| Australopithecus afarensis ("Lucy") Fossil range: Pliocene | ||||||||||||||||
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| †Australopithecus afarensis Johanson & White, 1978 |
Australopithecus afarensis is an extinct hominid which lived between 3. Donald Carl Johanson (born June 28, 1943 in Chicago) is an American paleoanthropologist. Tim White (born August 24 1950 in Los Angeles California is an American Paleoanthropologist and Professor of Integrative Biology at the University of California Berkeley A hominid is any member of the biological family Hominidae (the "great apes" including the extinct and extant Humans Chimpanzees 9 and 2. 9 million years ago. In common with the younger Australopithecus africanus, A. Australopithecus africanus was an early hominid, an Australopithecine, who lived between 2-3 million years ago in the Pliocene. afarensis was slenderly built. From analysis it has been thought that A. afarensis was ancestral to both the genus Australopithecus and the genus Homo, which includes the modern human species, Homo sapiens. The Genus Australopithecus ( Latin australis "of the south" Greek πίθηκος pithekos "ape" Homo is the Genus that includes modern humans and their close relatives Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus [1][2].
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Localities
Australopithecus afarensis fossils have only been discovered within eastern Africa. East Africa is the Easternmost Region of the African Continent. Despite Laetoli being the type locality for A. In some natural sciences type locality (Latin locus typicus) is the typical or representative location and is typically the first example of a newly discovered or described afarensis, the most extensive remains assigned to this species are found in Hadar, Ethiopia, including the famous "Lucy" partial skeleton and the "First Family" found at the A. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page L. 333 locality. Other localities bearing A. afarensis remains include Omo, Maka, Fejej and Belohdelie in Ethiopia, and Koobi Fora and Lothagam in Kenya. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Koobi Fora refers primarily to a region around Koobi Fora Ridge, located on the eastern shore of Lake Turkana in the territory of the nomadic Gabbra tribe The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the north Somalia to the northeast Tanzania to the south
Physical characteristics
Craniodental features and Brain Size
Compared to the modern and extinct great apes, A. afarensis has reduced canines and molars, although they are still relatively larger than in modern humans. A. afarensis also had a relatively small brain size (~380-430cm³) and a prognathic (i. Brain size CraniometryWhen comparing different species the ratio of brain weight to body weight does present a correlation with intelligence though the actual brain weight has little e. projecting anteriorly) face.
The image of a bipedal hominin with a small brain and primitive face was quite a revelation to the paleoanthropological world at the time. Bipedalism is a form of Terrestrial locomotion where an organism moves by means of its two rear limbs This was due to the earlier belief that an increase in brain size was the first major hominin adaptive shift. Before the discoveries of A. afarensis in the 1970s, it was widely thought that an increase in brain size preceded the shift to bipedal locomotion. This was mainly due to the fact that the oldest known hominins at the time had relatively large brains (e. g KNM-ER 1470, Homo rudolfensis, which was found just a few years before Lucy and had a cranial capacity of ~800cm³). Homo rudolfensis is a Fossil Hominin Species discovered by Bernard Ngeneo, a member of a team led by anthropologist Richard
Bipedalism
There is considerable debate regarding the locomotor behaviour of A. afarensis. Some believe that A. afarensis was almost exclusively bipedal, while others believe that the creatures were partly arboreal. The anatomy of the hands, feet and shoulder joints in many ways favour the latter interpretation. The curvature of the finger and toe bones (Phalanges) approaches that of modern-day apes, and is most likely reflective of their ability to efficiently grasp branches and climb. The name Phalanx (plural phalanges) is commonly given to the Bones that form Fingers and Toes In Primates such as Humans The presence of a wrist-locking mechanism might suggest that they were knuckle-walkers. The shoulder joint is also oriented more cranially (i. e. towards the skull) than in modern humans. Combined with the relatively long arms A. afarensis are thought to have had, this is thought by many to be reflective of a heightened ability to use the arm above the head in climbing behaviour. Furthermore, scans of the skulls reveal a canal and bony labyrinth morphology, which some suggest is not conducive to proper bipedal locomotion.
However, there are also a number of traits in the A. afarensis skeleton which strongly reflect bipedalism. In overall anatomy, the pelvis is far more human-like than ape-like. The iliac blades are short and wide, the sacrum is wide and positioned directly behind the hip joint, and there is clear evidence of a strong attachment for the knee extensors. The Rectus femoris muscle is one of the four Quadriceps muscles of the Human body. While the pelvis is not wholly human-like (being markedly wide with flared with laterally orientated iliac blades), these features point to a structure that can be considered radically remodeled to accommodate a significant degree of bipedalism in the animals' locomotor repertoire. The pelvis (pl pelvises or pelves) or pelvic girdle is the irregular bony structure located at the base of the spine (properly known Bipedalism is a form of Terrestrial locomotion where an organism moves by means of its two rear limbs Importantly, the femur also angles in toward the knee from the hip. The femur is the thigh bone In Humans, it is the longest, most voluminous and strongest Bone. The knee is the lower extremity Joint connecting the Femur, Patella, and the Tibia. This trait would have allowed the foot to have fallen closer to the midline of the body, and is a strong indication of habitual bipedal locomotion. The foot is an Anatomical structure found in many Animals It is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows Locomotion. Along with humans, present day orangutans and spider monkeys possess this same feature. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus The orangutans are two Species of great apes known for their intelligence long arms and reddish-brown hair Spider monkeys are New World monkeys of the family Atelidae, subfamily Atelinae. The feet also feature adducted big toes, making it difficult if not impossible to grasp branches with the hindlimbs. Adduction is a movement which brings a limb — Arm or Leg — closer to the sagittal plane of the body A hind limb is a Posterior limb on an Animal. When referring to Quadrupeds the term hind leg is often instead used The loss of a grasping hindlimb also increases the risk of an infant being dropped or falling, as primates typically hold onto their mothers while the mother goes about her daily business. Without the second set of grasping limbs, the infant cannot maintain as strong a grip, and likely had to be held with help from the mother. The problem of holding the infant would be multiplied if the mother also had to climb trees. The ankle joint of A. In Human anatomy, the ankle Joint is formed where the Foot and the leg meet afarensis is also markedly human-like.
Computer simulations using dynamic modelling of the skeleton's inertial properties and kinematics have indicated that A. For MCAD 3D Software, there are two main modeling approaches in the market Dynamic Modeling approach Parametric Modeling approach This article is about the moment of inertia of a rotating object. Kinematics ( Greek κινειν, kinein, to move is a branch of Classical mechanics which describes the motion of objects without afarensis was able to walk in the same way modern humans walk, with a normal erect gait or with bent hips and knees, but could not walk in the same way as chimpanzees. Chimpanzee (often shortened to chimp) is the common name for the two extant Species of Apes in the Genus Pan. The upright gait would have been much more efficient than the bent knee and hip walking, which would have taken twice as much energy. [3][4] It appears probable that A. afarensis was quite an efficient bipedal walker over short distances, and the spacing of the footprints at Laetoli indicates that they were walking at 1. Laetoli is a site in Tanzania, dated to the Plio-Pleistocene and famous for its Hominid footprints preserved in Volcanic ash (Site G 0 m/s or above, which matches human small-town walking speeds. [5]
It is commonly thought that upright bipedal walking evolved from knuckle-walking with bent legs, in the manner used by chimpanzees and gorillas to move around on the ground, but fossils such as Orrorin tugenensis indicate bipedalism around 5 to 8 million years ago, in the same general period where genetic studies suggest the lineage of chimpanzees and humans diverged. Gorillas, the largest of the living Primates are ground-dwelling Herbivores that inhabit the Forests of Africa. Orrorin tugenensis is considered to be the oldest known Hominin ancestor related to modern Humans and is the only species classified in genus Modern apes and their fossil ancestors show skeletal adaptations to an upright posture used in tree climbing, and it has been proposed that that upright, straight-legged walking originally evolved as an adaptation to tree-dwelling. Studies of modern orangutans in Sumatra have shown these apes using four legs when walking on large stable branches and when swinging underneath slightly smaller branches, but are bipedal and maintain their legs very straight when using multiple small flexible branches under 4 cm. The orangutans are two Species of great apes known for their intelligence long arms and reddish-brown hair Sumatra (also spelled Sumatera) is the sixth largest island in the world (approximately 470000 km² and is the largest island entirely in Indonesia (two in diameter while also using their arms for balance and additional support. This enables them to get nearer to the edge of the tree canopy to grasp fruit or cross to another tree.
Climate changes around 11 to 12 million years ago affected forests in East and Central Africa, establishing periods where openings prevented travel through the tree canopy, and during these times ancestral hominids could have adapted the upright walking behaviour for ground travel, while the ancestors of gorillas and chimpanzees became more specialised in climbing vertical tree trunks or lianas with a bent hip and bent knee posture, ultimately leading them to use the related knuckle-walking posture for ground travel. This would lead to A. afarensis usage of upright bipedalism for ground travel, while still having arms well adapted for climbing smaller trees. However, chimpanzees and gorillas are the closest living relatives to humans, and share anatomical features including a fused wrist bone which may also suggest knuckle-walking by human ancestors. [6][7][8] Other studies suggest that an upright spine and a primarily vertical body plan in primates dates back to Morotopithecus bishopi in the Early Miocene of 21. The Early Miocene (also known as Lower Miocene) is a sub-epoch of the Miocene Epoch made up of two stages: the Aquitanian and 6 million years ago[9][10]
Social characteristics
It is difficult to predict the social behaviour of extinct fossil species. However, the social structure of modern apes and monkeys can be anticipated to some extent by the average range of body size between males and females (known as sexual dimorphism). Sexual dimorphism is the systematic difference in form between individuals of different Sex in the same Species. Although there is considerable debate over how large the degree of sexual dimorphism was between males and females of A. afarensis, it is likely that males were relatively larger than females. If observations on the relationship between sexual dimorphism and social group structure from modern great apes are applied to A. afarensis then these creatures most likely lived in small family groups containing a single dominant male and a number of breeding females. [2]
There are no known stone-tools associated with A. afarensis, and the present archeological record of stone artifacts only dates back to approximately 2. 5 million years ago. [2]
Lineage questions
In 1977 Donald Johanson and his colleague Tim White carried out detailed morphological studies on their finds to date, including both Lucy and the "First Family" fossils. Donald Carl Johanson (born June 28, 1943 in Chicago) is an American paleoanthropologist. Tim White (born August 24 1950 in Los Angeles California is an American Paleoanthropologist and Professor of Integrative Biology at the University of California Berkeley The term morphology in Biology refers to the outward appearance ( Shape, Structure, Colour, Pattern) of an Organism Lucy (also given a second ( Amharic) name dinqineš, or “Dinkenesh” meaning “You are beautiful” or "you are wonderful" is the common name of AL They compared the fossils to chimpanzee, gorilla and modern human specimens, and casts of extinct hominid fossils, with particular attention to jaws and dental arcades, and found that their fossils were somewhere between humans and apes, possibly closer to apes, though with essentially human bodies. Chimpanzee (often shortened to chimp) is the common name for the two extant Species of Apes in the Genus Pan. Gorillas, the largest of the living Primates are ground-dwelling Herbivores that inhabit the Forests of Africa. A hominid is any member of the biological family Hominidae (the "great apes" including the extinct and extant Humans Chimpanzees They reached the conclusion that it could not be classified in the genus Homo and should be in the genus Australopithecus as the new species Australopithecus afarensis. Homo is the Genus that includes modern humans and their close relatives The Genus Australopithecus ( Latin australis "of the south" Greek πίθηκος pithekos "ape" They believed that this extinct hominid would prove to be ancestral to Australopithecus africanus and Australopithecus robustus as well as to the genus Homo which includes the modern human species, Homo sapiens,[11] and this conclusion was widely accepted. A hominid is any member of the biological family Hominidae (the "great apes" including the extinct and extant Humans Chimpanzees Australopithecus africanus was an early hominid, an Australopithecine, who lived between 2-3 million years ago in the Pliocene. The robust australopithecines, members of the Extinct Hominin genus Paranthropus (Greek para "beside" Greek anthropos "human" Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus [2] However, in 2006 scientists Yoel Rak, Avishag Ginzburg, and Eli Geffen carried out a morphological analysis which found that the mandibular ramus (jawbone) of australopithecus afarensis specimen A. The ramus of the Mandible ( perpendicular portion) is Quadrilateral in Shape, and has two surfaces four borders and two processes L. 822-1 discovered in 2002 closely matches that of a gorilla, and from further studies they concluded that "australopithecus afarensis" is more likely a member of the robust australopithecines branch of the hominid evolutionary tree and so not a direct ancestor of man. The robust australopithecines, members of the Extinct Hominin genus Paranthropus (Greek para "beside" Greek anthropos "human" They concluded that Ardipithecus ramidus discovered by White and colleagues in the 1990s is a more likely ancestor of the human clade. Ardipithecus is a very early hominin Genus ( Subfamily Homininae) which lived about 4 A clade is a taxonomic group comprising a single Common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor [12][13]
Notable Fossils
Type specimen
The type specimen for A. In biology a type is that which fixes a name to a Taxon. Depending on the nomenclature code which is applied to the organism in question a type may be a specimen afarensis is LH 4, an adult mandible from the site of Laetoli, Tanzania. Laetoli is a site in Tanzania, dated to the Plio-Pleistocene and famous for its Hominid footprints preserved in Volcanic ash (Site G Tanzania ˌtænzəˈniːə officially the United Republic of Tanzania (Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya
AL 129-1
The first A. AL 129-1 is the fossilized knee joint of the species Australopithecus afarensis. afarensis knee joint was discovered in November 1973 by Donald Johanson as part of a team involving Maurice Taieb, Yves Coppens and Tim White in the Middle Awash of Ethiopia's Afar Depression. Donald Carl Johanson (born June 28, 1943 in Chicago) is an American paleoanthropologist. Dr Maurice Taieb, (born 1935 is a Tunisian born French Geologist and Paleoanthropologist who discovered the Hadar formation recognised Yves Coppens (born 1934) is a French anthropologist. He has studied ancient hominids and has had multiple published works on this topic and has also Tim White (born August 24 1950 in Los Angeles California is an American Paleoanthropologist and Professor of Integrative Biology at the University of California Berkeley The Middle Awash is an Archaeological site along the Awash River in Ethiopia 's Afar Depression. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page The Afar Depression (also called the Danakil Depression or the Afar Triangle) is a Geological depression in the Horn of Africa, where it
Lucy
The first A. Lucy (also given a second ( Amharic) name dinqineš, or “Dinkenesh” meaning “You are beautiful” or "you are wonderful" is the common name of AL afarensis skeleton was discovered on November 24, 1974 near Hadar in Ethiopia by Tom Gray in the company of Donald Johanson, as part of a team involving Maurice Taieb, Yves Coppens and Tim White in the Middle Awash of Ethiopia's Afar Depression. In Biology, the skeleton is a strong and often a rigid framework that supports the body of an animal holding it upright and giving it shape and strength (Also skeletal Events 380 - Theodosius I makes his adventus, or formal Year 1974 ( MCMLXXIV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the 1974 Gregorian calendar. Donald Carl Johanson (born June 28, 1943 in Chicago) is an American paleoanthropologist. Dr Maurice Taieb, (born 1935 is a Tunisian born French Geologist and Paleoanthropologist who discovered the Hadar formation recognised Yves Coppens (born 1934) is a French anthropologist. He has studied ancient hominids and has had multiple published works on this topic and has also Tim White (born August 24 1950 in Los Angeles California is an American Paleoanthropologist and Professor of Integrative Biology at the University of California Berkeley The Middle Awash is an Archaeological site along the Awash River in Ethiopia 's Afar Depression. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page The Afar Depression (also called the Danakil Depression or the Afar Triangle) is a Geological depression in the Horn of Africa, where it
Site 333
Michael Bush, one of Don Johanson's students, made another major discovery in 1975: near Lucy, on the other side of the hill, he found the "First Family", including 200 fragments of A. afarensis. The site of the findings is now known as "site 333", by a count of fossil fragments uncovered, such as teeth and pieces of jaw. 13 individuals were uncovered and all were adults, with no injuries caused by carnivores. All 13 individuals seemed to have died at the same time, thus Johanson concluded that they might have been killed instantly from a flash flood.
Selam
On September 20, 2006, Scientific American magazine presented the findings of a dig in Dikika, Ethiopia, a few miles from the place where Lucy was found. Selam (DIK-1/1 is the fossilized skull and other skeletal remains of a 3-year-old Australopithecus afarensis female whose bones were first found in Dikika Events 451 - The Battle of Chalons takes place in North Eastern France. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Scientific American is a Popular science magazine, published (first weekly and later monthly since August 28, 1845, making it NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page The recovered skeleton of a 3-year-old A. afarensis girl comprises almost the entire skull and torso, and most parts of the limbs. The features of the skeleton suggest adaptation to walking upright (bipedalism) as well as tree-climbing, features that match the skeletal features of Lucy and fall midway between human and humanoid ape anatomy. Bipedalism is a form of Terrestrial locomotion where an organism moves by means of its two rear limbs "Baby Lucy" has officially been named "Selam" (meaning peace in most Ethiopian languages). Ethiopia has many indigenous languages (some 84 according to the Ethnologue, 77 according to the 1994 census most of them Afro-Asiatic ( Semitic [1]
Others
Related work
Further findings at Afar, including the many hominin bones in site 333, produced more bones of concurrent date, and led to Johanson and White's eventual argument that the Koobi Fora hominins were concurrent with the Afar hominins. AL200-1 is the fossilized upper palate and teeth of the species Australopithecus afarensis. AL 129-1 is the fossilized knee joint of the species Australopithecus afarensis. In other words, Lucy was not unique in evolving bipedalism and a flat face.
Recently, an entirely new species has been discovered, called Kenyanthropus platyops, however the cranium KNM WT 40000 has a much distorted matrix making it hard to distinguish (however a flat face is present). Kenyanthropus platyops is a 35 to 32 million year old ( Pliocene) Extinct Hominin Species that was discovered in Lake Turkana This had many of the same characteristics as Lucy, but is possibly an entirely different genus.
Another species, called Ardipithecus ramidus, was found by White and colleagues in the 1990s. Ardipithecus is a very early hominin Genus ( Subfamily Homininae) which lived about 4 This was fully bipedal, yet appears to have been contemporaneous with a woodland environment, and, more importantly, contemporaneous with Australopithecus afarensis. Scientists have not yet been able to draw an estimation of the cranial capacity of Ar. Cranial capacity is a measure of the volume of the interior of the Cranium (also called the braincase or brainpan of those Vertebrates who have both a cranium and ramidus as only small jaw and leg fragments have been discovered thus far.
See also
- List of human fossils
- List of fossil sites (with link directory)
- List of hominina (hominid) fossils (with images)
References
- ^ Johanson 1981, p. The following charts give a brief overview of several notable Primate Fossil finds relating to Human evolution. This is a worldwide list of important and/or well-known localities where Fossils have been found The following charts give a brief overview of several notable Primate Fossil finds relating to Human evolution. 283-297
- ^ a b c d Jones, S. Martin; & R. Pilbeam (ed. ) (2004). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution (8th ed. ). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 ISBN 0-521-46786-1
- ^ BBC - Science & Nature - The evolution of man. Mother of man - 3. 2 million years ago. Retrieved on 2007-11-01. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi
- ^ PREMOG - Research. How Lucy walked. Primate Evolution & Morphology Group (PREMOG), the Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Biology, the School of Biomedical Sciences at the University of Liverpool (18 May 2007). The University of Liverpool is a University in the city of Liverpool, England. Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 2007-11-01. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi
- ^ PREMOG - Supplementry Info. The Laetoli Footprint Trail: 3D reconstruction from texture; archiving, and reverse engineering of early hominin gait. Primate Evolution & Morphology Group (PREMOG), the Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Biology, the School of Biomedical Sciences at the University of Liverpool (18 May 2007). The University of Liverpool is a University in the city of Liverpool, England. Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 2007-11-01. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi
- ^ Ian Sample, science correspondent (June 1, 2007). New theory rejects popular view of man's evolution - Research - EducationGuardian.co.uk. Retrieved on 2007-11-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany)
- ^ BBC NEWS - Science/Nature - Upright walking 'began in trees' (31 May 2007). Retrieved on 2007-11-05. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany)
- ^ Thorpe S. K. S. ; Holder R. L. , and Crompton R. H. (24 May 2007). Events 1218 - The Fifth Crusade leaves Acre for Egypt. 1276 - Magnus Ladulås is crowned Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. PREMOG - Supplementry Info. Origin of Human Bipedalism As an Adaptation for Locomotion on Flexible Branches. Primate Evolution & Morphology Group (PREMOG), the Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Biology, the School of Biomedical Sciences at the University of Liverpool. The University of Liverpool is a University in the city of Liverpool, England. Retrieved on 2007-11-01. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi
- ^ Aaron G. Filler (December 24, 2007). Redefining the word “Human” – Do Some Apes Have Human Ancestors? : OUPblog. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Aaron G. Filler (October 10, 2007). PLoS ONE: Homeotic Evolution in the Mammalia: Diversification of Therian Axial Seriation and the Morphogenetic Basis of Human Origins. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
- ^ Johanson 1981, p. 265-266, 278-279, 283-297
- ^ Yoel Rak; Avishag Ginzburg and Eli Geffen (April 17, 2007). From the Cover: Gorilla-like anatomy on Australopithecus afarensis mandibles suggests Au. afarensis link to robust australopiths -- Rak et al. 104 (16): 6568 -- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved on 2007-10-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 202 BCE - The Battle of Zama results in the defeat of Carthage and Hannibal.
- ^ Yoel Rak; Avishag Ginzburg and Eli Geffen (April 17, 2007). From the Cover: Gorilla-like anatomy on Australopithecus afarensis mandibles suggests Au. afarensis link to robust australopiths -- Rak et al. 104 (16): 6568 Data Supplement - HTML Page - index.htslp -- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved on 2007-10-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 202 BCE - The Battle of Zama results in the defeat of Carthage and Hannibal.
- BBC - Dawn of Man (2000) by Robin Mckie| ISBN 0-7894-6262-1
- Barraclough, G. (1989). in Stone, N. (ed. ): Atlas of World History, 3rd edition, Times Books Limited. ISBN 0-7230-0304-1.
- Australopithecus afarensis from The Human Origins Program at the Smithsonian Institution
- (2000) in Delson, E. The Smithsonian Institution (smɪθsoʊnɪən is an educational and research institute and associated Museum complex administered and funded by the Government of , I. Tattersall, J. A. Van Couvering & A. S. Brooks (eds. ): Encyclopedia of human evolution and prehistory, 2nd Edition, Garland Publishing, New York. ISBN 0-8153-1696-8.
- Johanson, Donald & Maitland Edey (1981), Lucy, the Beginnings of Humankind, Granada, ISBN 0-586-08437-1
External links
- Asa Issie, Aramis and the origin of Australopithecus
- Lucy at the American Museum of Natural History in Manhattan
- Lucy at the Institute of Human Origins at Arizona State University
- Asfarensis
- Anthropological skulls and reconstructions
- Becoming Human: Paleoanthropology, Evolution and Human Origins
- National Geographic "Dikika baby"
- MNSU
- Archaeology Info
- Smithsonian
- Washington State University : Australopithicus afarensis: The story of Lucy
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