Feather-leaved Banksia
inflorescences and leaves. An inflorescence is a group or cluster of Flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main Branch or a complicated arrangement of branches
Conservation status
Endangered (EPBC Act)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Proteales Family: Proteaceae Genus: Banksia Species: B. The conservation status of a Species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species remaining extant either in the present day or the near future An endangered species is a population of an organism which is at risk of becoming Extinct because it is either few in numbers or threatened by changing environmental or predation The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act is an Act of the Parliament of Australia that provides a framework for protection of the Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. The flowering plants or angiosperms ( Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most widespread group Dicotyledons, or "dicots", is a name for a group of Flowering plants whose Seed typically has two embryonic leaves or Cotyledons There Proteales is the Botanical name of an order of Flowering plants. Proteaceae is a family of Flowering plants. Mainly restricted to the Southern Hemisphere, it is a fairly large family with around 80 genera Banksia is a Genus of around 170 Species in the Plant family Proteaceae.  brownii
Binomial name
Banksia brownii Baxter ex R.Br.

Banksia brownii, commonly known as Feather-leaved Banksia or Brown's Banksia, is a species of shrub that occurs in southwest Western Australia. William Baxter (died c 1836 was an English gardener who collected in Australia on behalf of English nurserymen and private individuals Robert Brown FRS ( 21 December, 1773 &ndash 10 June, 1858) was a Scottish scientist who is acknowledged as the leading botanist In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. A shrub or Bush is a horticultural rather than strictly botanical category of Woody plant, distinguished from a Tree This article is about an ecoregion for other uses see Southwest Western Australia. Western Australia is a state occupying the entire western third of the Australian continent. An attractive plant with fine feathery leaves and large red-brown flower spikes, it usually grows as an upright bush around two metres (7 ft) high, but can also occur as a small tree or a low spreading shrub. In Botany, a leaf is an above-ground Plant organ specialized for Photosynthesis. First collected in 1829 and published the following year, it is placed in Banksia subgenus Banksia, section Oncostylis, series Spicigerae. Banksia is a Genus of around 170 Species in the Plant family Proteaceae. Banksia subg Banksia is a valid Botanic name for a Subgenus of Banksia. Banksia sect Oncostylis is one of four sections of Subgenus ''Banksia'' subg Banksia ser Spicigerae is a taxonomic series in the Genus Banksia. There are two genetically distinct forms.

B.  brownii occurs naturally only in two population clusters between Albany and the Stirling Range in southwest Western Australia. Albany ( is located in the Great Southern region of Western Australia, situated around a port on the southern coast The Stirling Range or Koikyennuruff is a range of mountains and hills in the Great Southern region of Western Australia, 337 km south-east of In the Stirling Range it occurs among heath on rocky mountain slopes; further south it occurs among Jarrah woodland in shallow nutrient-poor sand. Ecologically a woodland is an area covered in trees differentiated from a Forest. It is rare and endangered in its natural habitat, with all major populations currently threatened by Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback, a disease to which the species is highly susceptible. A rare species is an Organism which is very uncommon or scarce An endangered species is a population of an organism which is at risk of becoming Extinct because it is either few in numbers or threatened by changing environmental or predation A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species. Phytophthora cinnamomi is a soil-borne Water mould that produces an infection which causes a condition in plants called "root rot" or "dieback" Other threats include loss of habitat, commercial exploitation and changes to the fire regime.

Highly valued by Australia's horticultural and cut flower industries, B. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Horticulture is the art and science of plant cultivation Horticulturists (or horticuluralists) work and conduct research in the fields of Plant propagation Floristry is the general term used to describe the professional floral trade  brownii is widely cultivated in areas not exposed to dieback. It prefers a sheltered position in soil with good drainage, and must be provided with some moisture over summer.

Description

B.  brownii usually grows as an upright bush between one and three metres (3–10 ft) high, but it can also grow as an openly branched small tree to six metres (20 ft) in sheltered gullies, or as a low, spreading shrub in exposed locations such as the peaks of the Stirling Range. This article refers to the landform For other uses see Gully (disambiguation. The bark is a grey-brown colour, smooth and thin, with lenticels. A lenticel is a spongy area present in the cork surfaces of the stems roots and other parts of vascular plants The leaves are long and thin, from three to ten centimetres (1–5 in) long, and five to ten millimetres (³⁄₁₆–³⁄₈ in) wide. Dark green and hairless above but with a hairy white underside, they are easily recognised by their feather-like appearance, caused by the fact that they are finely divided almost back to the midrib, into as many as 70 thin tapered lobes. ^[2][3]

Flowers occur in typical Banksia "flower spikes", inflorescences made up of hundreds of pairs of flowers densely packed in a spiral around a woody axis. An inflorescence is a group or cluster of Flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main Branch or a complicated arrangement of branches A helix (pl helixes or helices) from the Greek word έλιξ, is a special kind of Space curve, i B.  brownii's flower spike is a metallic red-brown colour, roughly cylindrical, 6 to 19 centimetres (2–7½ in) high and eight to ten centimetres (3–4 in) wide. Each flower consists of a tubular perianth made up of four united tepals, and one long wiry style. The term perianth has two similar but separate meanings in botany In Flowering plants the perianth is the outer sterile whorls of a Flower (see Tepals are elements of the Perianth, or outer part of a flower which include the Petals or Sepals The term tepal is usually used when all segments A gynoecium (from Ancient Greek gyne, "woman" is the Female reproductive part of a Flower. Perianths are cream at the base and grey-brown at the end. Styles are rusty red-brown with a cream tip, and downwardly hooked rather than straight. The style end is initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts, but breaks free at anthesis. Anthesis is the period during which a Flower is fully open and functional ^[2][3]

Flower spikes are held erect and are typically terminal on a branch; often other branchlets grow up and around a spike from below. The fruiting structure is a stout woody "cone", around five centimetres (2 inches) in diameter, with a hairy appearance caused by the persistence of old withered flower parts. A "cone" may be embedded with up to 60 follicles,^[2] although usually there are very few or even none at all. In botany a follicle is a dry unilocular many-seeded Fruit formed from one carpel and dehiscing by the ventral suture in order to release seeds such as in Larkspur ^[4] Unusually for Banksia, each follicle contains just one seed. ^[5] This is shiny black, oval in shape, about 20 millimetres (¾ in) long, with a brown papery wing. In geometry an oval or ovoid (from Latin ovum, 'egg' is any Curve resembling an egg or an Ellipse. ^[2][3]

Taxonomy

Leaf variation in B.  brownii. Left: a leaf of the shrubby "mountain form". Right: a leaf of the upright "Millbrook Road" form.

See also: Taxonomy of Banksia

Banksia brownii was first collected near King George Sound in 1829 by William Baxter, who named it in honour of botanist Robert Brown. As with other Flowering plants the taxonomy of Banksia is based on anatomical and morphological properties of the Banksia King George Sound is the name of a sound on the south coast of Western Australia. William Baxter (died c 1836 was an English gardener who collected in Australia on behalf of English nurserymen and private individuals Robert Brown FRS ( 21 December, 1773 &ndash 10 June, 1858) was a Scottish scientist who is acknowledged as the leading botanist A formal description was published by Brown in his 1830 Supplementum Primum Prodromi Florae Novae Hollandiae;^[6] thus the full botanic name of the species is Banksia brownii Baxter ex R. Supplementum primum Prodromi florae Novae Hollandiae ("First supplement to the Prodromus of the flora of New Holland" is an 1830 supplement to Robert Brown Br. ^[7] Under Brown's taxonomic arrangement, B. Robert Brown 's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia was published in his 1810 Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen,  brownii was placed in subgenus Banksia verae, the "True Banksias", because its inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike. Banksia subg Banksia is a valid Botanic name for a Subgenus of Banksia. Banksia verae was renamed Eubanksia by Stephan Endlicher in 1847. Banksia sect Eubanksia is an obsolete section of Banksia. There have been two circumscriptions one of which is synonymous with the recently Stephan Ladislaus Endlicher ( June 24 1804 &ndash March 28 1849) was an Austrian Botanist, numismatist and Sinologist

Carl Meissner demoted Eubanksia to sectional rank in his 1856 classification, and divided it into four series, with B. Carl Daniel Friedrich Meissner ( 1 November 1800 – 2 May 1874) was a Swiss Botanist. Carl Meissner 's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia was published in 1856 as part of his chapter on the Proteaceae in A  brownii placed in series Dryandroideae. The Dryandra-leaved Banksia ( Banksia dryandroides) is a species of small shrub in the Plant Genus Banksia. ^[8] When George Bentham published his 1870 arrangement in Flora Australiensis, he discarded Meissner's series, placing all the species with hooked styles together in a section that he named Oncostylis. George Bentham CMG FRS ( September 22, 1800 &ndash September 10, 1884) was an English Botanist, characterized by Duane Isely George Bentham 's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia was published in 1870 in Volume 5 of Bentham's Flora Australiensis. Flora Australiensis a description of the plants of the Australian Territory, more commonly referred to as Flora Australiensis, and also known by its standard Banksia sect Oncostylis is one of four sections of Subgenus ''Banksia'' subg ^[9] This arrangement would stand for over a century.

In 1891, Otto Kuntze challenged the generic name Banksia L.f., on the grounds that the name Banksia had previously been published in 1775 as Banksia J.R.Forst & G.Forst, referring to the genus now known as Pimelea. Otto Carl Ernst Kuntze ( June 23 1843 - 1907 was a German botanist. Carl von Linné or Carolus Linnaeus the Younger ( 20 January 1741 &ndash 1 November 1783) was a Swedish naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster ( October 22, 1729 &ndash December 9, 1798) was a German naturalist of partial Scottish Johann Georg Adam Forster (November 27 1754 – January 10 1794 was a German naturalist, ethnologist, travel writer, Journalist Pimelea (often seen spelled Pimelia) is a genus of plants belonging to the family Thymelaeaceae. Kuntze proposed Sirmuellera as an alternative, republishing B.  brownii as "Sirmuellera brownei (Baxter)" [sic]. The challenge failed, Banksia L. f. was formally conserved, and Sirmuellera brownii (Baxter ex R. Br. ) Kuntze" is now a nomenclatural synonym of B. In Scientific nomenclature, synonyms are different Scientific names used for a single Taxon.  brownii. ^[2]

Alex George published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his landmark 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae). Alexander Segger George (born 4 April 1939 is a Western Australian Botanist. The genus Banksia Lf (Proteaceae is a 1981 Monograph by Alex George on the taxonomy of the Plant Genus Banksia Endlicher's Eubanksia became B. subg. Banksia, and was divided into three sections, one of which was Oncostylis. Banksia subg Banksia is a valid Botanic name for a Subgenus of Banksia. Oncostylis was further divided into four series, with B.  brownii placed in series Spicigerae because its inflorescences are cylindrical. Banksia ser Spicigerae is a taxonomic series in the Genus Banksia. ^[3]

In 1996, Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus, after cladistic analyses yielded a cladogram significantly different from George's arrangement. Kevin R Thiele is Curator of the Western Australian Herbarium. Cladistics is the hierarchical classification of Species based on evolutionary ancestry Cladistics is the hierarchical classification of Species based on evolutionary ancestry Thiele and Ladiges' arrangement retained B. Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges' taxonomic arrangement of Banksia, published in 1996 was a novel taxonomic arrangement that was intended to align the  brownii in series Spicigerae, placing it in B.  subser. Occidentales along with B. occidentalis (Red Swamp Banksia), B. seminuda (River Banksia), B. verticillata (Granite Banksia) and B. littoralis (Swamp Banksia). The Red Swamp Banksia or Waterbush ( Banksia occidentalis) is a species of shrub or small tree in the Plant Genus Banksia Banksia seminuda, commonly known as the River Banksia, is a Tree in the Plant Genus Banksia. The Granite Banksia or Albany Banksia ( Banksia verticillata) is a species of large bushy shrub or tree in the Plant Genus Banksia Banksia littoralis, commonly known as the Swamp Banksia, Swamp Oak, Pungura and the Western Swamp Banksia, is a Tree ^[10] This arrangement stood until 1999, when George effectively reverted to his 1981 arrangement in his monograph for the Flora of Australia series. The Flora of Australia is a 59 volume series describing the vascular plants bryophytes and lichens present in Australian and its external territories

Under George's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia, B. Alex George 's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia was the first modern-day arrangement for that genus  brownii's taxonomic placement may be summarised as follows:^[3]

Genus Banksia

Subgenus Banksia

Section Banksia

Section Coccinea

Section Oncostylis

Series Spicigerae

B. spinulosa - B. ericifolia - B. verticillata - B. seminuda - B. littoralis - B. occidentalis - B. Banksia is a Genus of around 170 Species in the Plant family Proteaceae. Banksia subg Banksia is a valid Botanic name for a Subgenus of Banksia. Banksia sect Banksia is one of four sections of Banksia Subgenus ''Banksia''. Banksia coccinea, commonly known as the Scarlet Banksia, Waratah Banksia or Albany Banksia, is an erect shrub or small tree in the Banksia sect Oncostylis is one of four sections of Subgenus ''Banksia'' subg Banksia ser Spicigerae is a taxonomic series in the Genus Banksia. The Hairpin Banksia ( Banksia spinulosa) is a species of woody Shrub, of the genus Banksia in the Proteaceae family native to eastern Banksia ericifolia, the Heath-leaved Banksia (also known as the Lantern Banksia or Heath Banksia) is a Species of woody Shrub The Granite Banksia or Albany Banksia ( Banksia verticillata) is a species of large bushy shrub or tree in the Plant Genus Banksia Banksia seminuda, commonly known as the River Banksia, is a Tree in the Plant Genus Banksia. Banksia littoralis, commonly known as the Swamp Banksia, Swamp Oak, Pungura and the Western Swamp Banksia, is a Tree The Red Swamp Banksia or Waterbush ( Banksia occidentalis) is a species of shrub or small tree in the Plant Genus Banksia  brownii

Series Tricuspidae

Series Dryandroidae

Series Abietinae

Subgenus Isostylis

B. The Lesueur Banksia or Pine Banksia ( Banksia tricuspis) is a species of shrub or tree in the Plant Genus Banksia. The Dryandra-leaved Banksia ( Banksia dryandroides) is a species of small shrub in the Plant Genus Banksia. Banksia ser Abietinae is a valid Botanic name for a series of Banksia. Banksia subg Isostylis is a Subgenus of Banksia. It contains three closely related species all of which occur only in Southwest  brownii's closest relative is held to be B.  occidentalis, which differs from B.  brownii in having smaller, deep red flowers and narrow, sparsely serrate leaves. ^[11]

Since 1998, Austin Mast has been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for the subtribe Banksiinae, which is comprised of Banksia and Dryandra. Austin R Mast is a research botanist Born in 1972 he obtained a Ph A DNA sequence or genetic sequence is a succession of letters representing the Primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA Molecule Grevilleoideae is a subfamily of the Proteaceae Family of Flowering plants. With respect to B.  brownii, Mast's results are somewhat at odds with those of both George and Thiele and Ladiges, finding it to be more closely related to B. nutans (Nodding Banksia) and B. quercifolia (Oak-leaved Banksia) than to many of the Spicigerae. Banksia nutans, commonly known as Nodding Banksia, is a small shrub native to the south coast of Western Australia. The Oak-leaved Banksia ( Banksia quercifolia) is a species of shrub in the Plant Genus Banksia. Overall, the inferred phylogeny is very greatly different from George's arrangement, and provides compelling evidence for the paraphyly of Banksia with respect to Dryandra. In Phylogenetics, a group of organisms is said to be paraphyletic if the group contains its most recent common ancestor but does not contain all ^[12][13][14] Early in 2007, Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement of Banksia by transferring Dryandra into it, and publishing B. subg. Spathulatae for the species having spoon-shaped cotyledons. Banksia subg Spathulatae is a valid Botanic name for a Subgenus of Banksia. A cotyledon ("seed leaf" from Greek: κοτυληδών kotylēdōn, from κοτύλη ''kotýlē'', "cup bowl" They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete; in the meantime, if Mast and Thiele's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement, then B.  brownii is placed in B.  subg. Spathulatae. ^[15]

Two genetically distinct forms of B.  brownii are recognised: a "mountain form" with a shrubby habit, short thin hard leaves, and a squat inflorescence; and a "Millbrook Road form", with a tree habit and longer, wider, soft leaves. ^[16][1] These forms currently have no taxonomic status, but genetic testing is planned to determine whether they constitute two subspecies. ^[5] Some horticulturists also recognise an intermediate form that may not breed true from seed. ^[17]

Distribution and habitat

Distribution of B.  brownii within Australia

B.  brownii occurs between Albany and the Stirling Range in the southwest of Western Australia,^[18] at the juncture of the Esperance Plains, Warren and Jarrah Forest biogeographic regions. This article is about an ecoregion for other uses see Southwest Western Australia. Esperance Plains, also known as Eyre Botanical District, is a biogeographic region in southern Western Australia. Jarrah Forest is an Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA region in Western Australia. Biogeography is the study of the distribution of Biodiversity over Space and Time. This is the taxonomically richest area for Banksia, with 19 species, of which six are endemic, including B. Endemism is the Ecological state of being unique to a place Endemic species are not naturally found elsewhere  brownii itself. It is cool and wet, with temperatures between four and 30 °C (39–86 °F) and rainfall of around 800 millimetres (31 in). ^[19] The species occurs there in two distinct population clusters: southern populations occur among low woodland of Eucalyptus marginata (Jarrah) in shallow, nutrient-poor white or grey sand over laterite;^[20] Stirling Range populations occur at altitudes of between 500 and 1100 metres (1640–3960 ft), among heath on rocky mountain slopes and tops, and in shale in gullies. Laterite (from the Latin word "later" meaning brick or tile is a surface formation in hot and wet tropical areas which is enriched in Iron and Aluminium Heaths are Shrubland habitats characterised by open low growing woody Vegetation, found on mainly infertile Acidic soils Shale (also called mudstone) is a fine-grained Sedimentary rock whose original constituents were Clay minerals or Muds It is characterized by ^[18][20]

There are 27 known populations within this region, but only nine of these populations contain more than 10 individual plants, and only five populations have more than 100. Ten populations are now presumed extinct. ^[21] The total number of plants is estimated at around 1000. ^[22]

Ecology

See also: Ecology of Banksia

Coastal plants begin to flower at around five years from seed, but plants in the Stirling Range take much longer to mature. The ecology of Banksia refers to all the relationships and interactions among the Plant Genus Banksia and its environment. ^[4] In one Stirling Range population, only 15% of plants had flowered after eight years. ^[5] Flowering time is highly variable, but in general it occurs between March and August, with a peak around June. More flowers open during the day than at night. ^[4]

As with other Banksia species, B.  brownii is a heavy producer of nectar, and serves as a food source for a range of nectariferous birds, mammals and insects. Nectar is a Sugar -rich liquid produced by plants It is produced either by the Flowers in which it attracts pollinating animals or by extrafloral Honeyeaters such as the New Holland Honeyeater, Western Spinebill and Red Wattlebird are frequent visitors that often carry heavy pollen loads, making them important pollinators. The New Holland Honeyeater ( Phylidonyris novaehollandiae) is found throughout southern Australia. The Western Spinebill, Acanthorhynchus superciliosus, is a Honeyeater found in the Heath and Woodland of south-western Western The Red Wattlebird, Anthochaera carunculata, also known as Barkingbird or Gillbird, is a Honeyeater; a group of birds found mainly in Australia Pollen is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes ( pollen grains) which produce the male Gametes (sperm cells of Nocturnal mammals such as Bush Rats and Honey Possums also carry heavy pollen loads, but the foraging behaviour of Bush Rats suggests that these may transfer pollen only over very short distances. The Bush Rat ( Rattus fuscipes) is a small Australian Nocturnal animal. The Honey Possum ( Tarsipes rostratus) or Noolbenger is a tiny Australian Marsupial weighing just seven to eleven grams for the male and Invertebrate visitors include the introduced Western Honeybee, native bees, flies and ants; bees appear to be effective pollinators, but ants and flies forage only at the base of flowers and do not come in contact with plant pollen. Stingless bees, or simply meliponines, are a large group of bees comprising the tribe Meliponini (sometimes called stingless honey bees) in the family True flies are Insects of the Order Diptera ( Greek: di = two and pteron = wing possessing a single pair of Ants are social Insects of the family Formicidae and along with the related families of Wasps and Bees belong to the order ^[4]

The species is partly self-compatible, as some seed is set when pollinators are excluded. Self-pollination is a form of Pollination that can occur when a Flower has both Stamen and a Carpel in which the Cultivar or Selection against self-pollinated seed has been observed,^[23] but the species has nonetheless been shown to have one of the lowest outcrossing rates of any Banksia. Outcrossing is the practice of introducing unrelated genetic material into a breeding line ^[24] This is probably caused by the small population sizes, which increase the probability of self-fertilisation, and may discourage visits by pollinators. ^[25]

It has a low rate of fruiting, with less than 1% of flowers developing into follicles, and more than half of the inflorescences failing to form any follicles at all. ^[26] Seed survival rates are similarly low. More than half of a plant's seed crop may be lost to the larvae of moths and weevils, which burrow into the cobs to eat the seeds and pupate in the follicles; and further seed losses are caused by granivorous birds such as cockatoos, which break off the cobs to eat both the seeds and the insect larvae. A larva ( Latin; plural larvae) is a juvenile form of Animal with indirect development, undergoing Metamorphosis (for example A moth is an Insect closely related to the Butterfly, both being of the order Lepidoptera. A weevil is any Beetle from the Curculionoidea Superfamily. They are usually small less than 6  mm (¼  Inch) and herbivorous A pupa ( Latin pupa for doll pl pupae or pupas) is the life stage of some Insects undergoing transformation In Zoology, a granivore is an Herbivorous animal which selectively eats the nutrient-rich Seeds produced by plants including those of Gymnosperms A cockatoo is any of the 20 Bird Species belonging to the family Cacatuidae. ^[4]

A small proportion of follicles open and release their seed spontaneously, but most remain closed until stimulated to open by bushfire. Ladysmith-RFSJPG|right|thumb| Ladysmith NSW RFS fire fighting tanker]]A Bushfire is a Fire that occurs in the bush (collective term for Bushfire kills the maternal plant, which has neither thick bark nor lignotubers, but the subsequent shedding of seed allows the population to regenerate. A lignotuber is a starchy swelling on underground stems or roots ^[1] Seed predation continues after its release: in one study, B.  brownii seeds were placed on the ground in both burnt and unburnt sides; almost all were eaten by parrots within four weeks. ^[22]

Conservation

Threats to B.  brownii include loss of habitat due to land clearing, commercial exploitation, disease, and changes to the fire regime. The fragmentation of populations is also of concern, as it causes the genetic diversity of the species to decline, potentially reducing vigour. Heterosis is a term used in Genetics and Selective breeding. The term heterosis also known as hybrid vigor or outbreeding enhancement, ^[5]

The species is currently listed as "Endangered" under Australia's Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999,^[27] and "Rare" under Western Australia's Wildlife Conservation Act 1950. The list of threatened flora of Australia includes all plant species listed as critically endangered or endangered in Australia under the EPBC Act. The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act is an Act of the Parliament of Australia that provides a framework for protection of the The Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 is an act of the Western Australian Parliament that provides the statute relating to conservation of flora and fauna ^[28] These acts provide legislative protection against a range of potential threats, including commercial harvesting of flowers and land clearing. A statute is a formal written enactment of a Legislative authority that governs a Country, State, City, or County. Further protection is afforded to northern populations by the fact that they occur within the Stirling Range National Park. The Stirling Range or Koikyennuruff is a range of mountains and hills in the Great Southern region of Western Australia, 337 km south-east of Despite these measures, recent population extinctions and a projected decline of more than 80% within three generations has seen calls for the species to be upgraded to critically endangered. In Biology and Ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a Species or group of taxa. Organisms with a conservation status of critically endangered have an extremely high risk of becoming extinct ^[5] It is thought that without protective measures in place, B.  brownii would be extinct within a decade;^[27] and that extinction would be "not only a tragedy in itself but may have unforeseen, and potentially disastrous, consequences for the functioning of the vegetation communities of which feather-leaved banksia is an integral part. "^[5]

Disease

The main threat to B.  brownii is dieback caused by the introduced plant pathogen P. An introduced species (also known as naturalized species or exotic species) is an Organism that is not indigenous to a given location but A pathogen (from Greek πάθος pathos "suffering passion" and γἰγνομαι (γεν- gignomai (gen- "I give birth to" infectious  cinnamomi, a soil-borne water mould that causes root rot. Oomycetes also known as Water molds (or water moulds: see spelling differences) are a group of filamentous unicellular Heterokonts physically Studies of the effect of P.  cinnamomi on B.  brownii have found it to be "highly susceptible" to dieback, with specimens "frequently and consistently killed in the wild". ^[29] As of 2007, all major populations of B.  brownii, and all but one minor population, are suffering from dieback. ^[21] Moreover, all populations are in an area vulnerable to dieback, so even the uninfected population is considered under threat. According to Byron Lamont, "the demise of this species in the wild appears imminent. Professor Byron Barnard Lamont (born 2 January 1945) is a Western Australian botanist "^[22]

No recovery plan has been put in place; instead the species is managed as part of a broader response to the region's dieback epidemic. In Epidemiology, an epidemic (from Greek epi- upon + demos people is a classification of a disease that appears as new cases in a ^[30] A number of protective measures have been implemented, including site access restrictions, the collection and cold-storage of seed, and the treatment of plants with phosphite. The phosphite ion (PO33− is a Polyatomic ion with a Phosphorus central atom Phosphite boosts the resistance of both infected and uninfected plants, and also acts as a direct fungicide. Fungicides are Chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill or inhibit fungi or fungal spores Aerial spraying of phosphite boosts plant survival and slows the spread of infection,^[5][31] but must be carefully managed as studies have shown that foliar spraying of phosphite adversely affects root and shoot growth. Foliar feeding is a technique of feeding plants by applying liquid fertilizer directly to their leaves ^[32] Direct injection of phosphite into the stem of each tree appears to lack this disadvantage, but is costly to administer and restricted to known plants. A stem is one of two main structural axes of a Vascular plant.

Other diseases to which B.  brownii is vulnerable include the parasitic fungus Armillaria luteobubalina^[33] and the aerial canker fungus Zythiostroma. Honey fungus or Armillaria is a Genus of parasitic fungi that live on trees and woody shrubs Canker and anthracnose are general terms for a large number of different Plant Diseases characterised by broadly similar Symptoms including the A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Zythiostroma is a genus of Canker Fungus in the family Nectriaceae.

Fire regime

Because B.  brownii releases its seed in response to bushfire, it is important that fires occur at intervals that allow the plants to generate plenty of viable seed. The optimum fire interval is around 18 years. ^[5] If fire occurs too frequently, plants are burned before reaching maturity or before they have produced sufficient seed to ensure regeneration of the population. This may cause populations to decline, or even local extinction. Too-infrequent fire also causes population decline, as more plants die of natural attrition without releasing their seed, resulting in seed wastage. ^[19]

Cultivation

Cut flower spikes from Banksia brownii

With large metallic red inflorescences and attractive feathery leaves that are perhaps the softest of all Banksia species,^[11] B.  brownii is highly valued by Australia's horticultural and cut flower industries. Floriculture, or flower farming, is a discipline of Horticulture concerned with the cultivation of flowering and Ornamental plants for gardens and Seeds and plants are readily available in Australian nurseries, and it is widely cultivated in areas not exposed to dieback. ^[16][17] It prefers a sheltered position in soil with good drainage, and must be provided with moisture over summer. It grows quickly, but takes several years to flower. Once established, it is frost-tolerant and tolerates light pruning not below the green foliage. The flowers are attractive in late bud, but lose their colour as soon as they open. Because they are usually surrounded by branchlets, they may be partly hidden by foliage. ^[11]

The main obstacle to cultivation is the species' extreme sensitivity to dieback, which is widespread in suburban gardens. However, the species has been successfully grafted onto a rootstock of B. integrifolia (Coast Banksia), which renders it hardy on a range of soils. Grafting is a method of asexual Plant propagation widely used in Agriculture and Horticulture where the tissues of one Plant are encouraged to A rootstock is a Plant, and sometimes just the Stump, which already has an established healthy root system, used for Grafting a cutting or Banksia integrifolia, commonly known as Coast Banksia, is a Species of Tree that grows along the east coast of Australia. ^[34]

References

External links

• Banksia brownii R.Br.. FloraBase. FloraBase is a public access web-based database of the Flora of Western Australia. Department of Environment and Conservation, Government of Western Australia. The Department of Environment and Conservation is a department of the Government of Western Australia that is responsible for implementing the state's conservation and environment
• Banksia brownii Baxter ex R.Br.. Flora of Australia Online. The Flora of Australia is a 59 volume series describing the vascular plants bryophytes and lichens present in Australian and its external territories Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Government. The Department of the Environment Water Heritage and the Arts (DEWHA formerly the Department of the Environment and Water Resources (DEWR is a department of the Australian
• Banksia brownii Baxter ex R.Br. Australian Plant Name Index (APNI), IBIS database. The Australian Plant Name Index ( APNI) is an online database of all published names of Australian vascular plants Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Government.
• Banksia brownii — Brown's Banksia, Feather-leaved Banksia, Species Profile and Threats Database, Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australia.