Further information: Global warming, Climate change, and Climate change denial

Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for relatively recent changes observed in the Earth's climate. Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences Climate change denial describes efforts to counter all or part of the theory of global climate change when those involved are believed to be acting out of vested interests rather Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record, when records are most reliable; particularly on the last 50 years, when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the upper atmosphere have become available. See also Temperature record. The instrumental temperature record shows the fluctuations of the Temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans as The dominant mechanisms to which recent climate change has been attributed all result from human activity. They are:^[1]

• increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases
• global changes to land surface, such as deforestation
• increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols. An atmosphere (from Greek ατμός - atmos, " Vapor " + σφαίρα - sphaira, " Sphere " Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared Deforestation is the conversion of Forested areas to non-forest land for use such as Arable land, Pasture, urban use logged area or wasteland Technically an aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas

Recent reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report have concluded that:

• "Most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations. Anthropogenic effects processes objects or materials are those that are derived from Human activities as opposed to those occurring in Natural environments without Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared "^[2]
• "From new estimates of the combined anthropogenic forcing due to greenhouse gases, aerosols, and land surface changes, it is extremely likely that human activities have exerted a substantial net warming influence on climate since 1750. In Climate science radiative forcing is (loosely defined as the change in net Irradiance at the Tropopause. Technically an aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas Land use' is also often used to refer to the distinct land use types in Zoning. "^[1]
• "It is virtually certain that anthropogenic aerosols produce a net negative radiative forcing (cooling influence) with a greater magnitude in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere. In Climate science radiative forcing is (loosely defined as the change in net Irradiance at the Tropopause. Northern Hemisphere is the half of a Planet that is North of the Equator —the word hemisphere literally means 'half ball' Southern Hemisphere is the half of a Planet that is South of the Equator —the word hemisphere literally means 'half ball' ^[1]

The panel, which represents consensus in the scientific community, defines "very likely," "extremely likely," and "virtually certain" as indicating probabilities greater than 90%, 95%, and 99%, respectively. National and international science academies and professional societies have assessed the current scientific opinion on climate change, in particular recent Global warming. The scientific community consists of the total body of Scientists its relationships and interactions ^[1]

Key attributions

Greenhouse gases

Scientific consensus has identified carbon dioxide as the dominant greenhouse gas forcing. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared (The dominant greenhouse gas overall is water vapor. General properties of water vapor Evaporation/sublimation Whenever a water molecule leaves a surface it is said to have evaporated Water vapor, however, has a very short atmospheric lifetime (about 10 days) and is very nearly in a dynamic equilibrium in the atmosphere, so it is not a forcing gas in the context of global warming. In Climate science radiative forcing is (loosely defined as the change in net Irradiance at the Tropopause. ^[3]) Methane and nitrous oxide are also major forcing contributors to the greenhouse effect. Methane is a Chemical compound with the molecular formula. It is the simplest Alkane, and the principal component of Natural gas. Nitrous oxide, commonly known as " laughing gas," is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula N 2 O. The Greenhouse effect refers to the change in the Thermal equilibrium temperature of a planet or moon by the presence of an Atmosphere containing gas that absorbs The Kyoto Protocol lists these together with Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6),^[4] which contribute to climate change primarily by interfering with atmospheric ozone concentrations. The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the international Framework Convention on Climate Change with the objective of reducing Greenhouse gases in an effort The haloalkanes (also known as halogenoalkanes or alkyl halides) are a group of Chemical compounds consisting of Alkanes such as Methane Perfluorocarbons (PFCs are compounds derived from Hydrocarbons by replacement of Hydrogen Atoms by Fluorine atoms Sulfur hexafluoride is an Inorganic compound with the formula. OZONE is an object oriented Operating system written in the C programming language. The chart at right attributes anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to eight main economic sectors, of which the largest contributors are power stations (many of which burn coal or other fossil fuels), industrial processes (among which cement production is a dominant contributor^[5]), transportation fuels (generally fossil fuels), and agricultural byproducts (mainly methane from enteric fermentation and nitrous oxide from fertilizer use). A power station (also referred to as generating station, power plant or powerhouse) is an industrial facility for the generation of Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. For other uses of this term see Industry (disambiguation An industry (from Latin industrius, "diligent industrious" In the most general sense of the word a cement is a binder a substance which sets and hardens independently and can bind other materials together Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another Fuel is any material that is burned or altered in order to obtain energy Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Enteric fermentation is fermentation that takes place in the Digestive systems of Ruminant Animals It is one of the factors in increased Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant

Land use

Climate change is attributed to land use for two main reasons. Land use' is also often used to refer to the distinct land use types in Zoning. While 66% of anthropogenic CO₂ emissions over the last 250 years have resulted from burning fossil fuels, 33% have resulted from changes in land use, primarily deforestation. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Deforestation is the conversion of Forested areas to non-forest land for use such as Arable land, Pasture, urban use logged area or wasteland ^[5] Deforestation both reduces the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by deforested regions and releases greenhouse gases directly, together with aerosols, through biomass burning that frequently accompanies it. Slash and burn consists of cutting and burning of Forests or Woodlands to create fields for Agriculture or Pasture for Livestock, or A second reason that climate change has been attributed to land use is that the terrestrial albedo is often altered by use, which leads to radiative forcing. The albedo of an object is the extent to which it diffusely reflects light from the sun In Climate science radiative forcing is (loosely defined as the change in net Irradiance at the Tropopause. This effect is more significant locally than globally. ^[5]

Livestock and land use

Worldwide, livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the ice-free land surface of the Earth. ^[6] Scientists attribute more than 18% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to livestock and livestock-related activities such as deforestation and increasingly fuel-intensive farming practices. ^[6] Specific attributions to the livestock sector include:

• 9% of global carbon dioxide emissions
• 35-40% of global methane emissions (chiefly due to enteric fermentation and manure)
• 64% of global nitrous oxide emissions, chiefly as a result of fertilizer use. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Methane is a Chemical compound with the molecular formula. It is the simplest Alkane, and the principal component of Natural gas. Enteric fermentation is fermentation that takes place in the Digestive systems of Ruminant Animals It is one of the factors in increased Manure is Organic matter used as Organic fertilizer in Agriculture. Nitrous oxide, commonly known as " laughing gas," is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula N 2 O. Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant ^[6]

Aerosols

With virtual certainty, scientific consensus has attributed various forms of climate change, chiefly cooling effects, to aerosols, which are small particles or droplets suspended in the atmosphere. Technically an aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas ^[7] Key sources to which anthropogenic aerosols are attributed^[8] include:

• biomass burning such as slash and burn deforestation. Slash and burn consists of cutting and burning of Forests or Woodlands to create fields for Agriculture or Pasture for Livestock, or Aerosols produced are primarily black carbon. Black carbon or BC is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels biofuel and biomass and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot
• industrial air pollution, which produces soot and airborne sulfates, nitrates, and ammonium
• dust produced by land use effects such as desertification

Attribution of 20th century climate change

One global climate model's reconstruction of temperature change during the 20th century as the result of five studied forcing factors and the amount of temperature change attributed to each. Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Soot (ˈsʊt is a general term that refers to the black impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon In Inorganic chemistry, a nitrate is a salt of Nitric acid with an Ion composed of one Nitrogen and three Oxygen atoms Ammonium is also an old name for the Siwa Oasis in western Egypt. Land use' is also often used to refer to the distinct land use types in Zoning. Desertification is the degradation of land in arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting primarily from human activities and influenced by climatic variations The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change first assessment report was completed in 1990 and served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate The Second Assessment Report (SAR of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change was published in 1995 The IPCC Third Assessment Report, Climate Change 2001, is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by an intergovermental panel Climate Change 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4 of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC) is the fourth Annex I and Annex II Countries and Developing Countries Signatories to the UNFCCC are split into three groups Annex I countries (industrialized countries The UN Environment Programme (or UNEP) coordinates United Nations environmental activities assisting developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies This article is about computer-driven prediction of Earth's climate for the theories and mathematics of climate modeling please see Climate model.

Over the past 150 years human activities have released increasing quantities of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five This has led to increases in mean global temperature, or global warming. Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Other human effects are relevant—for example, sulphate aerosols are believed to lead to cooling—and natural factors also contribute. Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas According to the historical temperature record of the last century, the Earth's near-surface air temperature has risen around 0. See also Temperature record. The instrumental temperature record shows the fluctuations of the Temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans as 74 ± 0. ± The 18 °Celsius (1. The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. 3 ± 0. 32 °Fahrenheit). Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736 a German Physicist who proposed it in 1724

A historically important question in climate change research has regarded the relative importance of human activity and non-anthropogenic causes during the period of instrumental record. Anthropogenic effects processes objects or materials are those that are derived from Human activities as opposed to those occurring in Natural environments without See also Temperature record. The instrumental temperature record shows the fluctuations of the Temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans as In the 1995 Second Assessment Report (SAR), the IPCC made the widely-quoted statement that "The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate". The phrase "balance of evidence" suggested the (English) common-law standard of proof required in civil as opposed to criminal courts: not as high as "beyond reasonable doubt". In 2001 the Third Assessment Report (TAR) refined this, saying "There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities". ^[9] The 2007 fourth assessment report (WG1 AR4) strengthened this finding:

• "Anthropogenic warming of the climate system is widespread and can be detected in temperature observations taken at the surface, in the free atmosphere and in the oceans. Evidence of the effect of external influences, both anthropogenic and natural, on the climate system has continued to accumulate since the TAR. "^[5]

Over the past five decades there has been a global warming of approximately 0. 65 °C (1. 17 °F) at the Earth's surface (see historical temperature record). See also Temperature record. The instrumental temperature record shows the fluctuations of the Temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans as Among the possible factors that could produce changes in global mean temperature are internal variability of the climate system, external forcing, an increase in concentration of greenhouse gases, or any combination of these. Current studies indicate that the increase in greenhouse gases, most notably CO₂, is mostly responsible for the observed warming. Evidence for this conclusion includes:

• Estimates of internal variability from climate models, and reconstructions of past temperatures, indicate that the warming is unlikely to be entirely natural.
• Climate models forced by natural factors and increased greenhouse gases and aerosols reproduce the observed global temperature changes; those forced by natural factors alone do not [1].
• "Fingerprint" methods indicate that the pattern of change is closer to that expected from greenhouse gas-forced change than from natural change. [2]
• The plateau in warming from the 1940s to 1960s can be attributed largely to sulphate aerosol cooling. [3]

In 2001, the U. S. National Academy of Sciences released a report supporting the IPCC’s conclusions regarding the causes of recent climate change. The National Academy of Sciences (NAS is a corporation in the United States whose members serve Pro bono as "advisers to the nation on science It stated, "Greenhouse gases are accumulating in Earth’s atmosphere as a result of human activities, causing surface air temperatures and subsurface ocean temperatures to rise. Temperatures are, in fact, rising. The changes observed over the last several decades are likely mostly due to human activities, but we cannot rule out that some significant part of these changes are also a reflection of natural variability. "[4] [5][6]

Detection vs. attribution

Per capita greenhouse gas emissions by country including land-use change

Detection and attribution of climate signals, as well as its common-sense meaning, has a more precise definition within the climate change literature, as expressed by the IPCC [7].

Detection of a signal requires demonstrating that an observed change is statistically significantly different from that which can be explained by natural internal variability.

Attribution requires demonstrating that a signal is:

• unlikely to be due entirely to internal variability;
• consistent with the estimated responses to the given combination of anthropogenic and natural forcing
• not consistent with alternative, physically plausible explanations of recent climate change that exclude important elements of the given combination of forcings.

Detection does not imply attribution, and is easier than attribution. Unequivocal attribution would require controlled experiments with multiple copies of the climate system, which is not possible. Attribution, as described above, can therefore only be done within some margin of error. For example, the IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report says "it is extremely likely that human activities have exerted a substantial net warming influence on climate since 1750," where "extremely likely" indicates a probability greater than 95%. Climate Change 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4 of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC) is the fourth ^[1]

Following the publication of the Third Assessment Report (TAR) in 2001, "detection and attribution" of climate change has remained an active area of research. Some important results include:

• A review of detection and attribution studies by the International Ad Hoc Detection and Attribution Group^[10] found that "natural drivers such as solar variability and volcanic activity are at most partially responsible for the large-scale temperature changes observed over the past century, and that a large fraction of the warming over the last 50 yr can be attributed to greenhouse gas increases. Ad hoc is a Latin phrase which means "for this [ Purpose ]" Thus, the recent research supports and strengthens the IPCC Third Assessment Report conclusion that 'most of the global warming over the past 50 years is likely due to the increase in greenhouse gases. '"
• Multiple independent reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years confirm that the late 20th century is probably the warmest period in that time
• Two papers in Science in August 2005^[11][12] resolve the problem, evident at the time of the TAR, of tropospheric temperature trends. The temperature record of the past 1000 years describes the reconstruction of temperature for the last 1000 years on the Northern Hemisphere. The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth's atmosphere. It contains approximately 75% of the atmosphere's mass and almost all of its Water vapor and The UAH version of the record contained errors, and there is evidence of spurious cooling trends in the radiosonde record, particularly in the tropics. See satellite temperature measurements for details; and the 2006 US CCSP report. Satellite temperature measurements have been obtained from the Troposphere since 1978 ^[13]
• Barnett and colleagues say that the observed warming of the oceans "cannot be explained by natural internal climate variability or solar and volcanic forcing, but is well simulated by two anthropogenically forced climate models," concluding that "it is of human origin, a conclusion robust to observational sampling and model differences"^[14]
• Bratcher and Giese ^[15] observed conditions that "could be an indication of a climate regime shift to pre-1976 conditions. Anthropogenic effects processes objects or materials are those that are derived from Human activities as opposed to those occurring in Natural environments without " Bratcher and Giese conclude: "The results presented here do not preclude the possibility that anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gases have contributed to global warming. However the results do indicate that the human forced portion of global warming may be less than previously described. "

Scientific literature and opinion

Main article: Scientific opinion on climate change

Some examples of published and informal support for the consensus view:

• The attribution of climate change is discussed extensively, with references to peer-reviewed research, in chapter 12 of the IPCC TAR, which discusses The Meaning of Detection and Attribution, Quantitative Comparison of Observed and Modelled Climate Change, Pattern Correlation Methods and Optimal Fingerprint Methods. National and international science academies and professional societies have assessed the current scientific opinion on climate change, in particular recent Global warming.
• An essay [8] in Science surveyed 928 abstracts related to climate change, and concluded that most journal reports accepted the consensus. Science is the Academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and is considered one of the world's most prestigious Scientific An abstract is a brief summary of a research article Thesis, review conference proceeding or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject or discipline National and international science academies and professional societies have assessed the current scientific opinion on climate change, in particular recent Global warming. This is discussed further in scientific opinion on climate change. National and international science academies and professional societies have assessed the current scientific opinion on climate change, in particular recent Global warming.
• A recent paper (Estimation of natural and anthropogenic contributions to twentieth century temperature change, Tett SFB et al. Simon Tett is a Climatologist working at the Hadley Centre. Formerly primarily a Climate modeller he is currently Managing Scientist Data development and , JGR 2002), says that "Our analysis suggests that the early twentieth century warming can best be explained by a combination of warming due to increases in greenhouse gases and natural forcing, some cooling due to other anthropogenic forcings, and a substantial, but not implausible, contribution from internal variability. In the second half of the century we find that the warming is largely caused by changes in greenhouse gases, with changes in sulphates and, perhaps, volcanic aerosol offsetting approximately one third of the warming. " [9]
• In 1996, in a paper in Nature titled "A search for human influences on the thermal structure of the atmosphere", Benjamin D. Santer et al. Nature is a prominent Scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869 Dr Benjamin D Santer is a Climate researcher at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. wrote: "The observed spatial patterns of temperature change in the free atmosphere from 1963 to 1987 are similar to those predicted by state-of-the-art climate models incorporating various combinations of changes in carbon dioxide, anthropogenic sulphate aerosol and stratospheric ozone concentrations. The degree of pattern similarity between models and observations increases through this period. It is likely that this trend is partially due to human activities, although many uncertainties remain, particularly relating to estimates of natural variability. "
• Some scientists noted for their somewhat skeptical view of global warming accept that recent climate change is mostly anthropogenic. John Christy has said that he supports the American Geophysical Union (AGU) declaration, and is convinced that human activities are the major cause of the global warming that has been measured. John R Christy is a climate scientist whose chief interests are global climate change satellite sensing of global climate and paleoclimate [10]

Some scientists do disagree with the consensus: see list of scientists opposing global warming consensus. This article lists scientists and former scientists who have stated disagreement with one or more of the principal conclusions of the mainstream scientific opinion on global warming For example Willie Soon and Richard Lindzen^[16] say that there is insufficient proof for anthropogenic attribution. Willie Wei-Hock Soon (born 1966 is an astrophysicist at the Solar and Stellar Physics Division of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. Richard Siegmund Lindzen, PhD (born February 8, 1940) is a Harvard trained atmospheric physicist and the Alfred P Generally this position requires new physical mechanisms to explain the observed warming; for example "Climate hypersensitivity to solar forcing?", Soon W et al. , 2000, Annales Geophysicae-Atmospheres Hydrospheres and Space Sciences 18(5).

Findings that complicate attribution to CO₂

Warming sometimes leads CO₂ increases

Factors other than increased CO₂ concentrations can initiate warming or cooling episodes (see e. g. , orbital forcing). Orbital forcing describes the effect on Climate of slow changes in the tilt of the Earth 's axis and shape of the Orbit (see Milankovitch cycles The ice core record shows that on some occasions temperature starts rising hundreds of years before CO₂ increases. ^[17][18] Such results confirm that the relationship between CO₂ and climate can go in both directions: changes in CO₂ concentrations affect climate, while changes in climate can affect CO₂ concentrations. One proposed mechanism for this effect is increased release of sequestered CO₂ from oceans as circulation patterns shift, perhaps abruptly, in response to climate change. ^[19][20]

A more speculative and polemical inference sometimes drawn is that the causal relationship between temperature rises and global CO₂ concentrations is only one-way, so that historical increases in CO₂ have been nothing more than the product of independently rising temperatures. [11] However, a strictly "one-way" view of the relationship between CO₂ and temperature contradicts basic results in physics, specifically the fact that the absorption and emission of infrared radiation by CO₂ increases as its atmospheric concentration increases. ^[21][22]

First principles as well as empirical observation suggest that positive feedbacks from CO₂ concentrations amplify warming initially caused by other factors:

Close analysis of the relationship between the two curves [i. e. , temperature and CO₂] shows that, within the uncertainties of matching their timescales, the temperature led by a few centuries. This is expected, since it was changes in the Earth’s orbital parameters (including the shape of its orbit around the Sun, and the tilt of Earth’s axis) that caused the small initial temperature rise. This then raised atmospheric CO2 levels, in part by outgassing from the oceans, causing the temperature to rise further. By amplifying each other’s response, this “positive feedback” can turn a small initial perturbation into a large climate change. There is therefore no surprise that the temperature and CO2 rose in parallel, with the temperature initially in advance. In the current case, the situation is different, because human actions are raising the CO2 level, and we are starting to observe the temperature response. [12]

Present CO₂ levels greatly exceed the range found in the ice core data. Isotopic analysis of atmospheric CO₂ confirms that fossil fuel burning is the source of most of the CO₂ increase, unlike during prior interglacial periods. ^[23] As noted above, models that include increased CO₂ levels when simulating recent climate match the observed data far better than those that do not. ^[2]

Warming on other planets?

Main article: extraterrestrial atmospheres

Over the last two decades proxy evidence of local or planetary warming has been observed on Mars, ^[24] Pluto,^[25] Jupiter, ^[26] and Neptune's largest moon Triton. The study of extraterrestrial atmospheres is an active field of research both as an aspect of astronomy and to gain insight into Earth's atmosphere Neptune ( English|AmE] ] is the eighth and farthest Planet from the Sun in the Solar System. TemplateInfobox Planet.--> Triton (ˈtraɪtən, or as in Greek ^[27] It has sometimes been asserted in the popular press that this points to a solar explanation for the recent warming on Earth. ^[28] Physicist Khabibullo Abdusamatov claims that solar variation has caused global warming on Earth,^[29] and that the coincident warmings "can only be a straightline consequence of the effect of the one same factor: a long-time change in solar irradiance. Khabibullo Ismailovich Abdusamatov (Хабибулло Исмаилович Абдусаматов with initials transliterated either H Solar variations are changes in the amount of Solar radiation emitted by the Sun. "^[30] This view is not accepted by other scientists. Planetary physicist Colin Wilson responded, "His views are completely at odds with the mainstream scientific opinion," and climate scientist Amato Evan stated, "the idea just isn't supported by the theory or by the observations. "^[24] Charles Long of Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, who studies radiative transfer, says "That's nuts. The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL is one of nine United States Department of Energy (DOE multiprogram national laboratories. . . It doesn't make physical sense that that's the case. "^[31] Jay Pasachoff, an astronomy professor at Williams College, said that Pluto's global warming was "likely not connected with that of the Earth. Jay Myron Pasachoff (born 1943) is an American Astronomer. Pasachoff is Field Memorial Professor of Astronomy at Williams College and the Williams College is a highly selective private liberal arts college located in Williamstown, Massachusetts. The major way they could be connected is if the warming was caused by a large increase in sunlight. But the solar constant—the amount of sunlight received each second—is carefully monitored by spacecraft, and we know the Sun's output is much too steady to be changing the temperature of Pluto. "^[25] Instead, scientific opinion is that these changes are caused by other factors, such as orbital irregularities or (in the case of Mars) changes in albedo as a result of dust storms^[32]. The albedo of an object is the extent to which it diffusely reflects light from the sun

Footnotes

References

• Le Quéré, How much of the recent CO₂ increase is due to human activities?, 2005 [13]

See also

Aviation and climate change

External links

• RealClimate - Blog on current climate change issues by active climatologists
• "The Climate of Man", The New Yorker (2005): Part 1, Part 2, Part 3
• Anthropogenic or Solar? by Shaviv
• Recent oppositely directed trends in solar climate forcings and the global mean surface air temperature by Mike Lockwood and Claus Frohlich
• US EPA climate change and global warming website