Ancient Mesopotamia
Euphrates • Tigris
Cities / Empires
Sumer: Eridu • Kish • Uruk • Ur • Lagash • Nippur • Ngirsu
Elam: Susa
Akkadian Empire: Akkad • Mari
Amorites: Isin • Larsa
Babylonia: Babylon • Chaldea
Hittites • Kassites • Hurrians/Mitanni
Assyria: Assur • Nimrud • Dur-Sharrukin • Nineveh
Chronology
History of Mesopotamia
History of Sumer • Kings of Sumer
Kings of Assyria
Kings of Babylon
Mythology
Enûma Elish • Gilgamesh
Assyro-Babylonian religion
Language
Sumerian • Elamite
Akkadian • Aramaic
Hurrian • Hittite

Babylonia was a state in southern Mesopotamia, in modern Iraq, combining the territories of Sumer and Akkad. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Eridu (URUNUNKI; Sumerian:eridug Akkadian: ?) from the Sumerian for 'mighty place' is modern Tell Abu Shahrain, Iraq Uruk ( URU UNUG, Sumerian: unug Akkadian: uruk) from the Akkadian rendering of the Sumerian Toponym 'unug' is modern Ur ( Sumerian:urim; Akkadian: ?) is modern Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq, and was a city in ancient Sumer. Lagash ( is modern Tell al-Hiba, Iraq. Located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk Nippur (URUENLIL; Sumerian: Nibru Akkadian: Nibbur) from the Sumerian for 'lord wind' (Enlil is modern ? in Afak Al Qadisyah Ngirsu (cuneiform? Sumerian:Ĝirsu Akkadian: ?) is modern Tell Telloh, Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq, and it was a city of Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. Susa ( Biblical שושן ( Shushan) also Greek: Σοῦσα Transliterated as Sousa; Latin Susa) Mari (modern Tell Hariri, Syria) was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city located 11 kilometers north-west of the modern town of Amorite ( Sumerian MARTU, Akkadian Tidnum or Amurrūm, Egyptian Amar, Hebrew ’emōrî Isin (modern Ishan al-Bahriyat was a city of lower Mesopotamia, which flourished during the 20th century BC. Larsa (also Larag or Larak, modern Tell as-Senkereh, Iraq, possibly the Biblical Ellasar) was an important city of Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Chaldea (from Greek grc Χαλδαία Chaldaia; Akkadian akk māt Kaldu Hebrew כשדים Kaśdim, "the Chaldees" of the The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established The Kassites were an Ancient Near Eastern tribe who gained control of Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after ca The Hurrians (also Khurrites; cuneiform Ḫu-ur-ri 𒄷𒌨𒊑 were a people of the Ancient Near East, who lived in northern Mesopotamia Mitanni ( Hittite cuneiform, also Mittani) or Hanigalbat ( Assyrian Hanigalbat Khanigalbat cuneiform) Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Assur also spelled Ashur, from Assyrian Aššur, was one of the capitals of ancient Assyria. Nimrud is an ancient Assyrian city located south of Nineveh on the river Tigris. Dur-Sharrukin ("Fortress of Sargon" present day Khorsabad, was the Assyrian capital in the time of Sargon II of Assyria. Nineveh ( Akkadian: Ninua; Aramaic: ܢܝܢܘܐ Hebrew נינוה Nīnewē; Arabic نينوى Naīnuwa) See Short chronology for a timeline in absolute dates The Chronology of the Ancient Near East is a framework of dates for Ancient Mesopotamia was settled and conquered by numerous ancient Civilizations. The history of Sumer, taken to include the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods spans the 5th to 3rd millennia BC ending with the downfall of the Third The Sumerian king list is an ancient text in the Sumerian language that lists kings of Sumer from Sumerian and foreign dynasties The following is a list of the kings of Babylonia, a major city and empire in ancient lower Mesopotamia, compiled from the traditional Babylonian king lists and modern Mesopotamian mythology is the collective name given to Sumerian Akkadian Assyrian and Babylonian mythologies from the land between the Tigris The akk Enûma Eliš is the Babylonian Creation myth (named for its Incipit) Gilgamesh was the son of Lugalbanda and the fifth king of Uruk (Early Dynastic II first dynasty of Uruk ruling circa 2600 BC according to the Sumerian king The pre- Christian religions of Babylonia and Assyria are the earliest attestation of Ancient Semitic religion, in particular Mesopotamian mythology Assyriology (from Greek grc Ἀσσυρίᾱ Assyriā; and grc -λογία -logia) is the archaeological historical and linguistic study Sumerian ( " native tongue " was the language of ancient Sumer, spoken in Southern Mesopotamia since at least the 4th millennium BC Elamite is an Extinct language, which was spoken by the ancient Elamites. Aramaic is a Semitic language with Hurrian is a conventional name for the language of the Hurrians (Khurrites a people who entered northern Mesopotamia around 2300 BC and had mostly Hittite or Nesili is the Extinct language once spoken by the Hittites, a people who created an empire centered on ancient Hattusas (modern Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar The earliest mention of the city of Babylon can be found in a tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad, dating back to the 23rd century BC. Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq You may be looking for the Assyrian kings Sargon I The 23rd century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 2300 BC to 2201 BC

Contents 1 History 1.1 Old Babylonian period 1.2 Kassite period 1.3 Early Iron Age 1.4 Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldean Era) 1.5 Persian Babylonia 2 Achievements 2.1 Art and Architecture 2.2 Astronomy 2.3 Mathematics 2.4 Medicine 2.5 Literature 2.6 Philosophy 2.7 Technology 3 Babylonia in culture 4 See also 5 Further reading 6 External links 7 Footnotes

History

The Akkadians, a Semitic people, had early on come to dominate the region around Kish — including Babylon and the parts of Mesopotamia just north of Sumer, whose civilization deeply influenced that of Akkad. In Linguistics and Ethnology, Semitic (from the Biblical " Shem " Hebrew שם translated as "name" Arabic: ساميّ Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar An area intensely irrigated, and strategically located for trade routes and commerce, it was often under threat from outsiders throughout its history.

By the "neo-Sumerian" or Ur-III period, Babylon had become a centre for Amorite migrants from west of the Euphrates who had settled north of Sumer. The Third Dynasty of Ur refers simultaneously to a 21st to 20th century BC ( Short chronology) Sumerian ruling dynasty based in the city of Amorite ( Sumerian MARTU, Akkadian Tidnum or Amurrūm, Egyptian Amar, Hebrew ’emōrî The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת The Amorites were another Semitic-speaking people, who were at first regarded as uncivilized and nomadic shepherds by the more settled, crop-growing, Akkadians.

Old Babylonian period

Main article: First Babylonian Dynasty

At around 2000 BC, following the collapse of the "Ur-III" dynasty at the hands of the Elamites, Semitic Amorites from west of the Euphrates River gained control over most of Mesopotamia, where they formed a series of small kingdoms. The Chronology of the first dynasty of Babylonia is debated as there is a Babylonian King List A and a Babylonian King List B. The Third Dynasty of Ur refers simultaneously to a 21st to 20th century BC ( Short chronology) Sumerian ruling dynasty based in the city of Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. Amorite ( Sumerian MARTU, Akkadian Tidnum or Amurrūm, Egyptian Amar, Hebrew ’emōrî During the first centuries of what is called the "Amorite period", the most powerful city state was Isin, although Shamshi-Adad I came close to uniting the more northern regions. Isin (modern Ishan al-Bahriyat was a city of lower Mesopotamia, which flourished during the 20th century BC. Shamshi-Adad I (fl late 18th century BC ( Short chronology) rose to prominence when he carved out a large kingdom in northern Mesopotamia, the Old Assyrian One of these Amorite dynasties was established in the city-state of Babylon, which would ultimately take over the others and form the first Babylonian empire, during what is also called the Old Babylonian Period. A city-state is a Region controlled exclusively by a City, usually having Sovereignty.

The city of Babylon obtained hegemony over Mesopotamia under their sixth ruler, Hammurabi (c. Hammurabi ( Akkadian from Amorite ˤAmmurāpi, "the kinsman is a healer" from ˤAmmu, "paternal kinsman" and Rāpi 1780– c. The 18th century BC was the Century which lasted from 1800 BC to 1701 BC 1750 BC; dates highly uncertain). The 18th century BC was the Century which lasted from 1800 BC to 1701 BC He was a very efficient ruler, writing an influential law code, Hammurabi's Code and giving the region stability after turbulent times, thereby transforming it into the central power of Mesopotamia. The Code of Hammurabi ( Codex Hammurabi) is the best-preserved ancient Law code, created ca

Babylonian beliefs held the king as an agent of Marduk, and the city of Babylon as a "holy city" where any legitimate ruler of Mesopotamia had to be crowned. Marduk ( Sumerian spelling in Akkadian: AMARUTU 𒀫 𒌓 "solar calf" perhaps from MERI A natural development was the establishment of a bureaucracy, with taxation and centralized government, to allow the king to exert his control.

A great literary revival followed the recovery of Babylonian independence. One of the most important works of this "First Dynasty of Babylon", as it was called by the native historians, was the compilation of a code of laws. The Chronology of the first dynasty of Babylonia is debated as there is a Babylonian King List A and a Babylonian King List B. Archaeological material for the study of Babylonian law is singularly extensive This was made by order of Hammurabi after the expulsion of the Elamites and the settlement of his kingdom. Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. In 1901, a copy of the Code of Hammurabi was discovered by J. Year 1901 ( MCMI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting The Code of Hammurabi ( Codex Hammurabi) is the best-preserved ancient Law code, created ca De Morgan and V. Scheil at Susa, where it had been taken as plunder. Father Jean-Vincent Scheil (b 10 June 1858, Koenigsmacker &ndash d Susa ( Biblical שושן ( Shushan) also Greek: Σοῦσα Transliterated as Sousa; Latin Susa) That copy is now in the Louvre.

The Babylonians engaged in regular trade with city-states to the west; with Babylonian officials or troops sometimes passing to Syria and Canaan, and Amorite merchants operating throughout Mesopotamia. The Babylonian monarchy's western connections remained strong for quite some time. An Amorite named Abi-ramu or Abram was the father of a witness to a deed dated to the reign of Hammurabi's grandfather; Ammi-Ditana, great-grandson of Hammurabi, still titled himself "king of the land of the Amorites". Ammi-Ditana was a king of Babylon who reigned from 1683 - 1640s BC. Ammi-Ditana's father and son also bore Canaanite names: Abi-Eshuh and Ammisaduqa. Abi-Eshuh was a king of Babylon who reigned from 1711 - 1684 BC. Ammi-Saduqa (or Ammisaduqa, Ammizaduga) was a king (ca 1582 – 1562 BC Short chronology) of the First Dynasty of Babylon.

The armies of Babylonia were well-disciplined, and they conquered the city-states of Isin, Eshnunna, Uruk, and the kingdom of Mari. Isin (modern Ishan al-Bahriyat was a city of lower Mesopotamia, which flourished during the 20th century BC. Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar, Iraq) was an ancient Sumerian city and city-state in lower Mesopotamia. Uruk ( URU UNUG, Sumerian: unug Akkadian: uruk) from the Akkadian rendering of the Sumerian Toponym 'unug' is modern Mari (modern Tell Hariri, Syria) was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city located 11 kilometers north-west of the modern town of But Mesopotamia had no natural, defensible boundaries, making it vulnerable to attack. Trade and culture thrived for around 150 years until Babylon was sacked by the Hittites in the reign of Samsu-Ditana, ushering in the age of the Kassites who filled in the power vacuum. Samsu-Ditana ( Samsuditana) was the King of Babylon, who reigned from 1626 BC to 1595 BC

The date of the sack of Babylon by the Hittite king Mursilis I is considered crucial to the various calculations of the early Chronology of the ancient Near East, since both a solar and a lunar eclipse are said to have occurred in the month of Sivan that year, according to ancient records^[1]. Mursili I was a king of the Hittites ca 1556 – 1526 BC ( Short chronology) and was the grandson of his predecessor Hattusili I. See Short chronology for a timeline in absolute dates The Chronology of the Ancient Near East is a framework of dates for Sivan ( Hebrew: סִיוָן, Standard Sivan Tiberian Sîwān; from Akkadian The event has been variously calculated to dates ranging from 1499 BC to 1659 BC; the "Middle Chronology" most widely used today places it in 1595 BC.

Kassite period

Main article: Kassites

The 15th king of the dynasty was Samsu-Ditana, son of Ammisaduqa. The Kassites were an Ancient Near Eastern tribe who gained control of Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after ca Samsu-Ditana ( Samsuditana) was the King of Babylon, who reigned from 1626 BC to 1595 BC He was overthrown following the sack of Babylon by the Hittite king Mursili I, and Babylonia was turned over to the Kassites (Kossaeans) from the mountains of Iran, with whom Samsu-Iluna had already come into conflict in his 6th year. The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established Mursili I was a king of the Hittites ca 1556 – 1526 BC ( Short chronology) and was the grandson of his predecessor Hattusili I. The Kassites were an Ancient Near Eastern tribe who gained control of Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after ca Samsu-Iluna ( Samsuiluna) was the King of Babylon, who reigned from 1749 BC to 1712 BC.

The fall of Babylon is taken as a fixed point in the discussion of the chronology of the Ancient Near East. See Short chronology for a timeline in absolute dates The Chronology of the Ancient Near East is a framework of dates for Suggestions for its precise date vary by as much as 150 years, corresponding to the uncertainty regarding the length of the "Dark Age" of the ensuing Bronze Age collapse, resulting in the shift of the entire Bronze Age chronology of Mesopotamia with regard to the chronology of Ancient Egypt. The Bronze Age collapse is the name given by those historians who see the transition from the The creation of a reliable Chronology of Ancient Egypt is a task fraught with problems Possible dates for the sack of Babylon are:

• ultra-short chronology: 1499 BC
• short chronology: 1531 BC
• middle chronology: 1595 BC
• long chronology: 1651 BC

The Kassite dynasty was founded by Kandis or Gandash of Mari. The Kassites renamed Babylon "Kar-Duniash", and their rule lasted for 576 years. With this foreign dominion — that offers a striking analogy to the contemporary rule of the Hyksos in ancient Egypt — Babylonia lost its empire over western Asia. The Hyksos ( Egyptian heqa khasewet, "foreign rulers" Greek,, Arabic,) were an Asiatic people who invaded the eastern Nile Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The high-priests of Ashur made themselves kings of Assyria. Assur also spelled Ashur, from Assyrian Aššur, was one of the capitals of ancient Assyria. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Most divine attributes ascribed to the Semitic kings of Babylonia disappeared at this time; the title of God was never given to a Kassite sovereign. However, Babylon continued to be the capital of the kingdom and the 'holy' city of western Asia, where the priests were all-powerful, and the only place where the right to inheritance of the old Babylonian empire could be conferred.

The Kassite period lasted for several centuries, until 1125 BC, when Babylon was conquered by Shutruk-Nahhunte of Elam, and re-conquered a few years later by Nebuchadrezzar I. Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. Nebuchadrezzar I, more commonly known as Nebuchadnezzar I ( Akkadian: Nabu-kudurri-usur, meaning " Nebo, protect my eldest son" or "Nebo

Early Iron Age

In the Early Iron Age, from 1125 to 732 BC, Babylon was again ruled by native dynasties, beginning with Nebuchadrezzar I of Isin (Dynasty IV). This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. Nebuchadrezzar I, more commonly known as Nebuchadnezzar I ( Akkadian: Nabu-kudurri-usur, meaning " Nebo, protect my eldest son" or "Nebo Isin (modern Ishan al-Bahriyat was a city of lower Mesopotamia, which flourished during the 20th century BC. Dynasty IX begins with Nabonassar, whose rule (from 748 BC) heads Ptolemy's Canon of Kings. Nabonassar (also Nabonasser, Nabu-nasir, Nebo-adon-Assur or Nabo-n-assar) founded a kingdom in Babylon in 747 BC Events and trends 747 BC — February 26 - Nabonassar becomes king of Babylonia. The Canon of Kings was a dated list of kings used by ancient Astronomers as a convenient means to date astronomical phenomena such as Eclipses The Canon was preserved In 729 BC, Babylon was conquered into the Neo-Assyrian Empire by Tiglath-Pileser III and remained under Assyrian rule for a century, until the 620s BC revolt of Nabopolassar. Events and trends 728 BC — Piye invades Egypt, conquering Memphis, and receives the submission of the rulers of the Nile The Neo-Assyrian Empire was a period of Mesopotamian history which began in 934 BC and ended in 609 BC Tiglath-Pileser III (from the Hebraic form of Akkadian: Tukultī-apil-Ešarra, "my trust is in the son of Esharra" was a prominent king Events and trends 628 BC — King Josiah of Judah dies in the Battle of Megiddo against Pharaoh Necho II of Nabopolassar ( Akkadian: Nabû-apal-usur) was the first king (ruled 625-605 BC of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldean Era)

Main articles: Neo-Babylonian Empire and Chaldea

Through the centuries of Assyrian domination, Babylonia enjoyed a prominent status, or revolted at the slightest indication that it did not. The term Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean refers to Babylonia under the rule of the 11th ("Chaldean" dynasty from the revolt of Nabopolassar Chaldea (from Greek grc Χαλδαία Chaldaia; Akkadian akk māt Kaldu Hebrew כשדים Kaśdim, "the Chaldees" of the The Assyrians always managed to restore Babylonian loyalty, however, whether through granting of increased privileges, or militarily. That finally changed in 627 BC with the death of the last strong Assyrian ruler, Ashurbanipal, and Babylonia rebelled under Nabopolassar the Chaldean the following year. Ashurbanipal ( Akkadian: Aššur-bāni-apli, " Ashur has made a son" or "Ashur created an heir" (b Nabopolassar ( Akkadian: Nabû-apal-usur) was the first king (ruled 625-605 BC of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. With help from the Medes, Nineveh was sacked in 612 BC, and the seat of empire was again transferred to Babylonia. The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. Nineveh ( Akkadian: Ninua; Aramaic: ܢܝܢܘܐ Hebrew נינוה Nīnewē; Arabic نينوى Naīnuwa)

Nabopolassar was followed by his son Nebuchadnezzar II, whose reign of 43 years made Babylon once more the mistress of the civilized world, including the conquering of Phoenicia in 585 BC. Nebuchadrezzar II, more often called Nebuchadnezzar (c 630-562 BC was a ruler of Babylon in the Chaldean Dynasty, who reigned c Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun ^[2] Only a small fragment of his annals has been discovered, relating to his invasion of Egypt in 567 BC, and referring to "Phut of the Ionians". Events and trends 568 BC — Amtalqa succeeds his brother Aspelta as king of Kush.

Of the reign of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (Nabu-na'id), and the conquest of Babylonia by Cyrus, there is a fair amount of information available. Nabonidus ( Akkadian Nabû-nāʾid) was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, reigning from 556-539 BCE This is chiefly derived from a chronological tablet containing the annals of Nabonidus, supplemented by another inscription of Nabonidus where he recounts his restoration of the temple of the Moon-god at Harran; as well as by a proclamation of Cyrus issued shortly after his formal recognition as king of Babylonia. It was in the sixth year of Nabonidus (549 BC) that Cyrus, the Achaemenid Persian "king of Anshan" in Elam, revolted against his suzerain Astyages, "king of the Manda" or Medes, at Ecbatana. Events and trends 546 BC — Croesus, Lydian king, is defeated by Cyrus of Persia near the River Halys Astyages ( Persian: ایشتوویگو ( Ištovigu) spelled by Herodotus as Astyages by Ctesias as Astyigas; by Diodorus Astyages' army betrayed him to his enemy, and Cyrus established himself at Ecbatana, thus putting an end to the empire of the Medes. Three years later Cyrus had become king of all Persia, and was engaged in a campaign in the north of Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Meanwhile, Nabonidus had established a camp in the desert, near the southern frontier of his kingdom, leaving his son Belshazzar (Belsharutsur) in command of the army. Belshazzar (or Balthazar; Akkadian Bel-sarra-usur) was a prince of Babylon, the son of Nabonidus, the last king of Babylon according

In 539 BC Cyrus invaded Babylonia. Events and trends 539 BC — Babylon is conquered by Cyrus, defeating Nabonidus; noted in such documents as that of Africanus A battle was fought at Opis in the month of June, where the Babylonians were defeated; and immediately afterwards Sippara surrendered to the invader. Nabonidus fled to Babylon, where he was pursued by Gobryas, and on the 16th of Tammuz, two days after the capture of Sippara, "the soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without fighting. " Nabonidus was dragged from his hiding-place, where the services continued without interruption. Cyrus did not arrive until the 3rd of Marchesvan (October), Gobryas having acted for him in his absence. Gobryas was now made governor of the province of Babylon, and a few days afterwards the son of Nabonidus died. A public mourning followed, lasting six days, and Cambyses accompanied the corpse to the tomb.

Cyrus now claimed to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of Bel-Marduk, who was assumed to be wrathful at the impiety of Nabonidus in removing the images of the local gods from their ancestral shrines, to his capital Babylon. Marduk ( Sumerian spelling in Akkadian: AMARUTU 𒀫 𒌓 "solar calf" perhaps from MERI Nabonidus, in fact, had excited a strong feeling against himself by attempting to centralize the religion of Babylonia in the temple of Merodach (Marduk) at Babylon, and while he had thus alienated the local priesthoods, the military party despised him on account of his antiquarian tastes. He seems to have left the defense of his kingdom to others, occupying himself with the more congenial work of excavating the foundation records of the temples and determining the dates of their builders.

The invasion of Babylonia by Cyrus was doubtless facilitated by the existence of a disaffected party in the state, as well as by the presence of foreign forced exiles like the Jews, who had been planted in the midst of the country. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ One of the first acts of Cyrus accordingly was to allow these exiles to return to their own homes, carrying with them the images of their gods and their sacred vessels. The permission to do so was embodied in a proclamation, whereby the conqueror endeavored to justify his claim to the Babylonian throne. The feeling was still strong that none had a right to rule over western Asia until he had been consecrated to the office by Bel and his priests; and accordingly, Cyrus henceforth assumed the imperial title of "King of Babylon. "

A year before Cyrus' death, in 529 BC, he elevated his son Cambyses II in the government, making him king of Babylon, while he reserved for himself the fuller title of "king of the (other) provinces" of the empire. Events 529 BC — Cambyses II started to rule He is son of Cyrus II. It was only when Darius Hystaspis acquired the Persian throne and ruled it as a representative of the Zoroastrian religion, that the old tradition was broken and the claim of Babylon to confer legitimacy on the rulers of western Asia ceased to be acknowledged. Darius I the Great (c 549 BC&ndash486 BC 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 Dārayavahuš: "Possessing goodness" Having ascended to power amidst controversy and bloodshed Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings

Immediately after Darius seized Persia, Babylonia briefly recovered its independence under Nidinta-Bel, who took the name of Nebuchadnezzar III, and reigned from October 522 BC to August 520 BC, when Darius took the city by storm. Events 529 BC — Cambyses II started to rule He is son of Cyrus II. Events 529 BC — Cambyses II started to rule He is son of Cyrus II. A few years later, probably 514 BC, Babylon again revolted under Arakha; on this occasion, after its capture by the Persians, the walls were partly destroyed. Events and trends 519 BC — Zhou Jing Wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. Nebuchadnezzar IV, born Arakha, was the self-proclaimed last king of Babylon. E-Saggila, the great temple of Bel, however, still continued to be kept in repair and to be a center of Babylonian patriotism, until at last the foundation of Seleucia diverted the population to the new capital of Babylonia and the ruins of the old city became a quarry for the builders of the new seat of government. For the Syrian seaport of the same name that figures in the travels of Saint Paul see Seleucia Pieria.

Persian Babylonia

Further information: Persian Mesopotamia

Chaldean Babylonia was absorbed into the Achaemenid Empire in 539 BC. "Aturia" redirects here For the Fossil Nautilus Genus, see Aturia (cephalopod. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Events and trends 539 BC — Babylon is conquered by Cyrus, defeating Nabonidus; noted in such documents as that of Africanus The name of the satrapy was changed to Asuristan in the Sassanid period. See also the related deity Satrapes. Satrap (Persian ساتراپ was the name given to the governors of the Provinces of ancient Asuristan ( Assyria) was a province of the Sassanid Empire ( 226 &ndash 651) The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Excepting brief interludes of Roman conquest (Roman Assyria, Roman Mesopotamia; AD 116 to 118), and a longer period of Hellenistic rule (the Seleucid Empire, 330 to 250 BC), Mesopotamia remained under Persian control until the Islamic conquest in the 630s AD. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Assyria was one of three provinces (Armenia Mesopotamia and Assyria created by the Roman emperor Trajan in 116 C Mesopotamia was one of three provinces (besides Armenia and Assyria) created by the Roman emperor Trajan in AD 116 This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia Events and Trends 630 — Serbs and Croats settle the Balkans in the provinces of Moesia, Pannonia and

Achievements

Art and Architecture

Further information: Art and architecture of Babylonia and Assyria

In Babylonia, an abundance of clay, and lack of stone, led to greater use of mudbrick; Babylonian temples are massive structures of crude brick, supported by buttresses, the rain being carried off by drains. See also History of architecture Assyria flourished from the Old Assyrian period in the Middle Bronze Age until the Neo-Assyrian Empire Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere A mudbrick is a firefree Brick made of Clay, or mud mixed with a binding material such as rice husks or straw A buttress is an architectural structure built against (a counterfort) or projecting from a Wall which serves to support or reinforce the wall One such drain at Ur was made of lead. Ur ( Sumerian:urim; Akkadian: ?) is modern Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq, and was a city in ancient Sumer. The use of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enamelled tiles. A pilaster is a slightly-projecting flattened Column built into or applied to the face of a wall Fresco (plural either frescos or frescoes) is any of several related Painting types done on Plaster on walls or The walls were brilliantly coloured, and sometimes plated with zinc or gold, as well as with tiles. Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30 Painted terra-cotta cones for torches were also embedded in the plaster. Terra cotta ( Italian: "baked earth" is a Ceramic. Its uses include vessels water & waste water pipes and surface embellishment in Building construction

In Babylonia, in place of the bas-relief, there is greater use of three-dimensional figures in the round — the earliest examples being the statues from Telloh, that are realistic if somewhat clumsy. A bas-relief (baʁəljɛf in French; French for "low relief" derived from the Italian basso rilievo) or low relief is a Sculpture Ngirsu (cuneiform? Sumerian:Ĝirsu Akkadian: ?) is modern Tell Telloh, Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq, and it was a city of The paucity of stone in Babylonia made every pebble precious, and led to a high perfection in the art of gem-cutting.

The legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Tower of Babel are seen as symbols of luxurious and arrogant power respectively. The Tower of Babel (מגדל בבל Migdal Bavel برج بابل Burj Babil) is a structure featured in chapter 11 of the Book of Genesis, an enormous

Astronomy

Main article: Babylonian astronomy

Among the sciences, astronomy and astrology occupied a conspicuous place in Babylonian society. Babylonian astronomy refers to the astronomical theories and methods that were developed in ancient Mesopotamia, the "land between the rivers" Tigris Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems Astronomy was of old standing in Babylonia, and the standard work on the subject, written from an astrological point of view, later translated into Greek by Berossus, was believed to date from the age of Sargon of Akkad. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Berossus (also Berossos or Berosus; Greek: Βήρωσσος was a Hellenistic -era Babylonian writer and astronomer who You may be looking for the Assyrian kings Sargon I The zodiac was a Babylonian invention of great antiquity; and eclipses of the sun and moon could be foretold. Zodiac denotes an annual cycle of twelve stations along the Ecliptic, the apparent path of the sun across the heavens through the Constellations that divide the ecliptic An eclipse is an astronomical event that occurs when one Celestial object moves into the shadow of another The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. There are dozens of cuneiform records of original Mesopotamian eclipse observations (see Wikipedia's "Chronology of Babylonia and Assyria"). ^[3] Observatories were attached to the temples, and reports were regularly sent by astronomers to the king. An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial and/or celestial events The stars had been numbered and named at an early date, and we possess tables of lunar longitudes and observations of Venus. The VENUS ( V ictoria E xperimental N etwork U nder the S ea project is a cabled sea floor observatory operated by the University Great attention was naturally paid to the calendar, and we find a week of seven days and another of five days in use. The word Calendar consist of two words 1 Cal ( in Pashto means Year in Hindi and Persian is Sal- also means Year A week (also called sennight or sevennight) is a unit of Time longer than a Day and shorter than a Month.

Babylonian astrology was based on the belief that the entire universe was created in relation to the earth. The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Thus the ancients saw it as no accident that the stars and planets were set in a certain divine order at the time of creation. A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth A planet, as defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU is a celestial body Orbiting a Star or stellar remnant that is

The first evidence of recognition that astronomical phenomena are periodic and of the application of mathematics to their prediction is Babylonian. Tablets dating back to the Old Babylonian period document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year. Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in the series of cuneiform tablets known as the 'Enūma Anu Enlil'. The oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of 'Enūma Anu Enlil', the Venus tablet of Ammi-saduqa, which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years and is the earliest evidence that the phenomena of a planet were recognized as periodic. Ammi-Saduqa (or Ammisaduqa, Ammizaduga) was a king (ca 1582 – 1562 BC Short chronology) of the First Dynasty of Babylon. The oldest rectangular astrolabe dates back to Babylonia ca. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators 1100 BC. The MUL.APIN, contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting heliacal risings and the settings of the planets, lengths of daylight measured by a water-clock, gnomon, shadows, and intercalations. MULAPIN is a general compendium that deals with many diverse aspects of Babylonian astrology. The heliacal rising of a Star (or other body such as the Moon, a Planet or a Constellation) occurs when it first becomes visible above the eastern A water clock or clepsydra ( Greek kleptein to steal; hydro water) is any timekeeper operated by means of a regulated flow of liquid into (inflow The gnomon is the part of a Sundial that casts the Shadow. Gnomon (γνώμων is an Ancient Greek word meaning "indicator" "one who Intercalation is the insertion of a leap day week or month into some calendar years to make the calendar follow the seasons or moon phases The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time-intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences. ^[4]

During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe and began empoying an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution. Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions foundations and implications of Science. ^[5] This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.

In Seleucid and Parthian times, the astronomical reports were of a thoroughly scientific character; how much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the history of astronomy. Astronomy is the oldest of the Natural sciences dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, Mythological, and Astrological

The only Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a heliocentric model of planetary motion was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. Seleucus (or Seleukos) of Seleucia (born c 190 BC fl 150s BC was a Babylonian astronomer from the Seleucia 190 BC). Events By place Greece The Battle of the Eurymedon is fought between a Seleucid fleet and ships from Rhodes and ^[6][7][8] Seleucus is known from the writings of Plutarch. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c He supported the heliocentric theory where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun. Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c

Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanian, Byzantine and Syrian astronomy, in medieval Islamic astronomy, and in Central Asian and Western European astronomy. Greek astronomy is the Astronomy of those who wrote in the Greek language in Classical antiquity. Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' ^[9]

Mathematics

Main article: Babylonian mathematics

The Babylonian system of mathematics was sexagesimal, or a base 60 numeral system (see: Babylonian numerals). Babylonian mathematics refers to any mathematics of the peoples of Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) from the days of the early Sumerians to the fall of Sexagesimal ( base-sixty) is a Numeral system with sixty as the base. A numeral system (or system of numeration) is a Mathematical notation for representing numbers of a given set by symbols in a consistent manner Babylonian numerals were written in cuneiform, using a wedge-tipped reed Stylus to make a mark on a soft Clay tablet which would be exposed From this we derive the modern day usage of 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 360 (60 x 6) degrees in a circle. The Babylonians were able to make great advances in mathematics for two reasons. First, the number 60 has many divisors (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, and 30), making calculations easier. In Mathematics, a divisor of an Integer n, also called a factor of n, is an integer which evenly divides n without Additionally, unlike the Egyptians and Romans, the Babylonians had a true place-value system, where digits written in the left column represented larger values (much as in our base-ten system: 734 = 7×100 + 3×10 + 4×1). Among the Babylonians' mathematical accomplishments were the determination of the square root of two correctly to seven places (YBC 7289 clay tablet). The square root of 2, also known as Pythagoras' Constant, often denoted by \sqrt{2}   or   √2 They also demonstrated knowledge of the Pythagorean theorem well before Pythagoras, as evidenced by this tablet translated by Dennis Ramsey and dating to ca. In Mathematics, the Pythagorean theorem ( American English) or Pythagoras' theorem ( British English) is a relation in Euclidean geometry 1900 BC:

4 is the length and 5 is the diagonal. What is the breadth? Its size is not known. 4 times 4 is 16. And 5 times 5 is 25. You take 16 from 25 and there remains 9. What times what shall I take in order to get 9? 3 times 3 is 9. 3 is the breadth.

The ner of 600 and the sar of 3600 were formed from the unit of 60, corresponding with a degree of the equator. The equator (sometimes referred to colloquially as "the Line") is the intersection of the Earth 's surface with the plane perpendicular to the Tablets of squares and cubes, calculated from 1 to 60, have been found at Senkera, and a people acquainted with the sun-dial, the clepsydra, the lever and the pulley, must have had no mean knowledge of mechanics. A crystal lens, turned on the lathe, was discovered by Austen Henry Layard at Nimrud along with glass vases bearing the name of Sargon; this could explain the excessive minuteness of some of the writing on the Assyrian tablets, and a lens may also have been used in the observation of the heavens. The Right Honourable Sir Austen Henry Layard (ˈɔːstɪn ˈhɛnriː lɛəd 5 March, 1817 – 5 July, 1894) was a Nimrud is an ancient Assyrian city located south of Nineveh on the river Tigris. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture

The Babylonians might have been familiar with the general rules for measuring the areas. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if π were estimated as 3. The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the base and the height, however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used π as 3 and 1/8. The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven miles today. This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time. (Eves, Chapter 2)

Medicine

The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date back to the First Babylonian Dynasty in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the The Chronology of the first dynasty of Babylonia is debated as there is a Babylonian King List A and a Babylonian King List B. The 2nd millennium BC marks the transition from the Middle to the Late Bronze Age. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the physician Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa,^[10] during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BC). Borsippa (modern Birs Nimrud site Iraq) was an important ancient city of Sumer, built on both sides of a lake about 17 The following is a list of the kings of Babylonia, a major city and empire in ancient lower Mesopotamia, compiled from the traditional Babylonian king lists and modern ^[11]

Along with contemporary ancient Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. Ancient Egyptian Medicine refers to the practices of healing common in Ancient Egypt from Circa 3300 BC until the Persian Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything Prognosis (older Greek πρόγνωσις modern Greek πρόγνωση - literally fore-knowing foreseeing) is a medical term denoting the Physical examination or clinical examination is the process by which a Health care provider investigates the body of a Patient for signs In addition, the Diagnostic Handbook introduced the methods of therapy and aetiology and the use of empiricism, logic and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. Therapy (in Greek: θεραπεία) or treatment, is the attempted Remediation of a health problem usually following a Diagnosis Etiology (alternatively aetiology, aitiology) is the study of causation. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to The text contains a list of medical symptoms and often detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis. A symptom' (from Greek σύμπτωμα, "accident misfortune that which befalls" from συμπίπτω, "I befall" from Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data A patient is any person who receives medical attention care or treatment. ^[12]

The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as bandages, creams and pills. A bandage is a piece of material used either to support a medical device such as a dressing or splint, or on its own to provide support to the body A cream is a topical preparation usually for application to the Skin. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on exorcism to cleanse the patient from any curses. Exorcism (from Late Latin exorcismus, from Greek exorkizein - to adjure is the practice of evicting Demons or other evil A curse (also called execration) is any manner of Adversity thought to be inflicted by any supernatural power (such as a spell, a Prayer, an Esagil-kin-apli's Diagnostic Handbook was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's disease, its aetiology and future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery. In traditional Logic, an axiom or postulate is a proposition that is not proved or demonstrated but considered to be either self-evident, or subject An inspection is most generally an organised examination or formal evaluation exercise A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly ^[10]

Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of illnesses and diseases and described their symptoms in his Diagnostic Handbook. Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health or ail) can be defined as a state of poor Health. These include the symptoms for many varieties of epilepsy and related ailments along with their diagnosis and prognosis. Epilepsy is a common chronic Neurological disorder that is characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health or ail) can be defined as a state of poor Health. ^[13]

Literature

Main article: Babylonian literature

There were libraries in most towns and temples; an old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn. Babylonian literature is one of the world's oldest Drawing on the traditions of Sumerian literature, the Babylonians compiled a vast textual tradition of mythological Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar " Women as well as men learned to read and write, and in Semitic times, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary. Sumerian ( " native tongue " was the language of ancient Sumer, spoken in Southern Mesopotamia since at least the 4th millennium BC

A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be the old agglutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists of them were drawn up.

There are many Babylonian literary works whose titles have come down to us. One of the most famous of these was the Epic of Gilgamesh, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain Sin-liqi-unninni, and arranged upon an astronomical principle. The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from Ancient Mesopotamia and is among the earliest known works of literary fiction. Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh was the son of Lugalbanda and the fifth king of Uruk (Early Dynastic II first dynasty of Uruk ruling circa 2600 BC according to the Sumerian king The whole story is a composite product, and it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure.

Philosophy

Further information: Babylonian literature: Philosophy

The origins of Babylonian philosophy can be traced back to early Mesopotamian wisdom, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly ethics, in the forms of dialectic, dialogs, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose, and proverbs. Babylonian literature is one of the world's oldest Drawing on the traditions of Sumerian literature, the Babylonians compiled a vast textual tradition of mythological Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Wisdom is a concept of personal gaining of Knowledge, Understanding, Experience, discretion and intuitive understanding, along with a capacity Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions A dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog) is a reciprocal Conversation between two or more entities. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation History The concept of folklore developed as part of the 19th century ideology of Romantic nationalism, leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological A hymn is a type of Song, usually religious specifically written for the purpose of praise adoration or Prayer, and typically addressed to a deity/deities Lyrics (in singular form Lyric) are a set of words that accompany music either by speaking or singing For the Wikipedia guideline regarding editing articles see WikipediaManual of Style. A proverb (from the Latin proverbium) also called a byword or nayword, is a simple and concrete Saying popularly known and repeated Babylonian reasoning and rationality developed beyond empirical observation. Reasoning is the cognitive process of looking for Reasons for beliefs conclusions actions or feelings Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. ^[14]

It is possible that Babylonian philosophy had an influence on Greek, particularly Hellenistic philosophy. Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. Hellenistic philosophy is the period of Western philosophy that was developed in the Hellenistic civilization following Aristotle and ending with Neoplatonism The Babylonian text Dialog of Pessimism contains similarities to the agonistic thought of the sophists, the Heraclitean doctrine of contrasts, and the dialogs of Plato, as well as a precursor to the maieutic Socratic method of Socrates. An agonist is a term used to describe a type of ligand or drug that binds and alters the activity of a receptor. Heraclitus of Ephesus ( Ancient Greek: &mdash grc-Latn ''Hērákleitos ho Ephésios'' English Heraclitus the Ephesian) (ca Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Maieutics is a complex procedure of Research introduced by Socrates, embracing the Socratic method in its widest sense The Socratic Method (or Method of Elenchus or Socratic Debate) named after the Classical Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. ^[15] The Milesian philosopher Thales is also known to have studied philosophy in Mesopotamia. Thales of Miletus According to Bertrand Russell, "Philosophy begins with Thales

Technology

Babylonians invented many technologies, which include metalworking, copper-working, glassmaking, lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, and water storage, as well as irrigation. Metalworking is craft and practice of working with Metals to create individual parts assemblies or large scale structures Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many An oil lamp is a simple vessel used to produce light continuously for a period of time from a fuel source A textile is a flexible material comprised of a network of natural or artificial Fibres often referred to as thread or Yarn. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops Earlier on they used copper, bronze and gold, and later they used iron. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, and maces. Armour (or armor) is protective covering most commonly manufactured from metals to prevent damage from being inflicted to an individual or a vehicle through use of direct contact A dagger (from Vulgar Latin: 'daca' - a Dacian Knife) is a typically double-edged blade used for Stabbing or thrusting This is an article about a particle accelerator For uses of spear, see Spear or Spear (disambiguation. A mace is a simple Weapon that uses a heavy head on the end of a handle to deliver powerful blows

Babylonia in culture

Babylonia, and particularly its capital city Babylon, has long held a place in Abrahamic religions as a symbol of excess and dissolute power. Many references are made to Babylon in the Bible, both literally and allegorically. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin The mentions in the Tanakh tend to be historical or prophetic, while New Testament references are more likely figurative, or cryptic references to pagan Rome. See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is Babylon occurs in the Christian New Testament both with a literal and a figurative meaning The legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Tower of Babel are seen as symbols of luxurious and arrogant power respectively. The Tower of Babel (מגדל בבל Migdal Bavel برج بابل Burj Babil) is a structure featured in chapter 11 of the Book of Genesis, an enormous

See also

• Ancient Orient
• Art and architecture of Babylonia and Assyria
• Assyriology
• Babylonia and Assyria
• Babylonian law
• Babylonian numerals
• Chaldean mythology
• Chronology of Babylonia and Assyria
• Cuneiform script
• Geography of Babylonia and Assyria
• History of Sumer
• Kings of Babylon
• Mesopotamia
• Social life in Babylonia and Assyria

Further reading

• Ascalone, Enrico. The Ancient Near East refers to early Civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia (modern Iraq See also History of architecture Assyria flourished from the Old Assyrian period in the Middle Bronze Age until the Neo-Assyrian Empire Assyriology (from Greek grc Ἀσσυρίᾱ Assyriā; and grc -λογία -logia) is the archaeological historical and linguistic study During the period when they were competing for dominance in Mesopotamia the neighbouring sister-states of Babylonia and Assyria differed essentially in character Archaeological material for the study of Babylonian law is singularly extensive Babylonian numerals were written in cuneiform, using a wedge-tipped reed Stylus to make a mark on a soft Clay tablet which would be exposed Mesopotamian mythology is the collective name given to Sumerian Akkadian Assyrian and Babylonian mythologies from the land between the Tigris See Short chronology for a timeline in absolute dates The Chronology of the Ancient Near East is a framework of dates for The Geography of Babylonia, like its Ethnology and History, enclosed between the two great rivers the Tigris and Euphrates, forms but one country The history of Sumer, taken to include the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods spans the 5th to 3rd millennia BC ending with the downfall of the Third The following is a list of the kings of Babylonia, a major city and empire in ancient lower Mesopotamia, compiled from the traditional Babylonian king lists and modern Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding During the period when they were competing for dominance in Mesopotamia the neighbouring sister-states of Babylonia and Assyria differed essentially in character Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians (Dictionaries of Civilizations; 1). Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007 (paperback, ISBN 0520252667).
• Bryant, Tamera. The Life and Times of Hammurabi.
• Eves, Howard. An Introduction to the History of Mathematics.
• King, Leonard William. Babylonian Religion and Mythology.
• Leick, Gwendolyn. The Babylonians: An Introduction.
• Leick, Gwendolyn. Mesopotamia.
• Lloyd, Seton. The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: From the Old Stone Age to the Persian Conquest.
• Mieroop, Marc Van de. King Hammurabi Of Babylon: A Biography.
• Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia.
• Oates, Joan. Babylon.
• Oppenheim, A. Leo. Ancient Mesopotamia : Portrait of a Dead Civilization.
• Pallis, Svend Aage. The Antiquity of Iraq.
• Roux, Georges. Ancient Iraq.
• Saggs, Henry Babylonians.
• Saggs, Henry The Greatness That Was Babylon.
• Schomp, Virginia. Ancient Mesopotamia: The Sumerians, Babylonians, And Assyrians.
• Spence, Lewis. Myths and Legends of Babylonia and Assyria.

External links

• Babylonian Mathematics
• Babylonian Numerals
• Babylonian Astronomy/Astrology
• Bibliography of Babylonian Astronomy/Astrology
• The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria by Theophilus G. Pinches (Many deities' names are now read differently, but this detailed 1906 Work is a classic)
• Chronology of Babylonia and Assyria
• The History Files Ancient Mesopotamia
• Legends of Babylon and Egypt in Relation to Hebrew Tradition, by Leonard W. King, 1918 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format)
• The Babylonian Legends of the Creation and the Fight between Bel and the Dragon, as told by Assyrian Tablets from Nineveh, 1921 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format)
• The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria; its remains, language, history, religion, commerce, law, art, and literature, by Morris Jastrow, Jr. DjVu (pronounced Déjà vu) is a Computer File format designed primarily to store scanned images especially those containing text and line DjVu (pronounced Déjà vu) is a Computer File format designed primarily to store scanned images especially those containing text and line . . . with map and 164 illustrations, 1915 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format)

Many of these articles were originally based on content from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. DjVu (pronounced Déjà vu) is a Computer File format designed primarily to store scanned images especially those containing text and line Year 1911 ( MCMXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc

Footnotes

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