they reached the south coast on April 29, where they were joined by SS troops arriving from Pyrgos. Argos ( Greek: Ἄργος, Árgos ˈaɾɣos is a city in Greece in the Peloponnese near Nafplio, which was its historic harbor Kalamata (Καλαμάτα Kalamáta, formerly Καλάμαι Kalámai) is the second-largest city of the Peloponnese in southern Greece Events 1429 - Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orleans. Pyrgos (Πύργος is the capital of the Prefecture of Ilia in Greece. ^[87] The fighting on the Peloponnese consisted merely of small-scale engagements with isolated groups of British troops who had been unable to make ship in time. The attack came a few days too late to cut off the bulk of the British troops in Central Greece, but did manage to isolate the Australian 16th and 17th Brigades. The current Australian 17 Combat Service Support Brigade (or 17 CSS Brigade or simply 17 Brigade is the home of the Australian Army 's deployable Logistics elements ^[101] By April 30 the evacuation of about 50,000 soldiers was completed,^a[›] but was heavily contested by the German Luftwaffe, which sank at least twenty-six troop-laden ships. Events 313 - Roman emperor Licinius unifies the entire Eastern Roman Empire under his rule ( German 'luftvafe is a generic German term for an Air force. The Germans captured around 7–8,000 Commonwealth (including 2,000 Cypriots and Palestinians) and Yugoslav troops in Kalamata who had not been evacuated, while liberating many Italian prisoners from POW camps. ^[102]

Aftermath

The three occupation zones:          Italian          German          Bulgarian

Triple occupation

For more details on this topic, see Axis occupation of Greece during World War II. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian The Axis occupation of Greece during World War II ( Η Κατοχή, I Katochi, meaning "The Occupation" began in April

On April 13, 1941, Hitler issued his Directive No. Events 1111 - Henry V is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. 1204 - The Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. 27, which illustrated his future occupying policy in Greece. ^[103] He finalized jurisdiction in the Balkans with his Directive No. 31 issued on June 9. Events 53 - Roman Emperor Nero marries Claudia Octavia 62 - Claudia Octavia commits ^[104] Mainland Greece was divided between Germany, Italy, and Bulgaria. German forces occupied the strategically more important areas, namely Athens, Thessaloniki with Central Macedonia, and several Aegean islands, including most of Crete. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Thessaloniki (Θεσσαλονίκη), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of Macedonia Central Macedonia ( Greek: Περιφέρεια Κεντρικής Μακεδονίας Periféria Kentrikís Makedonías)is one of the thirteen peripheries They also occupied Florina, which was claimed by both Italy and Bulgaria. ^[105] On the same day that Tsolakoglou offered his surrender, the Bulgarian Army invaded Thrace. Thrace (Тракия Trakiya or "Trakija" or Trakia, Θράκη Thráki, Trakya is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe The goal was to gain an Aegean Sea outlet in Western Thrace and Eastern Macedonia. The Bulgarians occupied territory between the Strimon river and a line of demarcation running through Alexandroupoli and Svilengrad west of Evros river. Strymon redirects here For the Strymon Gulf see Strymonian Gulf. Alexandroupoli (Αλεξανδρούπολη Alexandroúpoli, ale̞ksanˈðɾupo̞li in polytonic Ἀλεξανδρούπολις Alexandroúpolis) is a city Svilengrad (Свиленград is a municipality in Bulgaria situated at the border of Turkey and Greece. The Maritsa or Evros (Марица Εβρος Romanized as Hebrus, Meriç is with a length of 480 km the longest river that runs solely in the interior ^[106] The remainder of Greece was left to Italy. Italian troops started occupying the Ionian and Aegean islands on April 28. Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title On June 2 they occupied the Peloponnese, on June 8 Thessaly, and on June 12 most of Attica. Events 455 - The Vandals enter Rome, and plunder the city for two weeks Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable Thessalia redirects here For the Butterfly Genus, see Thessalia (butterfly. Events 1381 - Peasants' Revolt: in England, rebels arrive at Blackheath. Attica (Αττική Attikí;) is a periphery (subdivision in Greece, containing Athens, the capital of Greece ^[104]

The occupation of Greece, during which civilians suffered terrible hardships, and died from privation and hunger, proved to be a difficult and costly task. It led to the creation of several resistance groups, which launched guerilla attacks against the occupying forces and set up espionage networks. The Greek Resistance ( Εθνική Αντίσταση, ie "National Resistance" is the blanket term for a number of armed and unarmed groups from across the political ^[107]

Battle of Crete

German paratroopers land in Crete.

Map of the German assault on Crete.

For more details on this topic, see Battle of Crete. The Battle of Crete ( German Luftlandeschlacht um Kreta; Greek Μάχη της Κρήτης) was a battle during World War II

On April 25, 1941, King George II and his government left the Greek mainland for Crete, which was attacked by Nazi forces on May 20, 1941. Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 325 - The First Council of Nicaea &ndash the first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church is held Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^[108] The Germans employed parachute forces in a massive airborne invasion, and launched their offensive against three main airfields of the island in Maleme, Rethymno, and Heraklion. Maleme (Μάλεμε is a town and airport 16km to the west of Chania, in North Western Crete, Greece. Rethymno ( Greek: Ρέθυμνο ˈreθimno also Rethimno, Rethymnon, Réthymnon, and Rhíthymnos) a city of approximately Heraklion or Iraklion (Ηράκλειο Irákleio, iˈɾaklio̞ Candia is the largest city and capital of Crete. After seven days of fighting and tough resistance, Allied commanders decided that the cause was hopeless, and ordered a withdrawal from Sfakia. Sfakiá ( Greek: Σφακιά) is a mountainous area in the southwestern part of the island of Crete, in the Chania prefecture By June 1, 1941, the evacuation of Crete by the Allies was complete and the island was under German occupation. Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In light of the heavy casualties suffered by the élite 7th Flieger Division, Hitler forbade further airborne operations. The German 1st Parachute Division was a German military parachute-landing Division that fought during World War II. ^[109] General Kurt Student would dub Crete "the graveyard of the German paratroopers" and a "disastrous victory. "^[109] During the night of May 24, George II and his government were evacuated from Crete to Egypt. Events 1218 - The Fifth Crusade leaves Acre for Egypt. 1276 - Magnus Ladulås is crowned ^[35]

Assessments

The Greek campaign ended in a complete German victory. The British did not have the necessary military resources in the Middle East to permit them to carry out simultaneous Iarge-scale operations in North Africa and the Balkans. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Moreover, even if they had been able to block the German advance into Greece, they would have been unable to exploit the situation by a counterthrust across the Balkans. However, the British came very near to holding on to Crete and originally must have had reasonable prospects of holding Crete and perhaps some other islands which would have been extremely valuable as airbases from which to support naval operations throughout the eastern Mediteranean.
In enumerating the reasons for the complete German victory in Greece, the following factors seem to have been of the greatest significance:

1. Germany's superiority in ground forces and equipment;^[110]
2. German supremacy in the air combined with the inability of the Greeks to provide to the RAF more airfields;^[111]
3. Inadequacy of the British expeditionary force, since the Imperial force available was small;^[110]
4. Poor condition of the Greek Army and its shortage of modern equipment;^[111]
5. Inadequate port, road and railway facilities;^[112]
6. Absence of a unified command and lack of cooperation between the British, Greek, and Yugoslav forces;^[111]
7. Turkey's strict neutrality;^[111] and
8. The early collapse of Yugoslav resistance. ^[111]

After the defeat of the Allies, the decision to send British forces into Greece was met with fierce criticism in the UK. Field Marshal Alan Brooke, Chief of the Imperial General Staff during World War II, considered intervention in Greece to be "a definite strategic blunder", as it denied Wavell the necessary reserves to complete the conquest of Italian-held Libya, or to successfully withstand Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps March offensive. Field Marshal Alan Francis Brooke 1st Viscount Alanbrooke KG, GCB, OM, GCVO, DSO (23 July 1883 &ndash 17 June 1963 was Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS was the title of the professional commander of the British Army from 1908 until 1964 For a full treatment of the Italian invasion of 1911 see Italian invasion of Libya. Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel ( ( 15 November 1891 – 14 October 1944) (also known as the " Desert Fox " Wüstenfuchs The German Afrikakorps ( German: Deutsches Afrikakorps DAK) was the original German blocking force (Sperrverband = Armored Blocking Force in Libya It thus prolonged the North African Campaign, which otherwise might have been successfully concluded within 1941. During World War II, the North African Campaign, also known as the Desert War, took place in the North African desert from June 10, 1940 ^[113] In 1947 de Guingand asked the British government to recognize the mistakes it made when it laid out its strategy in Greece. ^[114] Buckley, on the other hand, argued that, if the UK had not answered its commitment of 1939 to defend Greece's independence, it would have severely damaged the ethical rationalizations of its struggle against Nazi Germany. ^[115] According to Professor of History, Heinz Richter, Churchill tried through the campaign in Greece to influence the political atmosphere in the United States, and he insisted on this strategy even after the defeat. ^[116] According to John Keegan, "the Greek campaign had been an old-fashioned gentlemen's war, with honor given and accepted by brave adversaries on each side", and the Greek and Allied forces, being vastly outnumbered, "had, rightly, the sensation of having fought the good fight. Sir John Desmond Patrick Keegan OBE (born 15 May, 1934) is a British Military historian, lecturer and journalist "^[117]

Freyberg and Blamey had also serious doubts about the feasibility of the operation, but failed to advise their governments of their reservations and apprehensions. ^[118] The campaign caused a furor in Australia, when it became known that, when he received his first warning of the move to Greece on February 18, 1941, General Blamey was worried but had not informed the Australian Government, having been told by General Wavell that Prime Minister Menzies had already given his approval of the plan. Events 3102 BC - Epoch (origin of the Kali Yuga. 1229 - The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II Holy Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This article describes the federal government of Australia See Australian governments for other jurisdictions The Prime Minister of Australia is the Head of government of the Commonwealth of Australia, holding office on commission from the Governor-General. Sir Robert Gordon Menzies, KT, AK, CH, QC (20 December 1894 - 15 May 1978 Australian politician was the twelfth person to serve ^[119] Indeed, the proposal had been accepted by a meeting of the War Cabinet in London at which Mr Menzies was present, but the Australian Prime Minister had been told by Churchill that both Freyberg and Blamey approved of the expedition. ^[120] On March 5, in a letter to Menzies, Blamey said that "the plan is, of course, what I feared: piecemeal dispatch to Europe", and the next day he called the operation "most hazardous". Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a However, thinking that he was agreeable, the Australian Government had already committed the Australian Imperial Force to the Greek Campaign. ^[121]

In 1942 members of the British Parliament characterized the campaign in Greece as a "political and sentimental decision". The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom and British overseas territories Eden rejected the critics, argued that the UK's decision was unanimous, and asserted that the Battle of Greece delayed the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union. ^[122] This is an argument that some historians, such as Keegan have also used, in order to prove that Greek resistance may have been a turning point in World War II. ^[123] According to Leni Riefenstahl, Hitler said that "if the Italians hadn't attacked Greece and needed our help, the war would have taken a different course. Helene Bertha Amalie "Leni" Riefenstahl ( August 22 1902 – September 8 2003) was a German Film director We could have anticipated the Russian cold by weeks and conquered Leningrad and Moscow. There would have been no Stalingrad". The Battle of Stalingrad is a commonly used name in English sources for several large operations by Germany and its allies and Soviet forces conducted with the ^[124] Despite his reservations, Brooke seems also to have conceded that the start of the offensive against the Soviet Union was in fact delayed because of the Balkan Campaign. ^[113] John N. Bradley and Thomas B. Buell conclude that "although no single segment of the Balkan campaign forced the Germans to delay Barbarossa, obviously the entire campaign did prompt them to wait. "^[125] On the other hand, Richter calls Eden's arguments a "falsification of history". ^[126] Basil Liddell Hart and de Guingand asserted that, even if Operation Marita delayed the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, this is not enough to vindicate the decision of the British government, because this was not its initial strategic goal. Sir Basil Henry Liddell Hart ( 31 October 1895 &ndash 29 January 1970) usually known before his knighthood as ^[127] In 1952 a scientific research of the Historical Branch of the UK Cabinet Office concluded that the Balkan Campaign had no influence on the launching of Operation Barbarossa. ^[127] According to Robert Kirchubel, "the main causes for deferring Barbarossa's start from May 15 to June 22 were incomplete logistical arrangements, and an unusually wet winter that kept rivers at full flood until late spring. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. "^[128]

There were political consequences from this campaign for the population of Greece. Had the Greek government held onto some foothold in Greece, such as Crete, they could have maintained a greater degree of legitimacy in the eyes of the Greek population. With luck the civil war could have been avoided. The Greek Civil War (ο Eμφύλιος, "the Civil War" fought from 1946 to 1949 by the Governmental forces receiving logistical support by the United Kingdom

Homage to the Greek resistance

In a speech made at the Reichstag in 1941, Hitler expressed his admiration for the Greek resistance,^h[›] saying of the campaign: "Historical justice obliges me to state that of the enemies who took up positions against us, the Greek soldier particularly fought with the highest courage. He capitulated only when further resistance had become impossible and useless. " The Führer also ordered the release, and repatriation of all Greek prisoners of war, as soon as they had been disarmed, "because of their gallant bearing. "^[130] According to Hitler's Chief of Staff, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, the Führer "wanted to give the Greeks an honorable settlement in recognition of their brave struggle, and of their blamelessness for this war: after all the Italians had started it. Wilhelm Bodewin Johann Gustav Keitel (22 September 1882–16 October 1946 was a German Field marshal ( Generalfeldmarschall) "^i[›] Inspired by the Greek resistance during the Italian and German invasions, Churchill said, "Hence we will not say that Greeks fight like heroes, but that heroes fight like Greeks". ^[131] In response to a letter from George II dated December 3, 1940, American President Franklin D. Roosevelt stated that "all free peoples are deeply impressed by the courage and steadfastness of the Greek nation". Events 1800 - War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden, French Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^k[›]

Notes

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Further reading

External links