August Uprising
"Oath of Fealty" (შეფიცულები)
Date August 28, 1924 – September 5, 1924 Location Georgian SSR Result Soviet government victory
Belligerents
Red Army, Cheka	Committee for the Independence of Georgia, other guerrilla groups
Commanders
Sergo Orjonikidze, Semyon Pugachev, Solomon Mogilevsky, Levan Gogoberidze, Lavrenti Beria, Shalva Tsereteli	Spiridon Chavchavadze, Kakutsa Cholokashvili, Iason Javakhishvili, Mikheil Javakhishvili, Kote Andronikashvili, Mikheil Lashkarashvili, Svimon Tsereteli, Eko Tsereteli Sergo Matitaishvili, Avtandil Urushadze, Nikoloz Ketskhoveli, Evgen Gvaladze
Casualties and losses
unknown	3,000-3,500 killed in fighting; 10,000-12,000 executed

The August Uprising (Georgian: აგვისტოს აჯანყება, agvistos adjank’eba) was an unsuccessful insurrection against the Soviet rule in the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic from late August to early September 1924. Events 475 - The Roman General Orestes forces western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos to flee his Capital Year 1924 ( MCMXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1590 - Alexander Farnese 's army forces Henry IV of France to raise the siege of Paris. Year 1924 ( MCMXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (საქართველოს საბჭოთასოციალისტური რესპუბლიკა The Red Army ( Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия R aboche- K rest'yanskaya K rasnaya A rmiya The Cheka ( ЧК - чрезвычайная комиссия Chrezvychaynaya Komissiya,) was the first of a succession of Soviet State security The Committee for the Independence of Georgia (საქართველოს დამოუკიდებლობის კომიტეტი Sak’art’velos damoukideblobis Grigoriy Konstantinovich Ordzhonikidze (გრიგოლ (სერგო ორჯონიკიძე - Grigol (Sergo Orjonikidze Russian: Григорий Константинович Solomon Grigorevich Mogilevsky (Соломон Григорьевич Могилевский 1885 Pavlograd - March 22, 1925 Lavrentiy Pavlovich Beria (ლავრენტი პავლეს ძე ბერია Lavrenti Pavles dze Beria; Russian: Лаврентий Павлович Kaikhosro Cholokashvili (ქაიხოსრო ჩოლოყაშვილი commonly known as Kakutsa (ქაქუცა a Hypocorism of Kaikhosro Mikheil Javakhishvili (მიხეილ ჯავახიშვილი real surname Adamashvili, ადამაშვილი ( November 8, 1880 Evgen (Geno Gvaladze (ევგენ (გენო ღვალაძე ( May 13, 1900 - October 15, 1937) was a Georgian Georgian (ka ქართული ენა kartuli ena) is the Official language of Georgia, a country in the Caucasus. An insurgency is a violent internal uprising against a sovereign government that lacks the organization of a revolution The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (საქართველოს საბჭოთასოციალისტური რესპუბლიკა Year 1924 ( MCMXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

Aimed at restoring the independence of Georgia from the Soviet Union, the uprising was led by the Committee for Independence of Georgia, a bloc of anti-Soviet political organizations chaired by the Georgian Social Democratic (Menshevik) Party. Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between The Committee for the Independence of Georgia (საქართველოს დამოუკიდებლობის კომიტეტი Sak’art’velos damoukideblobis Anti-Sovietism and Anti-Soviet refer to persons and activities actually or allegedly aimed against the Soviet Union or the Soviet power within the Soviet The Social Democratic Party of Georgia was a leading political party in pre- Soviet Georgia It was a culmination of the three-year struggle against the Bolshevik regime established by the Soviet Russia’s Red Army during a military campaign against the Democratic Republic of Georgia in early 1921. The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction The Red Army ( Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия R aboche- K rest'yanskaya K rasnaya A rmiya The Red Army invasion of Georgia also known as the Soviet-Georgian War ( February 15 – March 17 1921) was a military campaign by the Soviet The Democratic Republic of Georgia ( DRG; Georgian: საქართველოს დემოკრატიული რესპუბლიკა Sakartvelos Year 1921 ( MCMXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1921 calendar of the Gregorian calendar The insurrection was suppressed by the Red Army and Cheka troops and was followed by a wave of mass repressions in which several thousand citizens of Georgia were purged. The Cheka ( ЧК - чрезвычайная комиссия Chrezvychaynaya Komissiya,) was the first of a succession of Soviet State security The August uprising proved to be one of the last major rebellions against the early Soviet government and its defeat marked the final establishment of the Communist rule in Georgia. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based

Reasons

Georgia was proclaimed a Soviet Socialist Republic on February 25, 1921, when the Red Army took control of Tiflis (Tbilisi), the capital of Georgia, and forced the Menshevik government into exile. The Republics of the Soviet Union were according to the Article 76 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution, Sovereign Soviet Socialist states that had united with other Events 138 - The Emperor Hadrian adopts Antoninus Pius, effectively making him his successor Tbilisi (ˌtbiˈliːsi in Georgian: თბილისი is the capital and the largest city of the Republic of Georgia, lying on the banks of the Mt'k'vari

Yet, Georgia’s loyalty to the new regime proved not so easy to obtain. Within the first three years of their rule, the Bolsheviks managed to recruit fewer than 10,000 people into their party, while the Mensheviks still enjoyed significant popularity in Georgia, counting over 60,000 members in their organizations. The 1918-1921 independence, though short lived, had played a crucial role in the national awakening of Georgia, winning a high popular support to the ruling Menshevik party. A forcible Sovietization and grievances over the ensuing border rearrangements in which Georgia lost sizeable portion of its pre-Soviet territories to Turkey, Azerbaijan SSR, Armenian SSR and Russia, fueled a widespread opposition to the new regime. Sovietization is term that may be used with two distinct (but related meanings the adoption of a political system based on the model of soviets (workers' councils Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches This article is about the former Soviet republic for other similar uses see Azerbaijan (disambiguation. The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (Հայկական ՍովետականՍոցիալիստական Հանրապետություն Haykakan Sovetakan Sotsialistakan Hanrapetutyun The new Bolshevik government, led by the Georgian Revkom (Revolutionary Committee), enjoyed so little support among the population that it faced the distinct prospect of insurrection and civil war. Revolutionary committees or revkoms (Революционный комитет ревком were Bolshevik -led organizations in Soviet Russia and in areas ^[1] The Bolsheviks had limited ties with the Georgian peasantry, which was overwhelmingly opposed to collectivization and dissatisfied over land shortages and other economic troubles. Collective farming is an organization of agricultural production in which the holdings of several farmers are run as a joint enterprise The situation in the country was further aggravated by a famine prevailing in many areas and the summer 1921 outbreak of cholera which carried off thousands of victims. A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation Cholera, sometimes known as Asiatic cholera or epidemic cholera, is an infectious Gastroenteritis caused by the Bacterium The desperate shortage of food and the breakdown of medical services resulted in heavy mortality, Catholicos Patriarch Leonid being among the dead. The Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia is the head of the Georgian Orthodox and Apostolic Church. Leonid (Leonidas (ლეონიდე Leonide) (1860 – 1921 was a Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia from 1918 to 1921 ^[2] The highly politicized working class of Georgia, with its severe economic problems, was also hostile toward the new regime as were the national intelligentsia and nobility who had pledged their loyalty to the Menshevik republic. A delayed transition from the Revkom’s rule to the Soviets’ system, subordination of workers’ organizations and trades unions to the Bolshevik party committees and Moscow’s centralizing policy created a discontent even among the multiethnic workers of Tiflis who were the most sympathetic towards Communist doctrines. A soviet (сове́т, "council" originally was a workers' local council in late Imperial Russia. A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming ^[3]

Public discontent within the Georgian society indirectly reflected in a bitter struggle among Bolsheviks about the way in which social and political transformation was to be achieved in Georgia. Hardliners led by Sergo Ordzhonikidze, head of the Transcaucasian Regional Committee (Zaikkraikom) of the Russian Communist Party, and Joseph Stalin, People's Commissar for Nationalities for the RSFSR, launched a series of measures aimed at elimination of the last remnants of Georgia’s self-rule. Grigoriy Konstantinovich Ordzhonikidze (გრიგოლ (სერგო ორჯონიკიძე - Grigol (Sergo Orjonikidze Russian: Григорий Константинович The South Caucasus is a mountainous geopolitical area of south-central Eurasia, also referred to as Transcaucasia, or The Transcaucasus. Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party Council of Ministers of the USSR (Совет Министров СССР tr They were opposed by a group of Georgian Bolsheviks, described by their opponents as "national deviationists" and led by Filipp Makharadze and Budu Mdivani, who advocated tolerance toward the Menshevik opposition, greater democracy within the party, a moderate approach toward land reform, and, above all, called for greater autonomy from Moscow and stubbornly opposed Stalin’s project of uniting all the three Transcaucasian republics economically and politically. Filipp Makaradze ( Georgian: ფილიპე მახარაძე Russian: Филипп Махарадзе (1868–1941 was President of the Georgian Polikarp "Budu" Mdivani (პოლიკარპე მდივანი Поликарп Гургенович Мдивани Polikarp Gurgenovich Mdivani) (1877 The crisis known as the "Georgian Affair" lasted throughout 1922 and ended with the hardliners’ victory. The Georgian Affair of 1922 (Грузинское дело was a political conflict within the Soviet leadership about the way in which social and political transformation was Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. As a result, Georgia was forcibly merged with the Armenian and Azerbaijan republics into the Transcaucasian SFSR, a decision which delivered a heavy blow to Georgian national pride. The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (Հայկական ՍովետականՍոցիալիստական Հանրապետություն Haykakan Sovetakan Sotsialistakan Hanrapetutyun This article is about the former Soviet republic for other similar uses see Azerbaijan (disambiguation. The Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (Հայաստանի Խորհրդային Սոցիալիստական Հանրապետություն Azerbaijani: With the defeat of "national deviationists", the Bolsheviks’ policy became more aggressive; all kind of opposition was severely suppressed; those parties which still retained legal status were forced to announce their dissolution and declare their official loyalty to the Soviet authorities between April 1922 and October 1923. Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Those who continued to operate did that as underground organizations. ^[4] The Georgian Orthodox Church was also persecuted; over 1,500 churches and monasteries were closed or demolished^[5] and a number of clerics were imprisoned, including Catholicos Patriarch Ambrose who was arrested and tried for having sent a letter of protest to the 1922 Genoa Conference in which he described the conditions under which Georgia was living since the Red Army invasion and begged for the "help of the civilized world". Christianity in ancient and feudal Georgia According to tradition when the Apostles were sent out to preach the Gospel to the nations of the world the Apostle Ambrose (ამბროსი Ambrosi) ( September 7, 1861 – March 29, 1927) was a Georgian religious figure and scholar The Genoa Conference was held in Genoa, Italy in 1922 from April 10 to May 19. ^[6]

Preparation

Colonel Kakutsa Cholokashvili, one of the leaders of anti-Soviet guerrilla movement, is venerated as national hero of Georgia. Kaikhosro Cholokashvili (ქაიხოსრო ჩოლოყაშვილი commonly known as Kakutsa (ქაქუცა a Hypocorism of Kaikhosro A hero (from Greek grc ἥρως hērōs) in Greek mythology and Folklore, was originally a Demigod, the offspring of a mortal and

In the course of the Red Army invasion, part of the defeated Georgian forces withdrew into the mountains and organized themselves into a number of small partisan groups. From 1921 to 1922, guerrilla warfare broke out in several regions of Georgia. In May 1921, the highlanders of Svaneti, northwestern Georgia, led by Mosestro Dadeshkeliani, Nestor Gardapkhadze and Bidzina Pirveli, rose in rebellion. Svaneti or Svanetia ( Suania in ancient sources (სვანეთი Svaneti) is a historic province in Georgia, in the northwestern part of The Svanetian Uprising of 1921 was an unsuccessful rebellion against the recently established Bolshevik regime in Georgia. After a resistance of six months, the revolt was put down and its leaders were purged. In early 1922, the rebellion against the Soviet rule broke out in Khevsureti, another mountainous district, but in northeast Georgia. Khevsureti is a historic province in eastern Georgia, located along both the northern and southern slopes of the Great Caucasus Mountains. Soviet troops using aviation managed to stop this rebellion from spreading, but could not crush it completely. Colonel Kakutsa Cholokashvili, who had led the revolt, managed to escape to the neighboring Chechnya, whence he made several inroads into Georgia, preventing the Bolsheviks from gaining a foothold in the eastern Georgian mountains. Kaikhosro Cholokashvili (ქაიხოსრო ჩოლოყაშვილი commonly known as Kakutsa (ქაქუცა a Hypocorism of Kaikhosro The Chechen Republic (ˈʧɛʧɨn rɪˈpʌblɨk Чече́нская Респу́блика Chechenskaya Respublika; Нохчийн Республика Noxçiyn Respublika The local militsiya chief Levan Razikashvili was arrested and later shot for having sympathized with the rebellion. Militia (мили́ция mʲi'lʲitsɨja мiлiцiя мiлíцыя милиция milicja miliţia milica milicija/милиција милиција was used as a short Levan Razikashvili (ლევან რაზიკაშვილი (1895-1923 was a Georgian military officer and victim of Soviet repressions

Still, these revolts were local and spontaneous and did not attract large masses. Within the period of 1922-1923, 33 of 57 active guerrilla detachments disintegrated or surrendered to the Soviet authorities. The deplorable situation of the anti-Soviet opposition forced all major underground parties to seek closer cooperation. The negotiations proceeded slowly, however, and it was not until mid-1922 that the Mensheviks reached an agreement with their formal rivals – the National Democrats and some other political groups – to coordinate their efforts against the Bolsheviks. Soon the opposition parties congregated into an underground movement known as the Committee for the Independence of Georgia or the "Damkom" (short for damoukideblobis komiteti, Committee for Independence). The Committee for the Independence of Georgia (საქართველოს დამოუკიდებლობის კომიტეტი Sak’art’velos damoukideblobis Sponsored by the government of Georgia-in-exile, the Damkom began preparations for a general uprising in Georgia. The Government of the Democratic Republic of Georgia (DRG continued to function as the Government in exile (National Government of Georgia NGG after the Soviet The organization set up a "Military Center" and appointed General Spiridon Chavchavadze the commander-in-chief of all rebel forces. Several members of the former Menshevik government returned clandestinely from exile, including the former Minister of Agriculture, Noe Khomeriki, as well as the former commander of the National Guard, Valiko Jugheli. Noe Khomeriki (ნოე ხომერიკი (executed in 1924 was a Georgian politician involved in the Social Democrat movement and shot during the Bolshevik Vladimir “Valiko” Jugheli (ვალიკო ჯუღელი ( January 1, 1887 - January 9, 1924) was a Georgian politician The organizers, encouraged by the Georgian emigrants in Europe, had still more expectations that the Western powers intended to help. They also hoped that the Georgian revolt would further other Caucasian peoples to rise in arms, but the secret negotiations with Armenian and Azeri nationalists yielded no results and even more promising talks with the Muslim Chechen leader, Ali Mitayev, were finally aborted due to mass arrests and repressions in Northern Caucasus. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The North Caucasus, also Ciscaucasus, Ciscaucasia or Forecaucasia, is the northern part of the Caucasus region between Europe

The Georgian branch of the Soviet secret police, Cheka,^[7] with recently appointed Deputy Chief Lavrentiy Beria playing a leading role, managed to penetrate the organization and carried out mass arrests. The Cheka ( ЧК - чрезвычайная комиссия Chrezvychaynaya Komissiya,) was the first of a succession of Soviet State security Lavrentiy Pavlovich Beria (ლავრენტი პავლეს ძე ბერია Lavrenti Pavles dze Beria; Russian: Лаврентий Павлович A prominent Menshevik activist, David Sagirashvili, was arrested and then deported to Germany in October 1922 along with sixty-two other Mensheviks. ^[8] A heavy loss was sustained in February 1923 by the Georgian opposition, when fifteen members of the military center were arrested. Among them were the principal leaders of the resistance movement, Generals Kote Abkhazi, Alexander Andronikashvili and Vardan Tsulukidze; they were executed on May 19 1923. Prince Konstantine "Kote" Abkhazi (კონსტანტინე აბხაზი ( November 17, 1867 - May 19, 1923) was a ^[9] In March 1923 the Cheka discovered an underground Menshevik printshop and arrested several oppositionists. ^[10] The Menshevik leaders Noe Khomeriki, Benia Chkhikvishvili, and Valiko Jugheli too fell in the hands of the Cheka on November 9 1923, July 25 1924, and August 6 1924, respectively. Benia Chkhikvishvili (also spelled Bénia Tchkhikvichvili (ბენია ჩხიკვიშვილი (?-1924 was a Georgian politician who was involved in the

Under these circumstances, some Georgians doubted whether the uprising could be successful. The captured rebel leader, Jugheli, urged Cheka officials to allow him to inform his comrades that their plans had been discovered and advise them to abandon their proposed revolt, but the Cheka refused. ^[11] Jugheli’s message still reached the rebels, but the conspirators decided that this might have been a Cheka provocation and went ahead with plans for the uprising.

There are many indications that the Soviet intelligence had been, at a certain level, implicated in provoking the uprising. The Cheka, employing secret agents in local socialist circles, were well informed of the conspiracy and popular dissatisfaction of the Bolshevik rule. Instructed by Stalin and Ordzhonikidze, Beria and his superior, Kvantaliani, actually encouraged the rebellion so they would have a pretext for eliminating all political opposition and avenging personal scores with their former rivals in Georgia. ^[12]

Outbreak and reaction

Prince Kote Andronikashvili, chairman of the Damkom (1923-4)

On August 18, 1924, the Damkom laid plans for a general insurrection for 2. 00 am August 29. The plan of the simultaneous uprising miscarried, however, and, through some misunderstanding, the mining town of Chiatura, western Georgia, rose in rebellion a day earlier, on August 28. Chiatura (ჭიათურა is a city in the Imereti region of Western Georgia. This enabled the Soviet government to timely put all available forces in the region on alert. Yet, at first the insurgents achieved considerable success and formed an Interim Government of Georgia chaired by Prince Giorgi Tsereteli. The uprising quickly spread to neighboring areas and a large portion of western Georgia and several districts in eastern Georgia wrested out of the Soviet control.

The success of the uprising was short-lived, however. Although the insurrection went further than the Cheka had anticipated, the reaction of the Soviet authorities was prompt. Stalin dissipated any doubt in Moscow of the significance of the disorders in Georgia by the one word: "Kronstadt", referring to the Kronstadt rebellion, a large scale though unsuccessful mutiny by Soviet sailors in 1921. This article is about the historical event known as the Kronstadt rebellion Additional Red Army troops under the overall command of Semyon Pugachev were promptly sent in and Georgia’s coastline was blockaded to prevent a landing of Georgian émigré groups. Detachments of the Red Army and Cheka attacked the first insurgent towns in western Georgia – Chiatura, Senaki and Abasha – as early as August 29 and managed to force the rebels into forests and mountains by August 30. Senaki (სენაკი is a town in Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti Mkhare ( Region) western Georgia. Absaha can refer to Abasha (district, in Georgia (country Abasha (town, the center of the Abasha district The Red Army forces employed artillery and aviation to fight the guerrillas who still continued to offer resistance, especially in the province of Guria, a home region to many Georgian Menshevik leaders and thus overwhelmingly disloyal to the Bolshevik rule. For the village in Bangladesh see Guria Bangladesh. Guria (გურია is a region ( Mkhare) in Georgia Tiflis, Batumi and some larger towns, where the Bolsheviks enjoyed more authority, remained quite as did Abkhazia and most of the territories compactly settled by ethnic minorities. Batumi (ბათუმი formerly Batum or Batoum) is a seaside city on the Black Sea coast and Capital of Adjara, an Autonomous Abkhazia (Аҧсны Apsny აფხაზეთი Apkhazeti or Abkhazeti Абха́зия Abhazia) is a De facto ^[13]

Following the setback suffered by the insurgents in the west, the epicenter of the revolt now shifted into eastern Georgia, where, on August 29, a large rebel force under Colonel Cholokashvili assaulted the Red Army barracks in Manglisi, on southwestern approaches of Tiflis, but was driven back by the Soviet troops which had heavily fortified all strategic positions in and around the capital. Reinforcements failed and Cholokashvili’s forces were left isolated, forcing them to retreat eastward into the Kakheti province. Kakheti ( Georgian: კახეთი is a province in Eastern Georgia. On September 3, Cholokashvili made the last desperate attempt to turn a tide of the rebellion and took the town of Dusheti in a surprise attack. Dusheti (დუშეთი is a town in Georgia, situated in the Mtskheta-Mtianeti region, 54 km northeast of the nation’s capital of Tbilisi However, he could not hold off a Red Army counter-offensive and withdrew into mountains. The suppression of the rebellion was accompanied by a full scale outbreak of the Red Terror, "unprecedented even in the most tragic moments of the revolution" as the French author Boris Souvarine puts it. The Red Terror in Soviet Russia was the campaign of mass arrests and Executions conducted by the Bolshevik government Boris Souvarine (born Boris Konstantinovich Lifschitz and also known as Varine; 1895–1984 was an Imperial Russian born French socialist ^[14] The scattered guerrilla resistance continued for several weeks, but by mid-September most of the main rebel groups had been destroyed.

On September 4, the Cheka discovered the rebels’ chief headquarters at the Shio-Mgvime Monastery near the town of Mtskheta, and arrested Prince Andronikashvili, the Damkom chairman, and his associates Javakhishvili, Ishkhneli, Jinoria, and Bochorishvili. The Shio-Mgvime Monastery (შიომღვიმე Shiomghvime, literally meaning "the cave of Shio" is a medieval monastic complex in Georgia, near Mtskheta (მცხეთა one of the oldest cities of the country of Georgia (in Kartli province of Eastern Georgia is located approximately 20 kilometers northeast On the same day, Beria met with the arrested oppositionists in Tiflis, and proposed to issue a declaration urging the partisans to put down their arms. The committee members, tied up and facing death themselves, accepted the proposal on the condition that an order to stop mass executions be given immediately. Beria agreed and the rebels signed the declaration in order to put an end to the bloodshed. ^[15]

The persecutions did not end, however. In violation of the promise made by Beria to the arrested opposition leaders, mass arrests and executions continued. The political guidance of the anti-revolt operations was effected by the GPU chief in Georgia, Solomon Mogilevsky,^[16] and the repressions were largely supported by the Transcaucasian Central Committee. The State Political Directorate was the Secret police of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR) and the Soviet Union from 1922 until Solomon Grigorevich Mogilevsky (Соломон Григорьевич Могилевский 1885 Pavlograd - March 22, 1925 ^[17] Stalin himself is quoted to have vowed that "all of Georgia must be plowed under". ^[18]

In a series of raids, the Red Army and Cheka detachments killed thousands of civilians, exterminating entire families including women and children. ^[19] Mass executions took place in prisons,^[20] where people were killed without trial, including even those in prison at the time of the rebellion. ^[21] Hundreds of arrested were shot directly in good wagons, so that the dead bodies could be removed faster, a new and effective technical invention authored by the Cheka officer Talakhadze. ^[22]

The exact number of casualties and the victims of the purges remains unknown. Approximately 3,000 died in fighting. ^[23] The number of those who were executed during the uprising or in its immediate aftermath amounted to 7,000-10,000^[24] or even more. According to the most recent accounts included also in The Black Book of Communism (Harvard University Press, 1999), 12,578 people were put to death from August 29 to September 5, 1924. The Black Book of Communism Crimes Terror Repression is a book which describes a history of Repressions both Political and Civilian, by Harvard University Press ( HUP) is a Publishing house, a division of Harvard University, that is highly respected in Academic publishing. About 20,000 people were deported to Siberia and Central Asian deserts. Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south ^[25]

Aftermath

Prince Cholokashvili during the uprising

Reports of the extent of the repressions caused an outcry among socialists abroad. Leaders of the Second International sent a resolution to the League of Nations condemning the Soviet government, but did not achieve any substantial results. The Second International (1889-1916 was an organization of socialist and labour parties formed in Paris on July 14, 1889. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 Clara Zetkin, a notable German Social Democrat, attempted to counteract the negative publicity, visited Tiflis and then wrote a leaflet on Georgia, in which she claimed that only 320 persons had been shot. Clara Zetkin, maiden name Eissner ( 5 July 1857 - 20 June 1933) was an influential socialist German politician Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. ^[26] Nonetheless the public outcry resulted in unpleasant repercussions for the central government in Moscow, prompting the Politburo to set up a special commission, led by Ordzhonikidze, to investigate the causes of the uprising and the Cheka activities during its elimination. Politburo, short for Political Bureau, Russian Politicheskoye Buro, is the executive organization for a number of Political parties, most notably In October 1924, following the issuance of the commission’s report, some members of the Georgian Cheka were purged as "unreliable elements" who were presumably offered up as scapegoats for the atrocities. ^[27] Ordzhonikidze himself admitted before a meeting of the Central Committee in Moscow in October 1924 that "perhaps we did go a little far, but we couldn't help ourselves. ” On October 7 1924, the Soviet administration (Sovnarkom, "Council of People's Commissars") of Georgia declared an amnesty to all participants of the revolt who would surrender voluntarily. Council of Ministers of the USSR (Совет Министров СССР tr In early March 1925 the Chairman of the All-Union Executive Committee, Mikhail Kalinin, arrived in Georgia and called for the amnesty of the participants of the August 1924 insurrection, and for the suspension of religious persecutions. The President of the Soviet Union was the Head of State of the USSR from March 15, 1990 to December 25, 1991. Mikhail Ivanovich Kalinin (Михаи́л Ива́нович Кали́нин ( – June 3, 1946) was a Bolshevik revolutionary and the titular Head As a result, the Cheka grip in Georgia was relatively eased (for example, Catholicos Patriarch Ambrose and the members of the Patriarchal Council were released), military pacification was completed and an appearance of normality returned to the country, but Georgia had suffered a shock from which he was never able to completely recover. The uprising proved to be a last armed effort of Georgians to oust the Bolshevik regime and regain their independence. ^[28] The most active pro-independence part of the Georgian society, nobility, military officers and intellectual elites were virtually exterminated. Only a few survivors such as Cholokashvili, Lashkarashvili and some of their associates managed to escape abroad. ^[29] The Georgian émigré Irakly Tsereteli considered the event disastrous both for the future of social democracy and of Georgia. ^[30] The failure of the uprising and the intensified police repression that followed decimated the Menshevik organization in Georgia and it no longer was a threat to the Bolsheviks. However, Beria and his colleagues continued to use a "menshevik danger" as an excuse for reprisals in Georgia. During the years 1925-6 at least 500 socialists were shot without trial. ^[31]

The uprising was also exploited as the pretext for disrupting the Tiflis University which was seen by the Bolsheviks as a shelter of Georgian nationalism. Tbilisi Ivane Javakhishvili State University, better known as Tbilisi State University ( TSU) (თბილისის ივანე ჯავახიშვილის Despite the fact that several leading academics, who sympathized with or even participated in the anti-Soviet movement, eventually distanced themselves from the idea of an armed revolt and even denounced it in a special statement, the university was purged of unreliable elements and placed under the complete control of the Communist Party. Substantial changes were made in its structure, curriculum, and personnel, including the dismissal of the Rector, a noted historian Ivane Javakhishvili. Ivane Javakhishvili (ივანე ჯავახიშვილი also spelled Javaxishvili or Javaxišvili ( April 11, 1876 &ndash November 18, ^[32]

On the other hand, the events in Georgia demonstrated the necessity for greater concessions to the peasants; Stalin declared that an August 1924 uprising in Georgia was sparked by dissatisfaction among the peasants and called the party to conciliate them. He admitted that "what has happened in Georgia may happen throughout Russia, unless we make a complete change in our attitude to the peasantry" and placed the responsibility for the errors committed on subordinate officials. Vyacheslav Molotov, an influential member of the Politburo, for his part declared: "Georgia provides a startling example of the breach between the Party and the mass of the peasantry in the country. Molotov redirects here For other uses see Molotov (disambiguation. "^[33] As a result, the Communist Party of Georgia chose, for the time being, to use peaceful persuasion rather than armed coercion to extend their influence over the peasant masses, and to moderate the attempts to enforce collectivization. ^[34] The extension of the radical land reform and the relative freedom granted peasants reduced hostility to the new regime. ^[35] Although the last attributes of Georgia’s political and economic sovereignty, which both the Mensheviks and the "national Communists" had fought to preserve, had been eliminated, the final victory of the Soviet power in Georgia was accompanied by moderate economic growth, that ensured relative stability in the country. Another important factor in lessening opposition to the Bolsheviks, particularly from the intelligentsia, was the policy of "nativization" persuaded by the Soviet government in the 1920s; Georgian art, language, and learning were promoted; the spread of literacy was sponsored and the role of ethnic Georgians in administrative and cultural institutions enhanced. For the coffee shop company often called Intelligentsia for short see Intelligentsia Coffee & Tea. Korenizatsiya (коренизация sometimes also called korenization, meaning "nativization" or "indigenization" literally "putting down roots" ^[36]

Assessment

Under the Soviet Union, the August Uprising remained a taboo theme and was hardly mentioned at all, if not in its ideological content. Using its control over education and the media, the Soviet propaganda machine denounced the Georgian rebellion as a "bloody adventure initiated by the Mensheviks and other reactionary forces who managed to implicate a small and undereducated part of the population in it. "^[37] With a new tide of independence movement sweeping throughout Georgia in the late 1980s, the anti-Soviet fighters of 1924, particularly, the leading partisan officer Kakutsa Cholokashvili, emerged as a major symbol of Georgian patriotism and national resistance to the Soviet rule. Kaikhosro Cholokashvili (ქაიხოსრო ჩოლოყაშვილი commonly known as Kakutsa (ქაქუცა a Hypocorism of Kaikhosro The process of legal "rehabilitation" (exoneration) of the victims of the 1920s repressions began under Gorbachev’s policy of Glasnost ("publicity") and was completed in the May 25 1992 decree issued by the State Council of the Republic of Georgia chaired by Eduard Shevardnadze. Rehabilitation (реабилитация in the context of Soviet or Russian topics is often a linguistic False cognate used to translate the Russian Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev ( Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov;; born 2 March 1931 in Privolnoye Stavropol Krai) is a Russian politician (Гла́сность)is literally defined as publicity and sometimes figuratively interpreted as "tipping a vase to let someone see into the vase but not the bottom of the vase" Eduard Amvrosiyevich Shevardnadze (ედუარდ შევარდნაძე ɛduɑrd ʃɛvɑrdnɑdzɛ (born 25 January 1928 in Mamati, Lanchkhuti ^[38] In connection with the opening of the Museum of Soviet Occupation in May 2006, more archival reserves were made public by the Ministry of Interior of Georgia which has recently started to publish the names of the victims of the 1924 purges and other materials from the Soviet era secret archives. The Museum of the Soviet Occupation (საბჭოთა ოკუპაციის მუზეუმი sabch’ot’a okupats’iis muzeumi) is a history museum in ^[39]

Notes

References

• ვალერი ბენიძე (Valeri Benidze) (1991), 1924 წლის აჯანყება საქართველოში (1924 Uprising in Georgia). Tbilisi: სამშობლო ("Samshoblo") (in Georgian)
• ლევან ზ. ურუშაძე (Levan Z. Urushadze) (2006), ქაიხოსრო (ქაქუცა) ჩოლოყაშვილის ბიოგრაფიისათვის (For the biography of Kaikhosro (Kakutsa) Cholokashvili). - "ამირანი" ("Amirani"), XIV-XV, მონრეალი-თბილისი (Montreal-Tbilisi), pages 147-166, ISSN 15120449 (in Georgian, English summary).
• Ariel Cohen (1998), Russian Imperialism: Development and Crisis. Praeger/Greenwood, ISBN 0275964817.
• Raymond Duguet (1927), Moscou et la Géorgie martyre. Préface de C. B. Stokes. Paris: Tallandier.
• Stephen F. Jones (October 1988). Stephen F Jones is an American expert on post- Communist societies in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe who currently serves as a Professor "The Establishment of Soviet Power in Transcaucasia: The Case of Georgia 1921-1928". Soviet Studies 40, No. 4: 616-639.  
• Amy W. Knight (1993), Beria: Stalin's First Lieutenant, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, ISBN 0691010935. The Princeton University Press is an independent publisher with close connections to Princeton University. See also Princeton Township New Jersey, Borough of Princeton New Jersey Princeton Borough New Jersey Princeton Township New Jersey this
• David Marshall Lang (1962). David Marshall Lang ( May 6, 1924 – March 20, 1991) was a Professor of Caucasian Studies School of Oriental and A Modern History of Georgia, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom.
• Karl E. Meyer (Summer 2001). "Icebergs in the Caucasus" (). World Policy Journal CODA XVIII, No. 2.  
• Ghia Nodia, Álvaro Pinto Scholtbach, coordinators-editors (2006), The Political Landscape of Georgia. Ghia Nodia (გია ნოდია (born 1954 Russia) is a Georgian Political analyst and has been a member of the Cabinet of Georgia as Eburon Delft, ISBN 9059721136.
• Roger William Pethybridge (1990), One Step Backwards, Two Steps Forward: Soviet Society and Politics in the New Economic Policy, Oxford University Press, ISBN 019821927X.
• Rudolph J. Rummel (1990), Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917. Rudolph Joseph Rummel (born October 21, 1932) is Professor emeritus of Political science at the University of Hawaii. Transaction Publishers, ISBN 1560008873.
• Boris Souvarine (2005), Stalin: A Critical Survey of Bolshevism, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1419113070. Boris Souvarine (born Boris Konstantinovich Lifschitz and also known as Varine; 1895–1984 was an Imperial Russian born French socialist
• Ronald Grigor Suny (1994), The Making of the Georgian Nation: 2nd edition, Indiana University Press, ISBN 0-253-20915-3. Ronald Grigor Suny is currently the Charles Tilly Collegiate Professor of Social and Political History at the University of Michigan, and Emeritus Professor of Political Indiana University Press, also known as IU Press, is a Publishing house at Indiana University that engages in Academic publishing, specializing
• Akaki Surguladze, Paata Surguladze (1991), საქართველოს ისტორია, 1783-1990 (History of Georgia, 1783-1990), Tbilisi: Meroni. Akaki Surguladze (აკაკი სურგულაძე (1913-1991 was a Georgian historian (in Georgian)
• Markus Wehner (1995). "Le soulèvement géorgien de 1924 et la réaction des bolcheviks". Communisme n° 42/43/44: 155-170.  

External links

• A documentary film "1924" (includes original footage). Retrieved from Youtube on September 4, 2007. YouTube is a video sharing website where users can upload view and share Video clips YouTube was created in February 2005 by three former PayPal employees Events 476 - Romulus Augustus, last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, is deposed when Odoacer proclaims himself Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.