| Austro-Prussian War (Seven Weeks' War) | |||||||||
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| Part of the wars of German unification | |||||||||
 Battle of Königgrätz, by Georg Bleibtreu. Oil on canvas, 1869. |
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
 Austria
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 Prussia
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| Strength | |||||||||
| 600,000 Austrians and German allies | 500,000 Prussians and German allies 300,000 Italians |
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| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| Austria: over 71,000[1] | 37,000 dead or wounded (German and Italian) | ||||||||
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The Austro-Prussian War (also called the Seven Weeks War, the Unification War[2], or the German Civil War) was a war fought in 1866 between the Austrian Empire and its German allies on one side and the Kingdom of Prussia with its German allies and Italy on the other, that resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states. Year 1866 ( MDCCCLXVI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom The Kingdom of Hanover (Königreich Hannover was established in October of 1814 by the Congress of Vienna, with the restoration of George III to his Hanoverian The Province of Schleswig-Holstein (Provinz Schleswig-Holstein was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia and the Free State of Prussia from 1868 to For almost five centuries the German city of Frankfurt am Main was a city-state within two major Germanic states The Holy Roman Empire as the Free Nassau was a German state within the Holy Roman Empire and later in the German Confederation. The Grand Duchy of Hesse (Großherzogtum Hessen was a former state that existed in modern-day Germany. The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of For the history of these states before 1804 see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. For the history of these states before 1804 see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. The Kingdom of Saxony (Königreich Sachsen lasting between 1806 and 1918 was an independent member of a number of historical confederacies in Napoleonic through post-Napoleonic The Kingdom of Bavaria (Königreich Bayern was a German state that existed from 1806&ndash1918 Baden is a historical state in the southwest of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine. The Kingdom of Württemberg (Königreich Württemberg was a state that existed from 1806 to 1918 and is currently located in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The Kingdom of Hanover (Königreich Hannover was established in October of 1814 by the Congress of Vienna, with the restoration of George III to his Hanoverian The Grand Duchy of Hesse (Großherzogtum Hessen was a former state that existed in modern-day Germany. The Principality of Reuss Elder Line (Fürstentum Reuß ältere Linie was a state in Germany, ruled by members of the House of Reuss. The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen was one of the Saxon Duchies held by the Ernestine line of the Wettin Dynasty Schaumburg-Lippe was a small state in Germany, in the present day state of Lower Saxony, with its capital at Bückeburg. For almost five centuries the German city of Frankfurt am Main was a city-state within two major Germanic states The Holy Roman Empire as the Free Nassau was a German state within the Holy Roman Empire and later in the German Confederation. The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom Mecklenburg-Schwerin was a Duchy (from 1815 a Grand duchy) in northern Germany, formed by a partition of the Duchy of Mecklenburg. Oldenburg ( Low German: Ollnborg) is a historical state in today's Germany named for its capital Oldenburg. Anhalt is a historical County (after 1806 Duchy) in central Germany, located between the Harz Mountains and the river Elbe Brunswick (Braunschweig was a historical state in Germany. Originally the territory of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in the Holy Roman Empire, it was established Saxe-Altenburg (Sachsen-Altenburg was one of the Saxon duchies held by the Ernestine branch of the Wettin dynasty Saxe-Coburg and Gotha or Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha served as the name of the two German duchies of Saxe-Coburg and Saxe-Gotha in Lippe and later Lippe-Detmold was a historical state in Germany. Schwarzburg-Sondershausen was a small Principality in Germany in the present day state of Thuringia, with capital at Sondershausen. Waldeck (or later Waldeck and Pyrmont) was a sovereign principality in the German Empire and German Confederation and until 1929 a constituent state of Bremen (ˈbʁeːmən is a Hanseatic city in northwestern Germany (official name Stadtgemeinde Bremen / City Municipality of Bremen Hamburg (English, German: ˈhambʊɐk local pronunciation Low German / Low Saxon: Hamborg) is the second-largest city in Germany Lübeck ( is the second largest City in Schleswig-Holstein, in Northern Germany, and one of the major War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units Year 1866 ( MDCCCLXVI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common For the history of these states before 1804 see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom In Germany and Austria it is called the Deutscher Krieg (German war), Österreichisch-preussischer Krieg (Austro-Prussian War) or Bruderkrieg (war of brothers). In the Italian unification process, this is called the Third Independence War. Italian Unification ( Italian: il Risorgimento, or "The Resurgence" was the political and social movement that unified different states of the Italian
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The major result of the war was a shift in power among the states of the German Confederation away from Austrian and towards Prussian hegemony, and impetus towards the unification of all of the northern German states in a Kleindeutschland that excluded Austria. The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to serve as the successor to Hegemony (hɨˈdʒɛməni (Amer /hɨˈɡɛməni/ (Brit (ἡγεμονία hēgemonía) is a concept that has been used to describe and explain the dominance of one social The unification of Germany took place on January 18, 1871, when Prussian Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck managed to unify a number of independent The Kleindeutsche Lösung ("Lesser German Solution" was a 19th century political idea postulating the idea of a unified Germany consisting of the members The war also strengthened the ideal of the nation state in Italy. For the online game see Jennifer Government NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of State that derives its legitimacy Another result was the severance of the ties of the British royal family, the House of Hanover, with government in Germany after the Kingdom of Hanover was annexed by Prussia as a result of the war (however,some members of the British royal family continued to hold German allegiance and titles until the declaration of the First World War). The Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was a State in northwest Europe, in existence from 1707 to 1800 The House of Hanover (the Hanoverians) is a Germanic royal Dynasty which has ruled the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg The Kingdom of Hanover (Königreich Hannover was established in October of 1814 by the Congress of Vienna, with the restoration of George III to his Hanoverian World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All
Causes
For centuries, the Holy Roman Emperors who mostly came from the Habsburg family had nominally ruled all of 'Germany' - the Holy Roman Empire. The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in In fact, however, the territory of Central Europe was split into a few large states and hundreds of tiny entities (principalities, bishropics and free cities), each jealously maintaining its de facto sovereignty and independence with the assistance of outside powers, particularly France. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Austria - the personal territory of the Habsburg Emperors - was traditionally considered the leader of the German states, but Prussia was becoming increasingly powerful and by the late 18th century was ranked as one of the great powers of Europe. The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system A great power is a Nation or State that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale After the Napoleonic Wars had ended in 1815, the Germanic states of the defunct Holy Roman Empire were reorganized into a loose confederation: the German Confederation, under Austrian leadership. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions Year 1815 ( MDCCCXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to serve as the successor to
In the meantime, partly in reaction to the triumphant French nationalism of Napoleon, and partly as an organic feeling of commonality glorified during the romantic era, German nationalism became a potent force during this period. Romanticism is a complex artistic literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the Pan-Germanism (Pangermanismus or Alldeutsche Bewegung was a political movement of the 19th century aiming for unity of the German -speaking peoples of Europe The ultimate aim of most German nationalists was the union of all Germans into one state. Two different ideas of national unification eventually came to the fore. One was a Grossdeutschland that would include all German-speaking lands, including and dominated by the multi-national empire of Austria; the other (preferred by Prussia) was a Kleindeutschland that would exclude even the German parts of Austria and be dominated by Prussia. Großdeutschland ( German for "Greater Germany" or "Large Germany" is a term referring to the concept of one German Nation-state The Kleindeutsche Lösung ("Lesser German Solution" was a 19th century political idea postulating the idea of a unified Germany consisting of the members
There are many different interpretations of Bismarck's behavior prior to the Austrian-Prussian war, which concentrate mainly on whether the 'Iron chancellor' had a master plan that resulted in this war, the North German confederation, and eventually the unification of Germany. Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898)
Bismarck maintained that he orchestrated the conflict in order to bring about the North German Confederation, the Franco-Prussian War and the eventual unification of Germany. However, historians such as A.J.P Taylor dispute this interpretation and believe that Bismarck did not have a master plan, but rather was an opportunist who took advantage of the favourable situations that presented themselves. Alan John Percival Taylor ( March 25, 1906 – September 7, 1990) was a renowned English Historian of the 20th century Taylor thinks Bismarck manipulated events into the most beneficial solution possible for Prussia. Possible evidence can be found in Bismarck's orchestration of the Austrian alliance during the Second War of Schleswig against Denmark, which can be seen as his diplomatic ‘masterstroke. The First Schleswig War occurred in 1848–1851. The Second Schleswig War (2 ’ Taylor also believes that the alliance was a "test for Austria rather than a trap", and that the goal was not war with Austria, contradicting what Bismarck later gave in his memoirs as the main reason for establishing the alliance. It was in Prussia’s best interests to gain an alliance with Austria so that the combined allied force could easily defeat Denmark and as a result settle the issue of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The Jutland Peninsula is a long peninsula in Northern Europe, and the current Schleswig-Holstein is its southern part The alliance can therefore be regarded as an aid to Prussian expansion, rather than a provocation of war against Austria. Many historians believe that Bismarck was simply a Prussian expansionist, rather than a German nationalist who sought the unification of Germany. In general expansionism consists of expansionist policies While some have linked the term to promoting Economic growth (in contrast to no growth / Sustainable policies It was later at the convention of Gastein that the Austrian alliance was set up to lure Austria into war.
Bismarck had also set up an alliance with Italy committing them to war if Prussia went to war within three months. This treaty virtually guaranteed a commitment on Bismarck's side to muster up a war with Austria within these 3 months in order to ensure Austria's full strength would not be attacking Prussia.
The timing of declaration was perfect, because all other European powers were bound by alliances that forbade them from entering, or had domestic problems that had priority. Britain had no stake economically or politically in a potential war between Prussia and Austria. Russia was unlikely to enter on the side of Austria due to ill will following Austrian support of the anti-Russian alliance during the Crimean War, and Prussia had stood by Russia during the Polish revolts whereas Austria had not. The Crimean War, also known in Russia as the Eastern War (Восточная война Vostochnaya Vojna) (March 1854–February 1856 was fought The 1846 Wielkopolska Uprising (powstanie wielkopolskie 1846 roku was a planned military insurrection by Poles in the land of Greater Poland against the occupying France was also unlikely to enter on the side of Austria because Bismarck and Napoleon III met in Biarritz and allegedly discussed whether or not France would intervene in a potential Austro-Prussian war. Nobody knows what was discussed, but many historians think Bismarck was guaranteed French neutrality in the event of a war. Finally, Italy was already in an alliance with Prussia, which meant that Austria would be fighting their combined power with no allies of its own. Bismarck was aware of his numerical superiority, but still “he was not prepared to advise it immediately even though he gave a favourable account of the international situation. "
Military factors
Bismarck may well have been encouraged to go to war by the advantages which the Prussian army enjoyed over that of the Austrian Empire. To oppose this view, A. J. P Taylor believes that Bismarck was reluctant to go to war as it "deprived him of control and left the decisions to the generals whose ability he distrusted". Taylor suggested that Bismarck was hoping to force Austrian leaders into concessions in Germany rather than provoke war. The two most important personalities within the Prussian army were War Minister Albrecht Graf von Roon and Chief of the General Staff Helmuth Graf von Moltke. Albrecht Theodor Emil Graf von Roon ( 30 April 1803 23 February 1879) was a Prussian Soldier and Politician Helmuth Karl Bernhard Graf After the Franco-Prussian War Moltke superintended the preparation of its history which was published between 1874 and 1881 by the great general staff The truth may be more complicated than simply that Bismarck, who famously said "Politics is the art of the possible," initially sought war with Austria, or that he was initially against the idea of going to war with Austria.
Rival military systems
In 1862, von Roon had implemented several army reforms (and to do so had been instrumental in ensuring that Bismarck was appointed Chancellor). Roon ensured that all Prussian citizens were liable to conscription. Before this date, the size of the army had been fixed by earlier laws which had not taken population growth into account, making conscription inequable and unpopular for this reason. While some Prussian men remained in the army or the reserves until they were forty years old, about one in three (or even more in some regions where the population had expanded greatly as a result of industrialisation) escaped with only token service in the Landwehr, a loosely organized "Home Guard". Landwehr, or Landeswehr, is a German language term used in referring to certain national armies, or Militias found in nineteenth- and early twentieth-century
Universal conscription, combined with an increase in the term of active service from two years to three years, dramatically increased the size of the army. It also provided Prussia with a reserve army equal in size to that which Moltke actually deployed against Austria. Had France under Napoleon III attempted to intervene in force on Austria's side, the Prussians could have faced him with equal or superior numbers of troops.
The three-year term of active service, during which troops were continually trained and drilled, also ensured a better standard of training and discipline than that of the Austrian army, particularly in the infantry. Some Austrian commanders still dismissed infantry conscripts to their homes on permanent leave soon after their induction into the army, retaining a cadre of long-term soldiers for formal parades and routine duties. The conscripts sent on leave had to be trained almost from scratch when they were recalled to their units on the outbreak of war. The Austrian cavalry and artillery however were as well-trained as their Prussian counterparts. Austria possessed two incomparable divisions of heavy cavalry, but weapons and tactics had advanced since the Napoleonic Wars and heavy cavalry were no longer a decisive arm on the battlefield.
Speed of mobilization
An important difference in the Prussian and Austrian military systems was that the Prussian army was locally based, organised as Kreise (lit. circles), each containing a Korps headquarters and its component units. The vast majority of reservists lived within a few hours' journey from their corps' depots, and mobilisation to full strength would take very little time.
By contrast, the Austrians deliberately ensured that units were stationed far from the areas from which their soldiers were recruited - to prevent army units taking part in separatist revolts. Conscripts on leave or reservists recalled to their units as a result of mobilisation faced a journey which might take weeks before they could report for duty. The Prussian army was therefore able to mobilise far more quickly than the Austrian army.
Speed of concentration
The railway system of Prussia was more extensively developed than that within Austria. Railways made it possible to supply larger numbers of troops than had previously been possible, and also allowed the rapid movement of troops within friendly territory. The better Prussian rail network therefore allowed the Prussian army to concentrate more rapidly than the Austrians. Von Moltke, reviewing his plans to von Roon stated, "We have the inestimable advantage of being able to carry our Field Army of 285,000 men over five railway lines and of virtually concentrating them in twenty-five days . . . Austria has only one railway line and it will take her forty-five days to assemble 200,000 men". Von Moltke had also said earlier, "Nothing could be more welcome to us than to have now the war that we must have".
The Austrian army under Ludwig von Benedek in Bohemia (the present-day Czech Republic) might previously have been expected to enjoy the advantage of the "central position", being able to concentrate on successive attacking armies strung out along the frontier. Ludwig August Ritter von Benedek ( 14 July 1804 &ndash 27 April 1881) also known as Lajos Benedek, was an Austrian The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, The Prussian ability to concentrate faster nullified this advantage. By the time the Austrians were fully assembled, they would be unable to concentrate against any one Prussian army without having the other two instantly attack their flank and rear, threatening their lines of communication.
Armaments and tactics
Finally, the Prussian infantry were equipped with the Dreyse needle gun, a breech-loading rifle capable of far more rapid fire than the muzzle-loading rifles with which the Austrians were equipped. The Dreyse needle-gun ( German Zündnadelgewehr, which translates roughly as "needle ignition Rifle " was a military Breechloading The Dreyse needle-gun ( German Zündnadelgewehr, which translates roughly as "needle ignition Rifle " was a military Breechloading A breech-loading weapon is a Firearm (a Rifle, a Gun etc in which the Bullet or shell is inserted or loaded at the rear of the In the Franco-Austrian War of 1859, French troops had taken advantage of the fact that the rifles of the time fired high if sighted for long range. The Second War of Italian Independence, Franco-Austrian War, or Austro-Sardinian War was fought by Napoleon III of France and the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia By rapidly closing the range, French troops could come to close quarters without sustaining too many casualties from the Austrian infantry. In the aftermath of this war, the Austrians had adopted the same methods, which they termed the "Stosstaktik". Although they had some warnings of the German weapon, they ignored these and retained the crude "Stosstaktik" as their main method.
In one respect, the Austrian army had superior equipment in that their artillery consisted of breech-loading rifled guns, while the Prussian army retained many muzzle-loading smoothbore cannon. New Krupp breech-loading guns were only slowly being introduced. The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their Steel production and for their manufacture of In the event, the other shortcomings of the Austrian army were to prevent their artillery from being decisive.
Economic factors
In 1866 the Prussian economy was rapidly growing, partly as a result of the Zollverein, and this gave her an advantage in the war. The Zollverein or German Customs Union was formed among the majority of the states of the German Confederation in 1834 during the Industrial Revolution It enabled Prussia to supply her armies with breech-loading rifles, and later with new Krupp breach loading artillery. In contrast, the Austrian economy was suffering after the 1848 revolutions in Hungary and the Second Italian War of Independence. The events leading to the revolution The Hungarian Diet (parliament was reconvened in 1825 to handle financial needs The Second War of Italian Independence, Franco-Austrian War, or Austro-Sardinian War was fought by Napoleon III of France and the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia Austria only had one bank, the Creditanstalt, and the nation was heavily in debt. The Creditanstalt (CA was an Austrian Bank. The Creditanstalt was based in Vienna, founded 1855 as K Many historians, including Andrina Stiles, believe that Prussia's economic success had an impact on the outbreak of war. Andrina Stiles is the author of a number of historical textbooks The conflict between Austria and Prussia for mastery in Germany had an important economic dimension, suggesting that conflict between Austria and Prussia on the battlefield was related to their long term struggle for economic supremacy.
Political and dynastic factors
The most important cause for war apart from Bismarck was the Prussian king. The King had decided on war reluctantly. A.J.P Taylor said “William 1st, not German nationalists made the war of 1866 possible”. Alan John Percival Taylor ( March 25, 1906 – September 7, 1990) was a renowned English Historian of the 20th century It wasn’t Bismarck who was the sole cause for the war 1866 as the king made the final decision and made the war possible.
Alliances
Most of the German states sided with Austria against Prussia, even though Austria had declared war. Those that sided with Austria included the Kingdoms of Saxony, Bavaria, Württemberg, and Hanover. The Kingdom of Saxony (Königreich Sachsen lasting between 1806 and 1918 was an independent member of a number of historical confederacies in Napoleonic through post-Napoleonic The Kingdom of Bavaria (Königreich Bayern was a German state that existed from 1806&ndash1918 The Kingdom of Württemberg (Königreich Württemberg was a state that existed from 1806 to 1918 and is currently located in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The Kingdom of Hanover (Königreich Hannover was established in October of 1814 by the Congress of Vienna, with the restoration of George III to his Hanoverian Southern states such as, Baden, Hesse-Kassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Nassau also joined with Austria. The Grand Duchy of Baden (Großherzogtum Baden was a historical state in the southwest of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine. The Grand Duchy of Hesse (Großherzogtum Hessen was a former state that existed in modern-day Germany. Nassau was a German state within the Holy Roman Empire and later in the German Confederation.
Some of the northern German states joined Prussia, in particular Oldenburg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Brunswick. Oldenburg ( Low German: Ollnborg) is a historical state in today's Germany named for its capital Oldenburg. Mecklenburg-Schwerin was a Duchy (from 1815 a Grand duchy) in northern Germany, formed by a partition of the Duchy of Mecklenburg. Mecklenburg-Strelitz was a Duchy and later Grand duchy in northern Germany, roughly consisting of the present day district of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Brunswick (Braunschweig was a historical state in Germany. Originally the territory of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in the Holy Roman Empire, it was established The Kingdom of Italy participated in the war with Prussia, because Austria still held the territory of Venetia wanted by Italy to complete the process of Italian Unification. The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom Italian Unification ( Italian: il Risorgimento, or "The Resurgence" was the political and social movement that unified different states of the Italian In return for Italian aid against Austria, Bismarck agreed not to make a separate peace until Italy had obtained Venetia.
Notably, the other foreign powers abstained from this war. French Emperor Napoleon III, who expected a Prussian defeat, chose to remain out of the war to strengthen his negotiating position for territory along the Rhine, while the Russian Empire still bore a grudge against Austria from the Crimean War. The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 9 January 1873 was the first President The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya The Crimean War, also known in Russia as the Eastern War (Восточная война Vostochnaya Vojna) (March 1854–February 1856 was fought
| Alliances of the Austro-Prussian War, 1866 | ||
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| Kingdom of Prussia | Austrian Empire | neutral |
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Kingdom of Italy |
Kingdom of Bavaria |
Limburg |
| Disputed Territory | ||
Course of the war
The first major war between two continental powers in many years, this war used many of the same technologies as the American Civil War, including railroads to concentrate troops during mobilization and telegraphs to enhance long distance communication. The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom Mecklenburg-Schwerin was a Duchy (from 1815 a Grand duchy) in northern Germany, formed by a partition of the Duchy of Mecklenburg. Mecklenburg-Strelitz was a Duchy and later Grand duchy in northern Germany, roughly consisting of the present day district of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Oldenburg ( Low German: Ollnborg) is a historical state in today's Germany named for its capital Oldenburg. Anhalt is a historical County (after 1806 Duchy) in central Germany, located between the Harz Mountains and the river Elbe Brunswick (Braunschweig was a historical state in Germany. Originally the territory of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in the Holy Roman Empire, it was established Saxe-Altenburg (Sachsen-Altenburg was one of the Saxon duchies held by the Ernestine branch of the Wettin dynasty Saxe-Coburg and Gotha or Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha served as the name of the two German duchies of Saxe-Coburg and Saxe-Gotha in This article is about the district Lippe. For the like-named river see Lippe River. Schwarzburg-Sondershausen was a small Principality in Germany in the present day state of Thuringia, with capital at Sondershausen. Waldeck (or later Waldeck and Pyrmont) was a sovereign principality in the German Empire and German Confederation and until 1929 a constituent state of The Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (German Freie Hansestadt Bremen) is the smallest of Germany's 16 Federal States ( Bundesländer) Hamburg (English, German: ˈhambʊɐk local pronunciation Low German / Low Saxon: Hamborg) is the second-largest city in Germany The Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck was a city-state that existed from 1226 to 1937 in the present-day German states of Schleswig-Holstein and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern The history of Bavaria stretches from its earliest settlement and its formation as a stem duchy in the 6th century through its inclusion in the Holy Roman Empires The Kingdom of Hanover (Königreich Hannover was established in October of 1814 by the Congress of Vienna, with the restoration of George III to his Hanoverian The Kingdom of Saxony (Königreich Sachsen lasting between 1806 and 1918 was an independent member of a number of historical confederacies in Napoleonic through post-Napoleonic The Kingdom of Württemberg (Königreich Württemberg was a state that existed from 1806 to 1918 and is currently located in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Baden is a historical state in the southwest of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine. The Grand Duchy of Hesse (Großherzogtum Hessen was a former state that existed in modern-day Germany. Nassau was a German state within the Holy Roman Empire and later in the German Confederation. The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen was one of the Saxon Duchies held by the Ernestine line of the Wettin Dynasty The Principality of Reuss Elder Line (Fürstentum Reuß ältere Linie was a state in Germany, ruled by members of the House of Reuss. Schaumburg-Lippe was a small state in Germany, in the present day state of Lower Saxony, with its capital at Bückeburg. For almost five centuries the German city of Frankfurt am Main was a city-state within two major Germanic states The Holy Roman Empire as the Free This article deals with the historical duchy of Limburg for other meanings see Limburg. The Principality of Liechtenstein (Fürstentum Liechtenstein) is a tiny doubly landlocked Alpine country in Western Europe, bordered by Switzerland Luxembourg (Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg Grand-Duché de Luxembourg Großherzogtum Luxemburg is a small Landlocked country in Western Europe, bordered by The Principality of Reuss Junior Line (Fürstentum Reuß Jüngerer Linie was a state in Germany, ruled by members of the House of Reuss. The Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (Herzogtum Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach was created in 1809 by the merger of the Ernestine duchies of Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt was a small state in Germany, in the present-day state of Thuringia formed in a resettlement of Schwarzburg dynasty family lands Holstein (ˈhɔlʃtain ( Low German: Holsteen, Danish: Holsten, Latin and historical English: Holsatia) Causes of the war See also Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The coexistence of a slave-owning South "Railroad" and "Railway" both redirect here For other uses see Railroad (disambiguation. The Prussian Army used von Dreyse's breech-loading needle-gun, that could be rapidly loaded while the soldier was seeking cover on the ground, whereas the Austrian muzzle-loading rifles could only be loaded slowly, and generally from a standing position. Johann Nikolaus von Dreyse ( November 20, 1787 - December 9, 1867) was a German firearms inventor and manufacturer The Dreyse needle-gun ( German Zündnadelgewehr, which translates roughly as "needle ignition Rifle " was a military Breechloading
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The main campaign of the war occurred in Bohemia. Wrocław (Breslau Vratislav Vratislavia or Wratislavia Yiddish: ברעסלוי) is the chief City of the historical region of Lower Silesia Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the Prussian Chief of the General Staff Helmuth von Moltke had planned meticulously for the war. Helmuth Karl Bernhard Graf After the Franco-Prussian War Moltke superintended the preparation of its history which was published between 1874 and 1881 by the great general staff He rapidly mobilized the Prussian army and advanced across the border into Saxony and Bohemia, where the Austrian army was concentrating for an invasion of Silesia. Etymology One theory claims that the name Silesia is derived from the Silingi, who were most likely a Vandalic (East Germanic people There, the Prussian armies led nominally by King Wilhelm converged, and the two sides met at the Battle of Königgrätz (Sadová) on July 3. The Battle of Königgrätz (Schlacht von Königgrätz also known as the Battle of Sadowa, Sadová, or Hradec Králové, was the decisive Battle Events 324 - Battle of Adrianople Constantine I defeats Licinius, who flees to Byzantium. The Prussian Elbe Army advanced on the Austrian left wing, and the First Army on the centre, prematurely; they risked being counter-flanked on the left. Victory therefore depended on the timely arrival of the Second Army on the left wing. This was achieved through the brilliant staffwork of its Chief of Staff, Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal. Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal ( July 20, 1810 &ndash December 21, 1900) was a Prussian Generalfeldmarschall. Superior Prussian organization and élan decided the battle against Austrian numerical superiority, and the victory was near total, with Austrian battle deaths nearly seven times the Prussian figure. Austria rapidly sought peace after this battle.
Except for Saxony, the other German states allied to Austria played little role in the main campaign. The Battle of Lissa took place on 20 July 1866 in the Adriatic Sea near the island of Vis ( Italian: Lissa and was Hanover's army defeated Prussia at the Second Battle of Langensalza on June 27, but within a few days they were forced to surrender by superior numbers. The Battle of Langensalza was fought on June 15 1866 near Bad Langensalza. Events 1358 - Republic of Dubrovnik is founded 1709 - Peter the Great defeats Charles XII of Sweden Prussian armies fought against Bavaria on the Main River, reaching Nuremberg and Frankfurt. The Main (maɪn is a River in Germany, 524 km (329 miles long (including White Main 574 km (357 mi and it is one of the more significant tributaries The Bavarian fortress of Würzburg was shelled by Prussian artillery, but the garrison defended its position until armistice day. Würzburg (ˈvʏɐ̯ʦbʊɐ̯k is a city in the region of Franconia which lies in the northern tip of Bavaria, Germany
The Austrians were more successful in their war with Italy, defeating the Italians on land at the Battle of Custoza (June 24) and on sea at the Battle of Lissa (July 20). The Battle of Custoza took place on 24 June 1866 during the Third Italian Independence War in the Italian unification process Events 972 - Battle of Cedynia, the first documented victory of Polish forces takes place The Battle of Lissa took place on 20 July 1866 in the Adriatic Sea near the island of Vis ( Italian: Lissa and was Events 1304 - Wars of Scottish Independence: Fall of Stirling Castle - King Edward I of England takes the last rebel stronghold Garibaldi's "Hunters of the Alps" defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Bezzecca, on 21 July, conquered the lower part of Trentino, and moved towards Trento. Garibaldi redirects here for other meanings see Garibaldi (disambiguation. The Hunters of the Alps (Cacciatori delle Alpi were a special military corps created by Giuseppe Garibaldi in Cuneo on February 20, 1859 The Battle of Bezzecca was fought on July 21, 1866 between Italy and Austria, in the course of the Third Italian Independence War Events 356 BC - Herostratus sets fire to the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World The Province of Trento (Provincia autonoma di Trento also called Trentino, is an Autonomous province of Italy. Trento (traditional English Trent; Italian: Trento; German: Trient; Latin: Tridentum; Note that many Prussian peace with Austria–Hungary forced the Italian government to seek an armistice with Austria, on 12 August. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon - Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid According to Treaty of Vienna, signed on October 12, Austria ceded Venetia to France, which in turn ceded it to Italy (for details of operations in Italy, see Third Italian War of Independence). According to the Treaty of Vienna signed on October 12 1866, the Austrian Empire ceded Venetia to the French Empire, which in turn Events 539 BC - The army of Cyrus the Great of Persia takes Babylon. The Third Italian War of Independence was a conflict which paralleled the Austro-Prussian War, and was fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Austrian Empire
Aftermath and consequences
In order to forestall intervention by France or Russia, Bismarck pushed King William I to make peace with the Austrians rapidly, rather than continue the war in hopes of further gains. The Austrians accepted mediation from France's Napoleon III. Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 9 January 1873 was the first President The Peace of Prague on August 23, 1866 resulted in the dissolution of the German Confederation, Prussian annexation of many of Austria’s former allies, and the permanent exclusion of Austria from German affairs. The Peace of Prague was a Peace treaty signed at Prague on 23 August, 1866, which ended the Austro-Prussian War. Events 79 - Mount Vesuvius begins stirring on the feast day of Vulcan the Roman god of fire Year 1866 ( MDCCCLXVI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to serve as the successor to This left Prussia free to form the North German Confederation the next year, incorporating all the German states north of the Main River. The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of The Main (maɪn is a River in Germany, 524 km (329 miles long (including White Main 574 km (357 mi and it is one of the more significant tributaries Prussia chose not to seek Austrian territory for itself, and this made it possible for Prussia and Austria to ally in the future, since Austria was threatened more by Italian and Pan-Slavic irredentism than by Prussia. Pan-Slavism was a movement in the mid 19th century aimed at unity of all the Slavic peoples The main focus was in the Balkans where the South Slavs had been The war left Prussia dominant in Germany, and German nationalism would compel the remaining independent states to ally with Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, and then to accede to the crowning of King Wilhelm as German Emperor. The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification United Germany would become one of the most powerful of the European countries.
For the defeated parties
In addition to war reparations, the following territorial changes took place:
- Austria – Surrendered the province of Venetia to France, but then Napoleon III handed it to Italy as agreed in a secret treaty with Prussia. Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 9 January 1873 was the first President Austria then lost all official influence over member states of the former German Confederation. Austria’s defeat was a telling blow to Habsburg rule; the Empire was transformed via the Ausgleich to the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary in the following year. The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 (Ausgleich Kiegyezés established the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.
- Schleswig and Holstein – Became the Prussian Province of Schleswig-Holstein
- Hanover – Annexed by Prussia, became the Province of Hanover
- Hesse-Darmstadt – Surrendered some of its northern territory (the Hessian Hinterland) to Prussia. The Province of Schleswig-Holstein (Provinz Schleswig-Holstein was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia and the Free State of Prussia from 1868 to The Province of Hanover (Provinz Hannover was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia and the Free State of Prussia from 1868 to 1946 The northern half of the remaining land (Upper Hesse) joined the North German Confederation
- Nassau, Hesse-Kassel, Frankfurt – Annexed by Prussia. The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of Combined with the territory surrendered by Hesse-Darmstadt to form the new Province of Hesse-Nassau
- Saxony, Saxe-Meiningen, Reuss-Greiz, Schaumburg-Lippe – Spared from annexation but joined the North German Confederation in the following year
For the neutral parties
The war meant the end of the German Confederation. The Province of Hesse-Nassau (Provinz Hessen-Nassau was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1868-1918 then a province of the Free State of Prussia The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of Those states who remained neutral during the conflict took different actions after the Prague treaty:
- Liechtenstein – Became an independent state and declared permanent neutrality, while maintaining close political ties with Austria. This neutrality was respected during both World Wars.
- Limburg and Luxembourg – The Treaty of London in 1867 declared both of these states to be part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Treaty of London (Traité de Londres often called the Second Treaty of London after the 1839 Treaty, was an international Treaty signed Year 1867 ( MDCCCLXVII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting The Netherlands and The Kingdom of the Netherlands are two distinct geographical and administrative entities Limburg became the Dutch province of Limburg. Limburg ( Dutch: (Nederlands Limburg is the southern-most of the twelve provinces of the Netherlands. Luxembourg was guaranteed independence and neutrality from its three surrounding neighbors (Belgium, France and Prussia) but it rejoined the German customs union, the Zollverein, and remained a member until its dissolution in 1919. The Zollverein or German Customs Union was formed among the majority of the states of the German Confederation in 1834 during the Industrial Revolution
- Reuss-Schleiz, Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt – Joined the North German Confederation
Notes
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See also
External links
- Further information about the war (German)
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