| ?Assam India |
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| Coordinates: | |
| Time zone | IST (UTC+5:30) |
| Area | 78,438 km² (30,285 sq mi) |
| Capital | Dispur |
| Largest city | Guwahati |
| District(s) | 27 |
| Population • Density |
26,655,528 (14th) • 340 /km² (881 /sq mi) |
| Language(s) | Assamese, Bodo, Bengali (Barak Valley) |
| Governor | Ajai Singh |
| Chief Minister | Tarun Gogoi |
| Established | 1947-08-15 |
| Legislature (seats) | Unicameral (126) |
| ISO abbreviation | IN-AS |
| Website: assam.gov.in | |
| † Assam had a legislature since 1937 | |
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Coordinates: Assam pronunciation ) (Assamese: অসম Ôxôm [ɔxɔm]) is a northeastern state of India with its capital at Dispur, a suburb of the city Guwahati. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Dispur (দিছপুৰ is the capital of Assam, a state in northeast India. A geographic coordinate system enables every location on the Earth to be specified in three coordinates using mainly a spherical coordinate system. Indian Standard Time ( IST) is the time observed throughout India and Sri Lanka, with a Time offset of UTC+530. UTC+530 is the Timezone for Indian Standard Time Sri Lanka Time The geography of India is diverse with landscape ranging from snow-capped mountain ranges to deserts plains rainforests hills and plateaus To help compare Orders of magnitude of different geographical regions Areas between 10000 km² and 100000 km² are listed here Wikipedia_talkFeatured_lists#Proposed_change_to_all_featured_lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This is a list of Indian state WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Dispur (দিছপুৰ is the capital of Assam, a state in northeast India. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Guwahati ( Assamese: গুৱাহাটী previously spelled Gauhati) is a major city in A district is an administrative division of a state in India India is divided into twenty-eight states and seven Union territories (UT In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology Population density (in agriculture standing stock and Standing crop) is a measurement of Population per unit area or unit volume This is a list of the States of India in order of population The Constitution of India envisages Hindi as the primary official language to be used by the Union Government, with English as the subsidiary official language Assamese (অসমীয়া) (ɔxɔmija is the easternmost Indo-Aryan language, spoken mainly in the state of Assam in North-East Bodo, pronounced BO-RO is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken by the Bodo people of north-eastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh Barak Valley is situated in the southern part of the Indian state of Assam. This is a list of Governors of Assam, and other offices of similar scope from the start of British occupation of the area in 1824 during the First Anglo-Burmese War Lt Gen (Retd Ajai Singh PVSM A VSM is the governor of Assam state in India, since 2003 Chief Ministers of Assam See also Assam Tarun Kumar Gogoi (born April 1 1936) is the Chief Minister of the state of Assam in India. The States Reorganization Act of 1956 was a major reform of the boundaries and governance of India 's states and territories. Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed Unicameralism is the practice of having only one legislative or Parliamentary chamber ISO 3166-2 is the second part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO ISO 3166-2IN is an ISO standard which defines Geocodes it is the subset of ISO 3166-2 which applies to India. A geographic coordinate system enables every location on the Earth to be specified in three coordinates using mainly a spherical coordinate system. Assamese (অসমীয়া) (ɔxɔmija is the easternmost Indo-Aryan language, spoken mainly in the state of Assam in North-East North-East India refers to the easternmost region of India consisting of the contiguous Seven Sister States and Sikkim. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Dispur (দিছপুৰ is the capital of Assam, a state in northeast India. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Guwahati ( Assamese: গুৱাহাটী previously spelled Gauhati) is a major city in Located south of the eastern Himalayas, Assam comprises the Brahmaputra and the Barak river valleys and the Karbi Anglong and the North Cachar Hills. The Brahmaputra, also called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra is a Trans-boundary river and one of the major Rivers of Asia. The Barak River is the major river of northeastern India and part of the Surma-Meghna River System. Karbi Anglong district is the largest amongst the 27 administrative districts of Assam state in north-eastern India. North Cachar is a region of northeast India dominated by the Hmar tribes With an area of 78,438 square kilometres (30,285 sq mi) Assam currently is almost equivalent to the size of Ireland or Austria. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Assam is surrounded by the rest of the Seven Sister States: Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya. The Seven Sister States are a region in northeastern India, comprising the contiguous states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya Arunachal Pradesh (अरुणाचल प्रदेश Aruṇācal Pradeś is the easternmost state of India Nagaland ( Hindi: नागालैंड is a hill state located in the far north-eastern part of India. Manipur (mnipur in Meitei Mayek) is a state in northeastern India, making its capital in the city of Mizoram is one of the Seven Sister States in North Eastern India. ( Bengali script: ত্রিপুরা is a state in North-East India. Meghalaya is a small state in north-eastern India. The word "Meghalaya" literally means "The Abode of Clouds" in Sanskrit and These states are connected to the rest of India via a narrow strip in West Bengal called the Siliguri Corridor or "Chicken's Neck". West Bengal ( Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Poshchim Bônggo poʃtʃim bɔŋgo is a state in eastern India. The Siliguri Corridor or Chicken's Neck or is a narrow stretch of land which connects India 's north-eastern states to the rest of India [1] Assam also shares international borders with Bhutan and Bangladesh; and cultures, peoples and climate with South-East Asia—important elements in India’s “Look East” Policy. The Kingdom of Bhutan (buːˈtɑːn is a Landlocked nation in South Asia. ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially Assam along with rest of the seven sisters states became part of India in 1828 when the British invaded.
Assam is known for Assam tea, petroleum resources, Assam silk and for its rich biodiversity. Assam is a Black tea named after the region of its production Assam, India. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Assam silk denotes the three major types of indigenous Silks produced in Assam &mdashgolden Muga white Pat and warm Eri silk The Biodiversity of Assam, a state in North-East India, makes it a biological hotspot with many rare and endemic plant and animal species It has successfully conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction, tiger, numerous species of birds and provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant. The Indian Rhinoceros or the Great One-horned Rhinoceros or the Asian One-horned Rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis) is a large mammal found in Nepal The tiger ( Panthera tigris) is a member of the Felidae family the largest and the most powerful of the four " Big cats quot in the Genus The Asian or Asiatic Elephant ( Elephas maximus) sometimes known by the name of one of its subspecies &ndash the Indian Elephant, is one of It is increasingly becoming a popular destination for wild-life tourism and notably Kaziranga and Manas are both World Heritage Sites. A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex [2] Assam was also known for its Sal tree forests and forest products, much depleted now. A forest is an area with a high density of Trees There are many definitions of a forest based on various criteria A land of high rainfall, Assam is endowed with lush greenery and the mighty river Brahmaputra, whose tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with a unique hydro-geomorphic and aesthetic environment. The Brahmaputra, also called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra is a Trans-boundary river and one of the major Rivers of Asia. An oxbow lake is a U-shaped lake water body formed when a wide Meander from the mainstem of a River is cut off to create a lake Geomorphology (from Greek: γη ge, "earth" μορφή morfé, "form" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge"
Etymology
Assam was known as Pragjyotisha in the Mahabharata; and Kamarupa in the 1st millennium. The Etymology of Assam is an issue that often comes up for debate in the Indian state of Assam. The first millennium is a period of time that commenced on January 1, 1, and ended on December 31, 1000, of the Julian calendar. Assam gets it name from the Ahom kingdom (1228-1826), then known as Kingdom of Assam. The Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826 called Kingdom of Assam in medieval times was a medieval kingdom in the Brahmaputra valley in Assam that maintained its [4] The British province after 1838 and the Indian state after 1947 came to be known as Assam.
On February 27, 2006 the Government of Assam started a process to change the name of the state to Asom,[5] a controversial move that has been opposed by the people and political organizations. Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The Government of Assam is the provincial governing authority of the state of Assam in the Republic of India. [6]
Physical geography
- See also: Biodiversity of Assam
Geomorphic studies conclude that the Brahmaputra, the life-line of Assam is a paleo-river; older than the Himalayas. The Brahmaputra, also called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra is a Trans-boundary river and one of the major Rivers of Asia. The river with steep gorges and rapids in Arunachal Pradesh entering Assam, becomes a braided river (at times 16 km wide) and with tributaries, creates a flood plain (Brahmaputra Valley: 80-100km wide, 1000 km long). For the song see CANYONMID. For the band see Canyon (band. A canyon (rarely cañon) or gorge Arunachal Pradesh (अरुणाचल प्रदेश Aruṇācal Pradeś is the easternmost state of India Not to be confused with the River Braid Ballymena, Northern Ireland. [7] The hills of Karbi Anglong, North Cachar and those in and close to Guwahati (also Khasi-Garo Hills) now eroded and dissected are originally parts of the South Indian Plateau system. Karbi Anglong district is the largest amongst the 27 administrative districts of Assam state in north-eastern India. North Cachar is a region of northeast India dominated by the Hmar tribes [7] In the south, the Barak originating in the Barail Range (Assam-Nagaland border), flows through the Cachar district with a 40-50km wide valley and confluences with the Brahmaputra in Bangladesh. The Barak River is the major river of northeastern India and part of the Surma-Meghna River System.
Assam is endowed with petroleum, natural gas, coal, limestone and other minor minerals such as magnetic quartzite, kaolin, sillimanites, clay and feldspar. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, Limestone is a Sedimentary rock composed largely of the Mineral Calcite ( Calcium carbonate: CaCO3 Quartzite (from German Quarzit) not to be confused with the Mineral Quartz, is a hard Metamorphic rock which was originally Kaolinite is a Clay mineral with the chemical composition Al 2 Si 2 O 5( OH)4 Sillimanite also called Bucholzite is an alumino-silicate Mineral with the Chemical formula Al2SiO5 Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and Feldspar is the name of a group of rock-forming Minerals which make up as much as 60% of the Earth 's crust. [8] A small quantity of iron ore is available in western districts. [8] Discovered in 1889, all the major petroleum-gas reserves are in Upper parts. A recent USGS estimate shows 399 million barrels (63,400,000 m³) of oil, 1,178 billion cubic feet (33,400,000,000 m³) of gas and 67 million barrels (10,700,000 m³) of natural gas liquids in Assam Geologic Province. [9]
With the “Tropical Monsoon Rainforest Climate”, Assam is temperate (Summer max. at 35-38 and winter min. at 6-8 degrees Celsius) and experiences heavy rainfall and high humidity. The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. [7] [10] The climate is characterised by heavy monsoon downpours reducing summer temperature and foggy nights and mornings in winter . Thunderstorms known as Bordoicila are frequent during the afternoons. Spring (Mar-Apr) and Autumn (Sept-Oct) are usually pleasant with moderate rainfall and temperature.
Assam is one of the richest biodiversity zones in the world and consists of tropical rainforests,[11], deciduous forests, riverine grasslands[12], bamboo[13] orchards and numerous wetland[14] ecosystems; Many are now protected as national parks and reserved forests. Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. Rainforests are Forests characterized by high Rainfall with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1750–2000 mm (68-78 inches Grasslands (also called greenswards) are areas where the Vegetation is dominated by Grasses ( Poaceae) and other Herbaceous (non-woody Bamboo is a group of Woody perennial Evergreen Plants in the True grass family Poaceae, subfamily A wetland is an area of Land consisting of Soil that is Saturated with Moisture, such as a Swamp, Marsh, or Bog The Kaziranga, home of the rare Indian Rhinoceros, and Manas are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Assam. Kaziranga National Park (কাজিৰঙা ৰাষ্ট্ৰীয় উদ্যান, pronounced) is a national park in the Golaghat and The Indian Rhinoceros or the Great One-horned Rhinoceros or the Asian One-horned Rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis) is a large mammal found in Nepal Manas National Park is a National Park, UNESCO Natural World Heritage site, a Project Tiger Reserve an Elephant Reserve and a Biosphere A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex The state is the last refuge for numerous other endangered species such as Golden Langur (Trachypithecus geei), White-winged Wood Duck or Deohanh (Cairina scutulata), Bengal Florican, Black-breasted Parrotbill, Pygmy Hog, Greater Adjutant and so on. Gee's Golden Langur ( Trachypithecus geei) or simply the Golden Langur, is an Old World monkey found in a small region of western Assam, The White-winged Wood Duck, Cairina scutulata is a species of Duck, usually placed in the Genus Cairina and allied with the The Bengal Florican, Houbaropsis bengalensis, is a Bustard, the only member of the genus Houbaropsis. The Black-breasted Parrotbill (Paradoxornis flavirostris is a 19 cm long large thick-billed Parrotbill with black patches on the head-sides and throat Pygmy hog ( Porcula salvania) is an endangered species of small Wild pig, previously spread across India, Nepal, and Bhutan but The Greater Adjutant, Leptoptilos dubius is a large wading Bird in the Stork family Ciconiidae. Some other endangered species with significant population in Assam are Tiger, Elephant, Hoolock Gibbon, Jerdon's Babbler and so on. The tiger ( Panthera tigris) is a member of the Felidae family the largest and the most powerful of the four " Big cats quot in the Genus Elephants ( family: Elephantidae) are large land Mammals of the order Proboscidea. The hoolock gibbons ( Hoolock) also known as hoolocks, are two Primate species from the family of the gibbons ( Hylobatidae) Jerdon's Babbler Chrysomma altirostre is a Passerine Bird from South Asia. Assam is also known for orchids. [15]
The region is prone to natural disasters with annual floods and frequent mild earthquakes. Strong earthquakes are rare; three of these were recorded in 1869, 1897 (8. 1 on the Richter scale); and in 1950 (8. The Richter magnitude scale, or more correctly local magnitude M L scale assigns a single number to quantify the amount of seismic energy released 6).
History
Pre-history
Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of human settlements from all the periods of the Stone ages. The history of Assam is the history of a confluence of peoples from the east west and the north the confluence of the Indo-Aryan, Austro-Asiatic and The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric time period during which Humans widely used stone for toolmaking The hills at the height of 460 to 615m were popular habitates probably due to availability of exposed doleritic basalt useful for tool-making. [16]
According to Kalika Purana (c. The Kalika-Purana (composed c 10th century in Kamarupa (modern Assam) is one of the 18 Upapuranas It is an important work which 8th-9th A. D), written in Assam, the earliest ruler was Mahiranga followed by Hatak, Sambar, Ratna and Ghatak; Naraka removed this line of rulers and established his own dynasty. It mentions that the last of the Naraka-bhauma rulers, Narak, was slain by Krishna. Krishna (कृष्ण in Devanagari kṛṣṇa in IAST, ˈkr̩ʂɳə in classical Sanskrit is a deity worshiped across many traditions of Hinduism Naraka's son Bhagadatta, mentioned in the Mahabharata, fought for the Kauravas in the battle of Kurushetra with an army of kiratas, chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast. The term Kaurava ( Sanskrit:कौरव is a Sanskrit term that means a descendant of Kuru, a legendary king who is the ancestor of many of the characters Later rulers of Kamarupa frequently drew their lineage from the Naraka rulers.
Ancient and medieval
Ancient Assam known as Kamarupa was ruled by powerful dynasties: the Varmanas (c. The Varman dynasty ruled Kamarupa ( Assam) from 350 to 650. This dynasty is sometime called Naraka or Bhauma dynasty since it traces its lineage 350-650A. D. ), the Salstambhas (Xalostombho, c. 655-900 A. D. ) and the Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900-1100A. D. ). In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskaravarman (c. 600–650A. D. ), the Chinese traveler Xuan Zang visited the region and recorded his travels. See also Xuanzang (fictional character Xuanzang ( pronounced Shwan-dzang) was a famous Chinese Buddhist Monk, scholar traveler Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended till c. 1255A. D. by the Lunar I (c. 1120-1185A. D. ) and Lunar II (c. 1155-1255A. D. ) dynasties. [16]
Two later dynasties, the Ahoms and the Koch left larger impacts. The Ahoms established the Ahom kingdom (1228-1826 in parts of present-day Assam and ruled it for nearly 600 years The Ahoms, originally a Tai group, ruled Assam for nearly 600 years (1228–1826) and the Koch, a Tibeto-Burmese, established sovereignty in c. "Thai peoples" redirects here For the subgroup of the Tai see Thai people The Tai or Tai-Kadai ethnicity refers collectively to the Ethnic The Tibeto-Burman family of languages (often considered a sub-group of the Sino-Tibetan Language family) is spoken in various central and south Asian countries including 1510A. D. . The Koch kingdom in western Assam and present North Bengal was at its zenith in the early reign of Naranarayana (c. 1540-1587A. D. ). It split into two in c. 1581A. D, the western part as a Moghul vassel and the eastern as an Ahom satellite state. The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most Since c 13th A. D. , the nerve centre of Ahom polity was upper Assam; the kingdom was gradually extended till Karatoya river in the c. 17th-18th A. D. . It was at its zenith during the reign of Sukhrungpha or Sworgodeu Rudra Simha (c. 1696-1714A. D. ). Among other dynasties, the Chutiyas ruled the north-eastern Assam and parts of present Arunachal Pradesh and the Kacharis ruled from Dikhow river to central and southern Assam. The Chutiya kingdom was established by Birpal in 1187 in northeastern Assam, with the capital at Sadiya. Arunachal Pradesh (अरुणाचल प्रदेश Aruṇācal Pradeś is the easternmost state of India The Kachari kingdom (called Dimasa Kingdom in medieval times was a powerful kingdom in medieval Assam. With expansion of Ahom kingdom, by c. 1520A. D. the Chutiya areas were annexed and since c. 1536A. D. Kacharis remained only in Cachar and North Cachar more as an Ahom ally then a competing force. Cachar ( Assamese and Sylheti: কাছাড় Kasaŗ, Bengali: কাছাড় Kachhaŗ) is an administrative district North Cachar is a region of northeast India dominated by the Hmar tribes Despite numerous invasions, mostly by the Muslim rulers, no western power ruled Assam until the arrival of the British. The most successful invader Mir Jumla, a governor of Aurangzeb, briefly occupied Garhgaon (c. Mir Jumla ( 1591 - 30 March 1663) was a prominent Subahdar (governor of Bengal in Eastern India under the Indian Mughal Aurangzeb ( (full title Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abul Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I Padshah Ghazi) ( November 4, Garhgaon was the capital of the Ahom kingdom for many years It was built by the Ahom king Suklenmung (Gargoyaan Rojaa in 1540. 1662–63A. D. ) the then capital, but found it difficult to control people making guerrilla attacks on his forces, forcing them to leave. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc The decisive victory of the Assamese led by the great general Lachit Borphukan on the Mughals then under command of Raja Ram Singha at Saraighat (1671) has almost ended Mughal ambitions. Lachit Borphukan was a commander and Borphukan in the Ahom kingdom known in particular for his successful leadership in the 1671 Battle of Saraighat The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most Saraighat is a place near Guwahati in Assam, on the north bank of the river Brahmaputra. Mughals were finally expelled in c. 1682A. D. from lower Assam.
British Assam
Ahom palace intrigue, and political turmoil due to the Moamoria rebellion, aided the expansionist Burmese ruler of Ava to invade Assam and install a puppet king in 1821. The Moamoria rebellion (1769-1806 was the conflict between the Morans adherents of the Moamara Sattra and the Ahom kings in the 18th century A puppet state is a State that is nominally independent but in reality under the control of another power With the Burmese having reached the East India Company’s borders, the First Anglo-Burmese War ensued. The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or The First Anglo–Burmese War lasted from 1823 to 1826 In the United Kingdom it is called the First Burmese War whereas Burmese custom names both belligerents The war ended under the Treaty of Yandaboo[17] in 1826, with the Company taking control of the Lower Assam and installing Purander Singh as king of Upper Assam in 1833. The Treaty of Yandaboo between the British East India Company and the Burmese King of Ava, signed on February 24, 1826 marked the The arrangement lasted till 1838 and thereaftre British annexed the entire region. Initially Assam was made a part of the Bengal Presidency, then in 1906 it was a part of Eastern Bengal and Assam province and in 1912 it was reconstituted into a Chief Commissioners' province. The Bengal Presidency originally comprising east and west Bengal was a colonial region of British India, which comprised undivided Bengal which is present day Bangladesh East Bengal ( Bengali: পূর্ববঙ্গ Purbobôngo) was the name used during two periods in the 20th century for a territory that roughly corresponded In 1913, a Legislative Council and in 1937 the Assam Legislative Assembly was formed in Shillong, the erstwhile Capital. The British tea planters imported labour from central India adding to the demographic canvas. After few initial unsuccessful attempts to free Assam during 1850s, the Assamese since early 20th century joined and actively supported Indian National Congress against the British. Indian National Congress-I (also known as the Congress Party and abbreviated INC) is a major Political party in India. In 1947, Assam inclusive of present Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya became a state of Republic of India (princely states, Manipur and Tripura became Group C provinces) and a district of Assam, Sylhet chose to join Pakistan. Arunachal Pradesh (अरुणाचल प्रदेश Aruṇācal Pradeś is the easternmost state of India Nagaland ( Hindi: नागालैंड is a hill state located in the far north-eastern part of India. Mizoram is one of the Seven Sister States in North Eastern India. Meghalaya is a small state in north-eastern India. The word "Meghalaya" literally means "The Abode of Clouds" in Sanskrit and This article is about the city For the upazila or district or the administrative division see Sylhet Sadar Upazila or Sylhet District or Sylhet Division
Post British
Since 1947, with increasing economic problems in the region, separatist groups began forming along ethnic lines, and demands for autonomy and sovereignty grew, resulting into fragmentation of Assam.
Since mid-20th century, people from present Bangladesh have been migrating to Assam. In 1961, the Government of Assam passed a legislation making use of Assamese language compulsory; It had to be withdrawn later under pressure from Bengali speaking people in Cachar. Assamese (অসমীয়া) (ɔxɔmija is the easternmost Indo-Aryan language, spoken mainly in the state of Assam in North-East Cachar ( Assamese and Sylheti: কাছাড় Kasaŗ, Bengali: কাছাড় Kachhaŗ) is an administrative district In the 1980s the Brahmaputra valley saw a six-year Assam Agitation [18] triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. The Assam Agitation (or Assam Movement) was a popular movement against illegal immigrants in Assam between 1979 and 1985. It tried to force the government to identify and deport foreigners illegally migrating from neighbouring Bangladesh and changing the demographics. ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially The agitation ended after an accord between its leaders and the Union Government, which remained unimplemented, causing simmering discontent. On the other hand, political parties neglecting the burning problem have used the Bangladeshi card as a vote bank. [19]
The post 1970s experienced the growth of armed separatist groups like United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) [18] and National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB). The United Liberation Front of Asom is a militant group from Assam, among many other such groups in North-East India. The National Democratic Front of Bodoland, also known as NDFB or the Bodo Security Force, is a separatist movement that seeks to obtain a sovereign Bodoland In November 1990, the Government of India deployed the Indian army, after which low-intensity military conflicts and political homicides have been continuing for more than a decade. In recent times, ethnicity based militant groups (UPDS, DHD, KLO, HPCD etc. ) have also mushroomed. Regional autonomy has been ensured for Bodos in Bodoland Territorial Council Areas (BTCA) and for the Karbis in Karbi Anglong after agitation of the communities due to sluggish rate of development and aspirations for self-government.
Tea history
After discovery of Camellia sinensis (1834) in Assam followed by its tests in 1836-37 in London, the British allowed companies to rent land since 1839. Camellia sinensis is the tea plant, the Plant Species whose leaves and leaf buds are used to produce Tea. Thereafter tea plantations mushroomed in Upper Assam, where the soil and the climate were most suitable. Problems with the imported labourers from China and hostilities of native Assamese resulted into migration of forced labourers from central-eastern parts of India. After initial trial and error with planting the Chinese and the Assamese-Chinese hybrid varieties, the planters later accepted the local Camellia assamica as the most suitable one for Assam. Camellia sinensis is the tea plant, the Plant Species whose leaves and leaf buds are used to produce Tea. By 1850s, the industry started seeing some profits. Industry saw initial growth, when in 1861, investors were allowed to own land in Assam and it saw substantial progress with invention of new technologies and machinery for preparing processed tea during 1870s. The cost of Assam tea was lowered down manifold and became competitive than its Chinese variant.
Despite having commercial success, tea labourers remained exploited and worked and lived under poor conditions. In the fear of greater government interference the tea growers formed The Indian Tea Association in 1888 to lobby for the continued status quo. The organization was very successful in this, and even after India’s independence conditions of the labourers have improved very little. [20]
Subdivisions
Assam is divided into 27 administrative districts. Assam, a state of India, has currently ( 2007) twenty seven administrative districts A district is an administrative division of an Indian state or territory. [21] More than half of these districts were carved out during 80s and 90s from original 1. Lakhimpur, 2. Jorhat, 3. Karbi Anglong, 4. Darrang, 5. Nagaon, 6. Kamrup, 7. Goalpara, 8. North Cachar and 9. Cachar districts, delineated by the British. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Earlier, during 70s, Dibrugarh was separated out from original Lakhimpur district.
These districts are further sub-divided into 49 “Sub-divisions” or Mohkuma. A tehsil ( Urdu: تحصیل) (or tahsil, tahasil, taluka, taluk, taluq, mandal) is an Administrative division [21] Every district is administered from a district head quarter with the office of the District Collector, District Magistrate, Office of the District Panchayat and usually with a district court. The District Collector is a Central Indian Government appointee who is in charge of the governance of a district in a state. A magistrate is a judicial officer In Common law systems a magistrate usually has limited authority to administer and enforce the Law. District courts are a category of Courts which exists in several nations
The districts are delineated on the basis of the features such as the rivers, hills, forests, etc and majority of the newly constituted districts are sub-divisions of the earlier districts. For the present districts of Assam and their location, refer the attached map.
The local governance system is organised under the jila-parishad (District Panchayat) for a district, panchayat for group of or individual rural areas and under the urban local bodies for the towns and cities. Local Governance in India is divided into urban and rural local governance The Panchayat is a South Asian Political system. ‘Panchayat’ literally means assembly ( yat) of five ( panch) wise and respected elders chosen Presently there are 2489 village panchayats covering 26247 villages in Assam. [22] The 'town-committee' or nagar-xomiti for small towns, 'municipal board' or pouro-xobha for medium towns and municipal corporation or pouro-nigom for the cities consist of the urban local bodies. A municipal corporation is the legal term for a local governing body, including (but not necessarily limited to cities, counties, Towns
For the revenue purposes, the districts are divided into revenue circles and mouzas; for the development projects, the districts are divided into 219 'development-blocks' and for law and order these are divided into 206 police stations or thana. [22]
Demographics
Total population of Assam was 26. Peopling of Assam Geographically Assam contains fertile river valleys surrounded by mountains 66 million with 4. 91 million households in 2001. [23] Higher population concentration was recorded in the districts of Kamrup, Nagaon, Sonitpur, Barpeta, Dhubri, Darang and Cachar. Assam's population was estimated at 28. 67 million in 2006 and at 30. 57 million by 2011, 34. 18 million by 2021 and 35. 60 million by 2026. [24]
In 2001, the census recorded literacy in Assam at 63. traditional definition of literacy is considered to be the ability to read and write or the ability to use Language to read, write, listen, 30 percent with male literacy at 71. 30 and female at 54. 60 percents. Urbanisation rate was recorded at 12. Urbanizationn (also spelled urbanisation) is the physical growth of Urban areas into rural or natural land as a result of population in-migration to an existing 90 percent. [25]
Growth of population in Assam has experienced a very high trajectory since the mid-decades of the 20th century. Population grew steadily from 3. 29 million in 1901 to 6. 70 million in 1941, while it has increased unprecedentedly to 14. 63 million in 1971 and 22. 41 million in 1991 to reach the present level. [23] The growth in the western and southern districts was of extreme high in nature mostly attributable to rapid influx of population from the then East Pakistan or Bangladesh. East Pakistan ( Bengali: পূর্ব পাকিস্তান Purbo Pakistan, Urdu: مشرقی پاکستان Mashriqi Pakistan) was ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially [26][19]
Assam has many ethnic groups and the People of India project has studied 115 of these. Out of which 79 (69%) identify themselves regionally, 22 (19%) locally, and 3 trans-nationally. The earliest settlers were Austroasiatic, followed by Tibeto-Burman, Indo-Aryan speakers and Tai-Kadai speakers. The Austro-Asiatic languages are a large Language family of Southeast Asia, and also scattered throughout India and Bangladesh. The Tibeto-Burman family of languages (often considered a sub-group of the Sino-Tibetan Language family) is spoken in various central and south Asian countries including The Indo-Aryan languages (within the context of Indo-European studies also Indic) are a branch of the Indo-European language family The Tai-Kadai languages, also known as Kadai, Kradai, or Kra-Dai languages and in China as Zhuang-Dong languages are a tonal [27] Forty-five languages are spoken by different communities, including three major language families: Austroasiatic (5), Sino-Tibetan (24) and Indo-European (12). The Austro-Asiatic languages are a large Language family of Southeast Asia, and also scattered throughout India and Bangladesh. The Sino-Tibetan languages form a Language family composed of at least the Chinese and the Tibeto-Burman languages, including some 250 languages of Three of the spoken languages do not fall in these families. There is a high degree of bilingualism.
Major religions are Hinduism (64. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. 9%) [28] and Islam (30. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. 9% - grown to the second largest proportional population among Indian states after J&K). ( Dogri: जम्मू और कश्मीर Urdu: جموں و کشمیر is the northernmost state of India. [29] Others include Christianity (3. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings 7%), Sikhism, Animism, Buddhism (Khamti, Phake, Aito etc. Sikhism ( IPA: or; ਸਿੱਖੀ sikkhī, IPA:) founded on the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus in fifteenth century Animism (from Latin anima ( Soul, Life) commonly refers to a religious belief that Souls or Spirits exist in Animals Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices communities).
Cultural evolution
- See also: Bihu, Music of Assam, Assamese literature, Assamese cinema, and Fine Arts of Assam
Assamese culture is traditionally a hybrid one developed due to assimilation of ethno-cultural groups in the past. The culture of Assam is traditionally a hybrid one developed due to cultural assimilation of different ethno-cultural groups under various politico-economic systems in Hybridity refers in its most basic sense to mixture The term originates from Biology and was subsequently employed in linguistics and in racial theory in the nineteenth century Therefore, both local elements or the local elements in Sanskritised forms are distinctly found. [30] The major milestones in evolution of Assamese culture are:
- Assimilation in the Kamarupa Kingdom for almost 700 years (under the Varmans for 300 years, Salastambhas and Palas for each 200 years). The Varman dynasty ruled Kamarupa ( Assam) from 350 to 650. This dynasty is sometime called Naraka or Bhauma dynasty since it traces its lineage The Mlechchha dynasty ( 655 -- 900) ruled Kamarupa from their capital at Hadapeshvar in the present-day Tezpur after the fall of the Varman The Pala dynasty of Kamarupa ruled the kingdom from 900. Like the Pala dynasty of Bengal, the first ruler in this dynasty was elected which [16]
- Establishment of the Ahom dynasty in the 13th century AD and assimilation for next 600 years. The Ahom Dynasty were the kings of the Ahom Kingdom, all of whom were descendants of Sukaphaa. [16]
- Assimilation in the Koch Kingdom (15th-16th century AD) of western Assam and Kachari Kingdom (12th-18th century AD) of central and southern Assam. The Kamata kingdom appeared in the western part of the older Kamarupa kingdom in the 13th century, after the fall of the Pala dynasty. The Kachari kingdom (called Dimasa Kingdom in medieval times was a powerful kingdom in medieval Assam. [16]
- Vaishnava Movement led by Srimanta Sankardeva (Xonkordeu) and its contribution and cultural changes. Vaishnavism is a tradition of Hinduism, distinguished from other schools by its worship of Vishnu or its associated avatars principally as Rama and Mahapurusha Srimanta Sankardeva (1449-1568 ( Assamese: মহাপুৰুষ শ্ৰীমন্ত শঙ্কৰদেব
With rich traditions, the modern culture is greatly influenced by events in the British and the Post-British Era. The language was standardised by the American Baptist Missionaries such as Nathan Brown, Dr. Baptist is a term describing individuals belonging to a Baptist church or a Baptist denomination. A missionary is a member of a Religion who works to convert those who do not share the missionary's faith someone who proselytizes. Nathan Brown ( 22 June 1807 - 1 January 1886) was an American Baptist Missionary to India and Miles Bronson and local pundits such as Hemchandra Barua with the form available in the Sibsagar (Xiwoxagor) District (the ex-nerve centre of the Ahom Kingdom). Hem Chandra Barua (Assamese হেমচন্দ্ৰ বৰুৱা Hêmsôndrô Boruwa) is one of the prominent writers of Assamese of the 19th century WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Sibsagar ( Assamese: শিৱসাগৰ Xiwôxagôr) is a city in the Sibsagar district A renewed Sanskritisation was increasingly adopted for developing Assamese language and grammar. Assamese (অসমীয়া) (ɔxɔmija is the easternmost Indo-Aryan language, spoken mainly in the state of Assam in North-East A new wave of Western and northern Indian influence was apparent in the performing arts and literature. Western culture (sometimes equated with Western Civilization) are terms which are used to refer to Cultures of European origin The culture of India has been shaped by the long History of India, its unique geography and the absorption of customs traditions and ideas from some of its neighbors
Increasing efforts of standardisation in the 20th century alienated the localised forms present in different areas and with the less-assimilated ethno-cultural groups (many source-cultures). However, Assamese culture in its hybrid form and nature is one of the richest, still developing and in true sense is a 'cultural system' with sub-systems. A cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of Culture. It is interesting that many source-cultures of Assamese cultural-system are still surviving either as sub-systems or as sister entities, for e. g. Bodo or Khasi or Micing. The Bodos (pronounced BO-ros) are an Ethnic and linguistic community early settlers of Assam in the North-East of India. The Khasi are a tribe in Meghalaya, India and in parts of Bangladesh, who call themselves Hynniew trep (which means "the seven huts" The Mishings are an ethnic group inhabiting the districts of Dhemaji, North Lakhimpur, Sonitpur, Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, Sibsagar Today it is important to keep the broader system closer to its roots and at the same time to focus on development of the sub-systems.
Some of the common and unique cultural traits in the region are peoples' respect towards areca-nut and betel leaves, symbolic clothes (Gamosa, Arnai, etc), traditional silk garments and towards forefathers and elderly. The Betel ( Piper betle) is the leaf of a vine belonging to the Piperaceae family which includes pepper and Kava) Gamosa is an article of great significance for the people of Assam. Assam silk denotes the three major types of indigenous Silks produced in Assam &mdashgolden Muga white Pat and warm Eri silk Moreover, great hospitality and Bamboo culture are common. Bamboo is a group of Woody perennial Evergreen Plants in the True grass family Poaceae, subfamily
Symbolism
Symbolism is an ancient cultural practice in Assam and is still a very important part of Assamese way of life. Various elements are being used to represent beliefs, feelings, pride, identity, etc. Tamulpan, Xorai and Gamosa are three important symbolic elements in Assamese culture. The Xorai is a traditional symbol of Assam. In simplistic terms it is an offering tray with a stand at the bottom Gamosa is an article of great significance for the people of Assam. Tamulpan (the areca nut and betel leaves) or guapan (gua from kwa) are considered along with the Gamosa (a typical woven cotton or silk cloth with embroidery) as the offers of devotion, respect and friendship. The Tamulpan-tradition is an ancient one and is being followed since time-immemorial with roots in the aboriginal Austro-Asiatic culture. Xorai is a traditionally manufactured bell-metal article of great respect and is used as a container-medium while performing respectful offers. The Xorai is a traditional symbol of Assam. In simplistic terms it is an offering tray with a stand at the bottom Moreover, symbolically many ethno-cultural groups use specific clothes to portray respect and pride.
There were many other symbolic elements and designs, but are now only found in literature, art, sculpture, architecture, etc or in use today for only religious purposes. The typical designs of assamese-lion, dragon, flying-lion, etc were used for symbolising various purposes and occasions. The archaeological sites such as the Madan Kamdev (c. 9th-10th A. D. ) exhibits mass-scale use of lions, dragon-lions and many other figures of demons to show case power and prosperity. The Vaishnava monasteries and many other architectural sites of late medieval period also showcase use of lions and dragons for symbolic effects.
Languages
- See also: Assamese language, Assamese literature, and Bodo language
Assamese and Bodo are the major indigenous and official languages while Bengali holds official status in the three districts in the Barak Valley. Assamese (অসমীয়া) (ɔxɔmija is the easternmost Indo-Aryan language, spoken mainly in the state of Assam in North-East Assamese literature is the entire corpus of poetry novels short stories documents etc written in the Assamese language. Bodo, pronounced BO-RO is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken by the Bodo people of north-eastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh Assamese (অসমীয়া) (ɔxɔmija is the easternmost Indo-Aryan language, spoken mainly in the state of Assam in North-East Bodo, pronounced BO-RO is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken by the Bodo people of north-eastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh
Traditionally Assamese was the language of the commons (of mixed origin - Austroasiatic, Tibeto-Burman, Magadhan Prakrit) in the ancient Kamarupa and in the medieval kingdoms of Kamatapur, Kachari, Cuteeya, Borahi, Ahom and Koch. The Austro-Asiatic languages are a large Language family of Southeast Asia, and also scattered throughout India and Bangladesh. The Tibeto-Burman family of languages (often considered a sub-group of the Sino-Tibetan Language family) is spoken in various central and south Asian countries including The Kachari kingdom (called Dimasa Kingdom in medieval times was a powerful kingdom in medieval Assam. The Chutiya kingdom was established by Birpal in 1187 in northeastern Assam, with the capital at Sadiya. The Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826 called Kingdom of Assam in medieval times was a medieval kingdom in the Brahmaputra valley in Assam that maintained its The Kamata kingdom appeared in the western part of the older Kamarupa kingdom in the 13th century, after the fall of the Pala dynasty. Traces of the language is found in many poems by Luipa, Sarahapa, etc in Charyapada (c. The Charyapada ( Bangla: চর্যাপদ Assamese: চৰ্যাপদ is a collection of 8th-12th century Vajrayana Buddhist Caryagiti 7th-8th AD). Modern dialects Kamrupi, Goalpariya, etc are the remnant of this language. Moreover, Assamese in its traditional form was used by the ethno-cultural groups in the region as lingua-franca, which spread during the stronger kingdoms and was required for needed economic integration. Localised forms of the language still exist in Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, North Bengal, Cachar, etc and in the south, languages such as Chatgaia, Siloti, etc exhibit similarities. Nagaland ( Hindi: नागालैंड is a hill state located in the far north-eastern part of India. Arunachal Pradesh (अरुणाचल प्रदेश Aruṇācal Pradeś is the easternmost state of India North Bengal (উত্তর বঙ্গ is a term for the parts of Bangladesh and West Bengal. Cachar ( Assamese and Sylheti: কাছাড় Kasaŗ, Bengali: কাছাড় Kachhaŗ) is an administrative district Chittagonian (চাটগাঁইয়া বুলি Chaţgãia Buli) is an Indo-European language spoken by the people of Chittagong in Bangladesh Sylheti (native name সিলটী Silôţi; Bengali name সিলেটী Sileţi) is the language of Sylhet, the north-eastern region The form used in the upper Assam was enriched by the advent of Tai-Shans in the 13th century.
Linguistically modern Assamese traces its roots to the version developed by the American Missionaries based on the local form in practice near Sibsagar (Xiwoxagor) district. The Charyapada ( Bangla: চর্যাপদ Assamese: চৰ্যাপদ is a collection of 8th-12th century Vajrayana Buddhist Caryagiti WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Sibsagar ( Assamese: শিৱসাগৰ Xiwôxagôr) is a city in the Sibsagar district Assamese (Oxomeeya) is a rich language due to its hybrid nature with its unique characteristics of pronunciation and softness. Assamese literature is one of the richest.
Bodo is an ancient language of Assam. Bodo, pronounced BO-RO is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken by the Bodo people of north-eastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh Spatial distribution patterns of the ethno-cultural groups, cultural traits and the phenomenon of naming all the major rivers in the North East Region with Bodo-Kachari words (e. North-East India refers to the easternmost region of India consisting of the contiguous Seven Sister States and Sikkim. g. Dihing, Dibru, Dihong, D/Tista, Dikrai, etc) reveal that it was the most important language in the ancient times. Dihing or Burhi Dihing is a large tributary of the Brahmaputra in Upper Assam. The Brahmaputra, also called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra is a Trans-boundary river and one of the major Rivers of Asia. The River Teesta (टिस्ता खोला Tista Khola তিস্তা নদী Tista Nodi) said to be the lifeline of the Indian state Bodo is presently spoken largely in the Lower Assam (Bodo Territorial Council area). After years of neglect, now Bodo language is getting attention and its literature is developing. Bodo, pronounced BO-RO is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken by the Bodo people of north-eastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh Other native languages of Tibeto-Burman origin and related to Bodo-Kachari are Mishing, Karbi, Dimaca, Rabha, Tiwa, etc. The Tibeto-Burman family of languages (often considered a sub-group of the Sino-Tibetan Language family) is spoken in various central and south Asian countries including Mishing is Sino-Tibetan family of languages spoken by the Mishing people. For the place in Armenia see Karbi Armenia. The Karbis, mentioned as the Mikir in the Constitution Order of the Government of India The Dimasa people (or Dima-fisa and also called Dimasa-Kachari from Assam in northeastern India are a part of the greater Bodo-Kachari group Rabha is a little known Scheduled Tribe community of West Bengal and Assam. Rajbongshi also known as kamatapuri/Goalpariya is also widely spoken by the people of western assam. Koch Rajbongshi is an ancient tribe originally from the ancient Koch Kingdom
There are smaller groups of people speaking Tai-Phake, Tai-Aiton, Tai-Khamti, etc related to Tai-group of languages. The Tai-Kadai languages, also known as Kadai, Kradai, or Kra-Dai languages and in China as Zhuang-Dong languages are a tonal The Tai-Ahom language (brought by Sukaphaa and his followers), which is no more a spoken language today is getting attentions for research after centuries long care and preservation by the Bailungs (traditional priests). Chaolung Sukaphaa (reign 1228 - 1268) also Siu-Ka-Pha the first Ahom king in medieval Assam, was the founder of the Ahom kingdom There are also small groups of people speaking Manipuri, Khasi, Garo, Hmar, Kuki, etc in different parts. The Khasi are a tribe in Meghalaya, India and in parts of Bangladesh, who call themselves Hynniew trep (which means "the seven huts" For other uses see Garo. is a Japanese Tokusatsu Television series Hmar is the name of one of the numerous tribes of India, spread over a large area in the northeast
In the past century migration of Bengalis in the Barak Valley has led to their majority, prompting the government of Assam to include Bengali as the official language in the area. Barak (בָּרָק "Lightning" the son of Abinoam from Kedesh in Naphtali, was a military general in the Book of Judges in
Festivals
There are several important traditional festivals in Assam. Bihu is the most important and common and celebrated all over Assam. Bihu denotes a set of three different largely secular festivals of Assam.
Bihu is a series of three prominent festivals. Bihu denotes a set of three different largely secular festivals of Assam. Primarily a non-religious festival celebrated to mark the seasons and the significant points of a cultivator's life over a yearly cycle. Three Bihus, rongali or bohag, celebrated with the coming of spring and the beginning of the sowing season; kongali or kati, the barren bihu when the fields are lush but the barns are empty; and the bhogali or magh, the thanksgiving when the crops have been harvested and the barns are full. Bihu songs and Bihu dance are associated to rongali bihu. The day before the each bihu is known as 'uruka'. The first day of 'rongali bihu' is called 'Goru bihu' (the bihu of the cows), when the cows are taken to the nearby rivers or ponds to be bathed with special care. In recent times the form and nature of celebration has changed with the growth of urban centres.
Moreover, there are other important traditional festivals being celebrated every year for different occasions at different places. Many of these are celebrated by different ethno-cultural groups (sub and sister cultures). Few of these are:
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Performing arts
- See also: Music of Assam
Assam has rich tradition of performing arts. The music of Assam, a state in the northeastern part of India, can be divided into various categories of folk music Ankiya Nat (Onkeeya Naat) is a traditional Vaishnav dance-drama (bhaona) form popular since 15th century A. D. It makes use of large masks of gods, goddesses, demons and animals and in between the plays a Sutradhar (Xutrodhar) keeps on telling the story. The Bihu dance and Hucory performed during the Bohag Bihu, Kushan nritra of Rajbongshi's, Bagurumba and Bordoicikhla dance of Bodos, Mishing Bihu, Banjar Kekan performed during Chomangkan by Karbis are some of the major folk dances. Bihu denotes a set of three different largely secular festivals of Assam. The Bodos (pronounced BO-ros) are an Ethnic and linguistic community early settlers of Assam in the North-East of India. The Mishings are an ethnic group inhabiting the districts of Dhemaji, North Lakhimpur, Sonitpur, Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, Sibsagar For the place in Armenia see Karbi Armenia. The Karbis, mentioned as the Mikir in the Constitution Order of the Government of India Sattriya (Xotriya) dance related to Vaishnav tradition is a classical form of dance. Sattriya, or Sattriya Nritya, is one among eight principal classical Indian dance traditions Moreover, there are several other age-old dance-forms such as Barpeta’s Bhortal Nritya, Deodhoni Nritya, Oja Paali, Beula Dance, Ka Shad Inglong Kardom, Nimso Kerung, etc. The tradition of modern moving theatres is typical of Assam with immense popularity of many large theatre groups such as Kohinoor, Apsara, Hengul, etc.
At the same time musical tradition is also rich. Folk songs and music related to Bihu and other festivals dates back to time-immemorial. Borgeet, the popular Vaishnav songs are written and composed in 15th century. Assam has large numbers of traditional musical instruments including several types of drums, string instruments, flutes, cymbals, pipes, etc. A drum kit (also drum set or trap set) is a collection of Drums Cymbals and sometimes other Percussion instruments such as cowbells A string instrument (or stringed instrument) is a Musical instrument that produces Sound by means of Vibrating strings In the Hornbostel-Sachs The flute is a Musical instrument of the Woodwind family Unlike other woodwind instruments a flute is a Reedless wind instrument that produces its Cymbals are a modern percussion instrument Cymbals consist of thin normally round plates of various Cymbal alloys; see Cymbal making for a discussion of their Pipes may refer to Pipe (cylindrical conveyance PIPES (buffering agent in biochemistry Daniel Pipes
The indigenous folk music has substantially influenced the growth of a modern idiom, that finds expression in the music of such artists like Bhupen Hazarika, Anima Choudhury Nirmalendu Choudhury & Utpalendu Choudhury, Luit Konwar Rudra Baruah, Parvati Prasad Baruva, Jayanta Hazarika, Khagen Mahanta among many others. Bhupen Hazarika ( Assamese: ভূপেন হাজৰিকা Bhupen Hazôrika) is a multi-faceted artist from Assam, a state in the north-eastern Luit Konwar Rudra Baruah was one of the foremost music pioneers of Assam Parvati Prasad Baruva (1904-1964 was a poet lyricist dramatist an icon of Assamese literature and the Culture of Assam. Jayanta Hazarika ( 1943 - 1977) was a great singer and composer in the world of Assamese music Among the new generation, Zubeen Garg and Jitul Sonowal have a great fan following. Zubeen Garg (born 18 November 1972) is a singer and composer from Assam, India, in the Bollywood
Traditional crafts
- See also: Assam silk
Assam has a rich tradition of crafts; presently, Cane and bamboo craft, bell metal and brass craft, silk and cotton weaving, toy and mask making, pottery and terracotta work, wood craft, jewellery making, musical instruments making, etc remained as major traditions. Assam has maintained a rich tradition of various traditional Crafts for more than two thousand years Assam silk denotes the three major types of indigenous Silks produced in Assam &mdashgolden Muga white Pat and warm Eri silk Bell metal is a hard Alloy used for making bells. It is a form of Bronze, usually approximately 31 ratio of Copper to Tin (78% copper Hangool and haital are unique medieval products of Assam used as paints A craft is a Skill, especially involving practical arts. It may refer to a Trade or particular art A cane is a long straight wooden stick generally of Bamboo, Malacca ( Rattan) or some similar plant mainly used as a support such as a Walking stick Bamboo is a group of Woody perennial Evergreen Plants in the True grass family Poaceae, subfamily Bell metal is a hard Alloy used for making bells. It is a form of Bronze, usually approximately 31 ratio of Copper to Tin (78% copper Brass is any Alloy of Copper and Zinc; the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create a range of brasses with varying properties Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp This article describes textile weaving For other senses of this word see Weaving (disambiguation. This article is about playthings For other uses of the term see Toy (disambiguation. A mask is an artefact normally worn on the face typically for protection concealment performance or amusement Pottery is the Ceramic ware made by potters It also refers to a group of materials that includes Earthenware, Stoneware Terra cotta ( Italian: "baked earth" is a Ceramic. Its uses include vessels water & waste water pipes and surface embellishment in Building construction Jewellery (also spelled jewelry, see spelling differences) is a personal Ornament, such as a necklace ring or bracelet made from Gemstones [31] Historically, Assam also excelled in making boats, traditional guns and gunpowder, ivory crafts, colours and paints, articles of lac, agarwood products, traditional building materials, utilities from iron, etc. A boat is a Watercraft of modest size designed to float or plane on water and provide transport over it A gun is a particular Weapon that propels Projectiles The projectile is generally fired through a hollow tube known as the gun's barrel. Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes Ivory is formed from Dentine and constitutes the bulk of the Teeth and Tusks of animals such as the Elephant, Hippopotamus, Paint is any Liquid, liquifiable or mastic composition which after application to a substrate in a thin layer is converted to an opaque Solid Lac is the scarlet resinous secretion of a number of species of Lac-producing insects the most commonly cultivated of which is Kerria lacca. Agarwood (or just Agar) is the Resinous Heartwood from Aquilaria trees large evergreens native to Southeast Asia.
Cane and bamboo craft provide the most commonly used utilities in daily life, ranging from household utilities, weaving accessories, fishing accessories, furniture, musical instruments, construction materials, etc. Utilities and symbolic articles such as Xorai and Bota made from bell metal and brass are found in every Assamese household. [32][33] Hajo and Sarthebari (Xorthebaary) are the most important centres of traditional bell-metal and brass crafts. For the village in Azerbaijan see Həjo. Hajo is an ancient pilgrimage centre for three religions Hindus, Buddhists, and WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Sarthebari is a town and a Town area committee in Barpeta district in the Indian Assam is the home of several types of silks, the most prestigious are: Muga - the natural golden silk, Pat - a creamy-bright-silver coloured silk and Eri - a variety used for manufacturing warm clothes for winter. Assam silk denotes the three major types of indigenous Silks produced in Assam &mdashgolden Muga white Pat and warm Eri silk Apart from Sualkuchi (Xualkuchi), the centre for the traditional silk industry, in almost every parts of the Brahmaputra Valley, rural households produce silk and silk garments with excellent embroidery designs. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Sualkuchi is a Census town in Kamrup district in the Indian state of The Brahmaputra, also called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra is a Trans-boundary river and one of the major Rivers of Asia. Moreover, various ethno-cultural groups in Assam make different types of cotton garments with unique embroidery designs and wonderful colour combinations.
Moreover, Assam possesses unique crafts of toy and mask making mostly concentrated in the Vaishnav Monasteries, pottery and terracotta work in lower Assam districts and wood craft, iron craft, jewellery, etc in many places across the region. This article is about playthings For other uses of the term see Toy (disambiguation. A mask is an artefact normally worn on the face typically for protection concealment performance or amusement Pottery is the Ceramic ware made by potters It also refers to a group of materials that includes Earthenware, Stoneware Terra cotta ( Italian: "baked earth" is a Ceramic. Its uses include vessels water & waste water pipes and surface embellishment in Building construction Jewellery (also spelled jewelry, see spelling differences) is a personal Ornament, such as a necklace ring or bracelet made from Gemstones
Fine arts
- See also: Culture of Assam
The archaic Mauryan Stupas discovered in and around Goalpara district are the earliest examples (c. Fine Arts of Assam has extremely rich tradition Sculpture and architecture The archaic Mauryan Stupas discovered in and around Goalpara The culture of Assam is traditionally a hybrid one developed due to cultural assimilation of different ethno-cultural groups under various politico-economic systems in The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military A stupa (from Sanskrit and Pāli: m स्तूप stūpa, literally meaning "heap" is a mound-like structure containing Buddhist Goalpara is an administrative district in the state of Assam in India. 300B. C. to c. 100A. D. ) of ancient art and architectural works. The remains discovered in Daparvatiya (Doporboteeya) archaeological site with a beautiful doorframe in Tezpur are identified as the best examples of art works in ancient Assam with influence of Sarnath School of Art of the late Gupta period. This article is about a place in India For H P Lovecraft 's fictitious city see The Doom That Came to Sarnath. The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C Many other sites also exhibit development of local art forms with local motifs and sometimes with similarities with those in the Southeast Asia. There are currently more than forty discovered ancient archaeological sites across Assam with numerous sculptural and architectural remains. Moreover, there are examples of several Late-Middle Age art and architectural works including hundreds of sculptures and motifs along with many remaining temples, palaces and other buildings. The motifs available on the walls of the buildings such as Rang Ghar, Joydoul, etc are remarkable examples of art works. Rang Ghar ( Assamese: ৰং ঘৰ rong ghor) (meaning "Red House" is a two-storied building which was the royal sports-pavilion from which the
Painting is an ancient tradition of Assam. Xuanzang (7th century CE) mentions that among the Kamarupa king Bhaskaravarma's gifts to Harshavardhana there were paintings and painted objects, some of which were on Assamese silk. See also Xuanzang (fictional character Xuanzang ( pronounced Shwan-dzang) was a famous Chinese Buddhist Monk, scholar traveler Harsha or Harshavardhana (हर्षवर्धन or "Harsha vardhan" ( 590 &ndash 647) was an Indian emperor who ruled Northern India Assam silk denotes the three major types of indigenous Silks produced in Assam &mdashgolden Muga white Pat and warm Eri silk Many of the manuscripts such as Hastividyarnava (A Treatise on Elephants), the Chitra Bhagawata and in the Gita Govinda from the Middle Ages bear excellent examples of traditional paintings. The Hastividyārnava of Sukumar Barkaith is one of the most well-known illustrated manuscripts of Assam The medieval Assamese literature also refers to chitrakars and patuas. Assamese literature is the entire corpus of poetry novels short stories documents etc written in the Assamese language.
There are several renowned contemporary artists in Assam. The Guwahati Art College in Guwahati is a government institution for tertiary education. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Guwahati ( Assamese: গুৱাহাটী previously spelled Gauhati) is a major city in Moreover, there are several art-societies and non-government initiatives across the state and the Guwahati Artists Guild is a front-runner organisation based in Guwahati.
Economy
Macro-economy
Economy of Assam today represents a unique juxtaposition of backwardness amidst plenty. [36] Growth rate of Assam’s income has not kept pace with that of India’s; differences increased rapidly since 1970s. [37] Indian economy grew at 6 percent per annum over the period of 1981 to 2000, the same of Assam was only 3. 3 percent. [38] In the Sixth Plan period Assam experienced a negative growth rate of 3. 78 percent when India's was positive at 6 percent. [37] In the post-liberalised era (after 1991), the differences widened further.
According to recent analysis, Assam’s economy is showing signs of improvement. In 2001-02, the economy grew (at 1993-94 constant prices) at 4. 5 percent, to fall to 3. 4 percent in the next financial year. [39] During 2003-04 and 2004-05, the economy grew (at 1993-94 constant prices) more satisfactorily at 5. 5 and 5. 3 percent respectively. [39] The advanced estimates placed the growth rate for 2005-06 at above 6 percent. [40] Assam's GDP in 2004 is estimated at $13 billion in current prices. Sectoral analysis again exhibits a dismal picture. The average annual growth rate of agriculture, which was only 2. 6 percent per annum over 1980s has unfortunately fallen to 1. 6 percent in the 1990s. [41] Manufacturing sector has shown some improvement in the 1990s with a growth rate of 3. 4 percent per annum than 2. 4 percent in the 1980s. [41] Since past five decades, the tertiary sector has registered the highest growth rates than the other sectors, which even has slowed down in the 1990s than in 1980s. [41]
Agriculture
Accounts for more than a third of Assam’s income and employs 69 percent of workforce. [42] Assam's biggest contribution to the world is tea. Assam is a Black tea named after the region of its production Assam, India. It produces some of the finest and expensive teas and has its own variety Camellia assamica. Camellia sinensis is the tea plant, the Plant Species whose leaves and leaf buds are used to produce Tea. Assam also accounts for fair share of India’s production of rice, rapeseed, mustard, jute, potato, sweet potato, banana, papaya, areca nut and turmeric. Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Rapeseed ( Brassica napus) also known as rape, oilseed rape, rapa, rapaseed and (in the case of one particular group of For other uses see Mustard. The Multi-Unit Space Transport And Recovery Device or MUSTARD was a concept explored by the British Jute is a long soft shiny Vegetable fiber that can be spun into coarse strong threads The potato is a Starchy Tuberous crop Vegetable from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae The sweet potato ( Ipomoea batatas) is a Dicotyledonous plant which belongs to the family Convolvulaceae For the fruit see Banana. For other meanings see Banana (disambiguation. The papaya (from Carib via Spanish) is the Fruit of the Plant Carica papaya, in the genus Carica. Turmeric ( Curcuma longa) is a Rhizomatous Herbaceous Perennial plant of the Ginger family Zingiberaceae It is also a home of large varieties of citrus fruits, leaf vegetables, vegetables, useful grasses, herbs, spices, etc. Citrus is a common term and Genus of Flowering plants in the family Rutaceae, originating in tropical and subtropical southeast regions of Leaf vegetables, also called potherbs, greens, or leafy greens, are plant leaves eaten as a Vegetable, sometimes accompanied The term " vegetable " generally means the edible parts of Plants The definition of the word is traditional rather than Scientific, however A(n herb (ˈhɝb or /ˈɝb/ see pronunciation differences) is a plant that is valued for qualities such as medicinal properties flavor scent or the like A spice is a dried Seed, Fruit, Root, Bark or vegetative substance used in Nutritionally insignificant quantities as a Food additive
Assam’s agriculture yet to experience modernisation in real sense. With implications to food security, per capita food grain production has declined in past five decades. [43] Productivity has increased marginally; but still lower comparing to highly productive regions. For instance, yield of rice (staple food of Assam) was just 1531 kg per hectare against India’s 1927 kg per hectare in 2000-01[43] (which itself is much lower than Egypt’s 9283, USA’s 7279, South Korea’s 6838, Japan’s 6635 and China’s 6131 kg per hectare in 2001[44]). This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National On the other hand, after having strong domestic demand, 1. 5 million hectares of inland water bodies, numerous rivers and 165 varieties of fishes,[45] fishing is still in its traditional form and production is not self-sufficient. For the computer security term see Phishing. Fishing is the activity of catching Fish. [46]
Industry
Apart from tea and petroleum refineries, Assam has few industries of significance. Industrial development is inhibited by its physical and political isolation from neighbouring countries such as Myanmar, China and Bangladesh and from other growing Southeast Asian economies. Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially The region is landlocked, situated in the eastern periphery of India and is linked to the mainland by a flood and cyclone prone narrow corridor, known as the Siliguri Corridor or Chicken's Neck, with weak transport infrastructure. A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land a deluge In Meteorology, a cyclone refers to an area of closed circular fluid motion rotating in the same direction as the Earth. The Siliguri Corridor or Chicken's Neck or is a narrow stretch of land which connects India 's north-eastern states to the rest of India The international airport in Guwahati is yet to find airlines providing direct international flights. Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport, also known as Guwahati International Airport and formerly as Borjhar Airport, is the airport of Guwahati The Brahmaputra suitable for navigation does not possess sufficient infrastructure for international trade and success of such a navigable trade route will be dependent on proper channel maintenance and diplomatic and trade relationships with Bangladesh. The Brahmaputra, also called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra is a Trans-boundary river and one of the major Rivers of Asia. Navigation is the process of reading and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another International trade is exchange of Capital, Goods, and Services across International borders or Territories.
Assam is a major producer of crude oil, exploited by the Assam Oil Company Ltd., and natural gas in India and is the second place in the world (after Titusville in the United States) where petroleum was discovered. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Assam Oil Company Ltd (AOC was one of the earliest enterprises in the world engaged in exploration and production of oil Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, Titusville is a city in Crawford County, Pennsylvania, United States. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Asia’s first successful mechanically drilled oil well was drilled in Makum (Assam) way back in 1867. Most of the oilfields are located in the Upper Assam region. Assam has four oil refineries located in Guwahati, Digboi, Numaligarh and Bongaigaon with a total capacity of 7 Million Metric Tonnes per annum. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Guwahati ( Assamese: গুৱাহাটী previously spelled Gauhati) is a major city in WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Digboi is a town and a Town area committee in Tinsukia district in the north-eastern part of WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Bongaigaon is the district headquarters of Bongaigaon District, Assam, India
Although having a poor overall industrial performance, several other industries have nevertheless been started, including a chemical fertiliser plan at Namrup, petrochemical industries at Namrup and Bongaigaon, paper mills at Jagiroad, Panchgram and Jogighopa, sugar mills at Barua Bamun Gaon, Chargola, Kampur, cement plant at Bokajan & Badarpur, cosmetics plant (HLL) at Doom Dooma, etc. Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Namrup is a small town situated close to the foothills of the great Patkai Mountain Range in the extreme northeastern Petrochemicals are chemical products made from raw materials of Petroleum or other Hydrocarbon origin WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Namrup is a small town situated close to the foothills of the great Patkai Mountain Range in the extreme northeastern WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Bongaigaon is the district headquarters of Bongaigaon District, Assam, India WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Jagiroad is a Census town in Marigaon district in the Indian state of Jogighopa is a large industrial city located on the banks of the Brahmaputra River in the Bongaigaon district in the state of Assam, India Badarpur may refer to Badarpur Bangladesh Badarpur India WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> DoomDooma (also spelt as DumDuma) is a town and a Town area committee in Tinsukia district Moreover, there are other industries such as jute mill, textile and yarn mills, silk mill, etc. Unfortunately many of these industries are facing loss and closer due to lack of infrastructure and improper management practices. [citations needed]
Education
Assam has several institutions for tertiary education and research. Cotton College is a premier institution for higher education located in the heart of Guwahati, Assam, a northeastern state of India. The major institutions are:
- Gauhati University, Guwahati
- Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh
- Assam University, Silchar
- Tezpur University, Tezpur
- Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat
- Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
- National Institute of Technology, Silchar
- North Eastern Regional Institute of Water and Land Management, Tezpur
- Lokopriya Gopinath Bordoloi Regional Institute of Mental Health, Tezpur
- Defence Research Labroratory,Tezpur
- North East Institute of Science and Technology (Formerly Regional Research Laboratory) CSIR, Jorhat
- Tocklai Experimental Station, Tea Research Association, Jorhat
- Centre for Plasma Physics, Guwahati
- Assam Engineering College, Jalukbari, Guwahati. Gauhati University, the first University of North East India located in Jalukbari area in the western part Guwahati city Assam, India the university WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Guwahati ( Assamese: গুৱাহাটী previously spelled Gauhati) is a major city in Dibrugarh University was set up in 1965 under the provisions of the Dibrugarh University Act 1965 enacted by the Assam Legislative Assembly WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Dibrugarh is the headquarters of Dibrugarh District, Assam, India. Assam University is a teaching-cum-affiliating University The University has nine Schools which offer Social Sciences Humanities Languages Life Sciences Physical Sciences Environmental WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Silchar (শিলচর Shilchôr, Assamese: শিলচৰ Xilsôr, Sylheti Tezpur University Hindi: तेजपुर िवशविवद्दालय Assamese: েতজপুৰ িবশ্বিবদ্যালয় WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Tezpur is a city and a Municipal board in Sonitpur in the Indian state Assam Agricultural University ( AAU) was established in 1969 under the Assam Agricultural University Act l968 January 2 l969 WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Jorhat (যোৰহাট is a town in Jorhat district in the Indian state Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati ( IIT Guwahati or IITG) an autonomous institute for education and research in science engineering and technology located National Institute Of Technology Silchar (NIT Silchar, an Institute of National Importance under the NIT Actwas established in 1967 as a Regional Engineering College WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Tezpur is a city and a Municipal board in Sonitpur in the Indian state WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Tezpur is a city and a Municipal board in Sonitpur in the Indian state WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Tezpur is a city and a Municipal board in Sonitpur in the Indian state
- Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat
Places
Cities and towns
History of urban development goes back to almost two thousand years in the region. Existence of ancient urban areas such as Pragjyotishapura (Guwahati), Hatapesvara (Tezpur), Durjaya, etc and medieval towns such as Charaideu, Garhgaon, Rongpur, Jorhat, Khaspur, Guwahati, etc are well recorded. [16]
Guwahati is the largest urban centre and a million plus city in Assam. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Guwahati ( Assamese: গুৱাহাটী previously spelled Gauhati) is a major city in The city has experienced multifold growth during past three decades to grow as the primate city in the region; the city's population was approximately 0. A primate city is the leading city in its country or region disproportionately larger than any others in the Urban hierarchy. 9 million (considering GMDA area) during the census of 2001. Guwahati Metropolitan Development Authority or GMDA is a state parastatal agency of Government of Assam created for the Guwahati metropolitan area The other important urban areas are Dibrugarh, Jorhat, Tinsukia (Tinicukiya), Sibsagar (Xiwoxagor), Silchar (Silcor), Tezpur, Nagaon, Lakhimpur, Bongaigaon, etc. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Dibrugarh is the headquarters of Dibrugarh District, Assam, India. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Jorhat (যোৰহাট is a town in Jorhat district in the Indian state WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Tinsukia is a city and a Municipal board in Tinsukia district in the Indian state WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Sibsagar ( Assamese: শিৱসাগৰ Xiwôxagôr) is a city in the Sibsagar district WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Silchar (শিলচর Shilchôr, Assamese: শিলচৰ Xilsôr, Sylheti WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Tezpur is a city and a Municipal board in Sonitpur in the Indian state WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Nagaon is a city and a Municipal board in Nagaon district in the Indian state Lakhimpur Kheri ( Hindi: लखीमपुर खीरी Urdu: لحیم پور خیری) is a district of Uttar Pradesh WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Bongaigaon is the district headquarters of Bongaigaon District, Assam, India Population growth in the Barak Valley town of Silchar is also astonishing during past two decades. Nalbari, Mangaldoi, Barpeta, Kokrajhar, Goalpara, Dhubri (Dhubury), etc are other towns and district head quarters. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Nalbari is a city and a Municipal board in Nalbari district in the Indian state WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Mangaldoi (also spelt as Mangaldai) is a city and a Municipal board in Darrang district WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Barpeta is the headquarter of Barpeta District, Assam, India. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Kokrajhar is a city in Assam, one of the North East States and territories of India. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Goalpara is the capital of Goalpara District, Assam, India. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Dhubri ( ধুবুৰী in Assamese) is the headquarter of Dhubri district, Assam On the other hand Duliajan, Digboi, Namrup, Moran, Bongaigaon, Numaligarh, Jogighopa, etc are major industrial towns. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Duliajan Located in the upper northeast corner of India WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Digboi is a town and a Town area committee in Tinsukia district in the north-eastern part of WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Namrup is a small town situated close to the foothills of the great Patkai Mountain Range in the extreme northeastern Moran (Ó Móráin is a modern Irish Surname and derived from member ship of a medieval dynastic sept. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Bongaigaon is the district headquarters of Bongaigaon District, Assam, India Numaligarh is a town in Assam, India. A petroleum refinery named Numaligarh Refinery Limited has been established in 2001 Jogighopa is a large industrial city located on the banks of the Brahmaputra River in the Bongaigaon district in the state of Assam, India Currently, there are around 125 total urban centres in the state.
Destinations
Assam has several attractive destinations; majority of these are National Parks, Wildlife and Bird Sanctuaries,[47] areas with archaeological interests and areas with unique cultural heritage. The Crimson Sunbird, Aethopyga siparaja, is a Sunbird. The sunbirds are a group of very small Old World Passerine Birds which The Indian Rhinoceros or the Great One-horned Rhinoceros or the Asian One-horned Rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis) is a large mammal found in Nepal Vanda is a Genus in the orchid family ( Orchidaceae) which although not large (about fifty Species) is one of the most important A national park is a reserve of land usually declared and owned by a national Government, protected from most Human development and pollution The culture of Assam is traditionally a hybrid one developed due to cultural assimilation of different ethno-cultural groups under various politico-economic systems in Moreover, as a whole, the region is covered by beautiful natural landscapes.
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Notes and references
- ^ Dixit 2002
- ^ World Heritage Centre 2007
- ^ Wandrey 2004 p3–8
- ^ Sarma, Satyendra Nath (1976) Assamese Literature, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, p2. Kaziranga National Park (কাজিৰঙা ৰাষ্ট্ৰীয় উদ্যান, pronounced) is a national park in the Golaghat and Manas National Park is a National Park, UNESCO Natural World Heritage site, a Project Tiger Reserve an Elephant Reserve and a Biosphere Nameri National Park is a National park located in the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas in the Sonitpur District of Assam, India Dibru-Saikhowa National Park is a national wildlife park in Tinsukia, Assam, India. Orang National Park is a National park located in the north banks of the Brahmaputra River near Tezpur, Assam, India. Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary is the only Wildlife sanctuary in India to be named after a non-human Primate, Hoolock gibbon ( Hylobates hoolock) Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary is a wildlife preserve in the state of Assam in India. Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary is the only Wildlife sanctuary in India to be named after a non-human Primate, Hoolock gibbon ( Hylobates hoolock) Dipor Bil, also spelt Deepor Beel (Bil or Beel is the name of lake in local Assamese language) is located to the south-west of Guwahati city History Originally the island was a narrow and long piece of land called Majoli (land in the middle of two parallel rivers that had Brahmaputra flowing in the north and the Burhidihing WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Sualkuchi is a Census town in Kamrup district in the Indian state of WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Sarthebari is a town and a Town area committee in Barpeta district in the Indian WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Digboi is a town and a Town area committee in Tinsukia district in the north-eastern part of Burma and Ledo Road 1944 - 1945jpg|250px|thumb|right|Burma Road and Ledo Road in 1944]]Ledo Burma Roads Assam-Burma-China WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Haflong is a town and a Town area committee and headquarters of North Cachar Hills district Jatinga, a village on a ridge is located in the North Cachar Hills district Assam State in India. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Guwahati ( Assamese: গুৱাহাটী previously spelled Gauhati) is a major city in For the village in Azerbaijan see Həjo. Hajo is an ancient pilgrimage centre for three religions Hindus, Buddhists, and WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Sibsagar ( Assamese: শিৱসাগৰ Xiwôxagôr) is a city in the Sibsagar district Charaideo (Tai Che Tam-Doi) was the first capital of the Ahom kingdom established by the first Ahom king Sukaphaa in 1253. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Goalpara is the capital of Goalpara District, Assam, India. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Tezpur is a city and a Municipal board in Sonitpur in the Indian state WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Maibong is a town and a Town area committee in North Cachar Hills district in the Indian The Assam earthquake of 1897, measuring more than 8 on the Richter scale destroyed all masonry structures The Assam earthquake of 1950 on August 15, 1950, measured 86M on the Richter scale. The Ahoms established the Ahom kingdom (1228-1826 in parts of present-day Assam and ruled it for nearly 600 years The Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826 called Kingdom of Assam in medieval times was a medieval kingdom in the Brahmaputra valley in Assam that maintained its See also Rashtriya Rifles Special Forces of India Assamese cinema was born in 1935 when Jyoti Prasad Agarwala released his movie Joymoti. Assamese (অসমীয়া) (ɔxɔmija is the easternmost Indo-Aryan language, spoken mainly in the state of Assam in North-East The Asam Sahitya Sabha ( Assamese: অসম সাহিত্য সভা Ôxôm Xahityô Xôbha or "Assam Literary Society" was founded in 1917 in The Biodiversity of Assam, a state in North-East India, makes it a biological hotspot with many rare and endemic plant and animal species Bodo, pronounced BO-RO is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken by the Bodo people of north-eastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh The Bodos (pronounced BO-ros) are an Ethnic and linguistic community early settlers of Assam in the North-East of India. The Charyapada ( Bangla: চর্যাপদ Assamese: চৰ্যাপদ is a collection of 8th-12th century Vajrayana Buddhist Caryagiti The Cuisine of Assam, a state in North-East India, is a mixture of different indigenous styles with considerable regional variations and some External The culture of Assam is traditionally a hybrid one developed due to cultural assimilation of different ethno-cultural groups under various politico-economic systems in Assam, a state of India, has currently ( 2007) twenty seven administrative districts The Etymology of Assam is an issue that often comes up for debate in the Indian state of Assam. Fine Arts of Assam has extremely rich tradition Sculpture and architecture The archaic Mauryan Stupas discovered in and around Goalpara The history of Assam is the history of a confluence of peoples from the east west and the north the confluence of the Indo-Aryan, Austro-Asiatic and For the place in Armenia see Karbi Armenia. The Karbis, mentioned as the Mikir in the Constitution Order of the Government of India The Mishings are an ethnic group inhabiting the districts of Dhemaji, North Lakhimpur, Sonitpur, Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, Sibsagar Mishing is Sino-Tibetan family of languages spoken by the Mishing people. The music of Assam, a state in the northeastern part of India, can be divided into various categories of folk music Peopling of Assam Geographically Assam contains fertile river valleys surrounded by mountains Physical Geography of Assam is extremely interesting with its geologic origin geomorphic characteristics climate rich Biodiversity, etc Assam has maintained a rich tradition of various traditional Crafts for more than two thousand years There is a wide variety of clothing and textiles involved with Assamese culture. “While the Shan invaders called themselves Tai, they came to be referred to as Āsām, Āsam and sometimes as Acam by the indigenous people of the country. The modern Assamese word Āhom by which the Tai people are known is derived from Āsām or Āsam. The epithet applied to the Shan conquerors was subsequently transferred to the country over which they ruled and thus the name Kāmarūpa was replaced by Āsām, which ultimately took the Sanskritized form Asama, meaning ‘unequalled, peerless or uneven’”
- ^ Times News Network, February 28, 2006
- ^ Editorial, The Assam Tribune, January 6, 2007.
- ^ a b c Singh (ed. ) 1993.
- ^ a b NEDFi & NIC-Assam 2002
- ^ Wandrey 2004 p17
- ^ Purdue University 2004
- ^ Borthakur 2002
- ^ Birdlife International, UK Indo-Gangetic Grasslands
- ^ National Mission on Bamboo Applications 2004
- ^ Sharma 2003
- ^ ENVIS Assam 2003
- ^ a b c d e f g h Barpujari 1990
- ^ Aitchison 1931, p230–233 (web-version from Project South Asia, South Dakota State University, USA)
- ^ a b Hazarika 2003
- ^ a b The Governor of Assam 1998
- ^ MacFarlane, Alan and Iris MacFarlane 2003
- ^ a b Revenue Department, Government of Assam
- ^ a b Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Assam
- ^ a b The Government of Assam 2002-03
- ^ The National Commission on Population 2006
- ^ Director of Census Operations, Census of India 2001
- ^ Hussain 2004
- ^ Taher 1993
- ^ http://www.censusindia.net/religiondata/ 2001 Indian Census Data
- ^ http://www.censusindia.net/religiondata/ 2001 Indian Census Data
- ^ Kakati 1962
- ^ Assam Tourism 2002
- ^ Ranjan
- ^ Nath
- ^ Government of Assam, Economic Survey of Assam 2001-2002 in Assam Human Development Report, 2003 p25
- ^ Government of Assam, Economic Survey of Assam 2005-2006
- ^ National Commission for Women 2004
- ^ a b UNDP 2004 p22-23
- ^ UNDP 2004 p22
- ^ a b Government of Assam, Economic Survey of Assam 2004-2005
- ^ Government of Assam, Economic Survey of Assam 2005-2006
- ^ a b c UNDP 2004 p24-25
- ^ Government of Assam, Economic Survey of Assam 2001-2002 in Assam Human Development Report, 2003 p32
- ^ a b UNDP 2004 p33
- ^ FAO Statistics Division 2007
- ^ Assam Small Farmers’ Agri-business Consortium
- ^ UNDP 2004 p37
- ^ Directorate of Information and Public Relations 2002
- Aitchison, C. U. ed (1931), The Treaty of Yandaboo, A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads: Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries. Vol. XII. , Calcutta: Government of India Central Publication Branch
- Assam Small Farmers’ Agri-business Consortium, Fish Species of AssamPDF (400 KiB)
- Assam Tourism 2002, Government of Assam, Arts and Crafts of Assam in About Assam, <http://www.assamtourism.org/arts.htm>. A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International Retrieved on 3 June 2007
- Barpujari, H. K. (ed. ) (1990), The Comprehensive History of Assam, 1st edition, Guwahati, India: Assam Publication Board
- Birdlife International, UK, Indo-Gangetic GrasslandsPDF (431 KiB)
- Borthakur, Ahir Bhairab (January 15, 2002), “Call of the wild”, Down To Earth
- Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Assam, Area of the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in Assam, 2002, <http://janasanyogassam.nic.in/assamataglance.htm>. A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International Retrieved on 29 May 2006
- Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Assam, Assam at a Glance, <http://janasanyogassam.nic.in/assamataglance.htm>. Retrieved on 25 May 2007
- Dixit, K. M. (August 2002), “Chicken's Neck (Editorial)”, Himal South Asian, <http://www.himalmag.com/2002/august/lastpage.htm>
- Editorial (6 January 2007), “Assam or Asom?”, The Assam Tribune, <http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/details.asp?id=jan0607\edit>
- ENVIS Assam (April-June 2003), “Endemic Orchids of AssamPDF (6. 46 MiB)”, ENVIS Assam, Assam Science Technology and Environment Council 2: 8
- FAO Statistics Division, 2007, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAOSTAT, <http://faostat.fao.org/site/340/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=340>. A mebibyte (a contraction of me ga bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, abbreviated MiB. Retrieved on 5 June 2006
- Government of Assam. "Chapter 2, Income, Employment and Poverty Economic Survey of Assam 2001-2002 in Assam Human Development Report, 2003" (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-06-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year
- Government of Assam (2006). "Economic Survey of Assam 2004-2005 in NEDFi, Assam Profile, NER Databank" (html). HTML, an initialism of HyperText Markup Language, is the predominant Markup language for Web pages It provides a means to describe the structure Retrieved on 2007-06-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year
- Government of Assam. "Economic Survey of Assam 2005-2006 in NEDFi, Assam Profile, NER Databank" (html). HTML, an initialism of HyperText Markup Language, is the predominant Markup language for Web pages It provides a means to describe the structure Retrieved on 2007-06-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year
- Government of Assam 2002-03, Statistics of Assam, <http://www.assamgov.org/generalinformation/assamstatistics.html>. Retrieved on 3 June 2007
- Governor of Assam (8 November 1998). "Report on Illegal Migration into Assam". Retrieved on 2007-05-26. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 451 - The Battle of Avarayr between Armenian rebels and the Sassanid Empire takes place
- Hazarika, Sanjoy (2003), Strangers of the Mist, Penguin Books Australia Ltd.
- Hussain, Wasbir (September 20, 2004), “Assam: Demographic Jitters, Weekly Assessments & Briefings”, South Asia Intelligence Review 3-10
- Kakati, Banikanta (1962), Assamese, Its Formation and Development, 2nd edition, Guwahati, India: Lawyer's Book Stall
- MacFarlane, Alan & MacFarlane, Iris (2003), Green Gold, The Empire of Tea, Ch. 6-11, Random House, London
- Nath, T. K. , Bamboo Cane and Assam, Guwahati, India: Industrial Development Bank of India, Small Industries Development Bank of India
- National Commission for Women (2004). "Situational Analysis of Women in Assam" (PDF). Retrieved on 2006-07-05. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1295 - Scotland and France form an alliance the beginnings of the Auld Alliance, against England.
- National Commission on Population, Census of India (2006). "Population Projections for India and States 2001-2026" (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-05-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the
- National Mission on Bamboo Applications, Assam, State Profile, <http://www.bambootech.org/subsubTOP.asp?subsubid=101&subid=37&sname=STATE>. Retrieved on 25 May 2007
- NEDFi & NIC-Assam, North East India Databank, <http://nerdatabank.nic.in/as_minerals.htm>. Retrieved on 20 May 2007
- Purdue University, The Köppen Classification of Climates, <http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_04/lec_04.html>. Retrieved on 25 May 2007
- Ranjan, M. P. ; Iyer, Nilam & Pandya, Ghanshyam, Bamboo and Cane Crafts of Northeast India, National Institute of Design
- Revenue Department, Government of Assam, Revenue Administration - Districts and Subdivisions, <http://revenueassam.nic.in/>. Retrieved on 25 May 2007
- Sharma, Pradip (April-June 2003), “An Overview on Wetlands in AssamPDF (6. 46 MiB)”, ENVIS Assam, Assam Science Technology and Environment Council 2: 7
- Singh, K. A mebibyte (a contraction of me ga bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, abbreviated MiB. S (ed) (2003) People of India: Assam Vol XV Parts I and II, Anthropological Survey of India, Seagull Books, Calcutta
- Singh, R. L. (1993), India, A Regional Geography, Varanasi, India: National Geographical Society of India
- Taher, Mohammad (1993) The Peopling of Assam and contemporary social structure in Ahmad, Aijazuddin (ed) Social Structure and Regional Development, Rawat Publications, New Delhi
- Times News Network (28 February 2006), “Assam to fall off the map, turn Asom”, The Times of India, <http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1431357.cms>
- UNDP (2004), Chapter 2, Income, Employment and Poverty in Assam Human Development Report, 2003PDF, Government of Assam
- Wandrey, C. J. (2004), “Sylhet-Kopili/Barail-Tipam Composite Total Petroleum System, Assam Geologic Province, IndiaPDF (1. 73 MiB)”, U. A mebibyte (a contraction of me ga bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, abbreviated MiB. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2208-D
- World Heritage Centre, UNESCO. World Heritage List. Retrieved on 2007-06-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year
Further reading
Language and literature
- Bara, Mahendra (1981), The Evolution of the Assamese Script, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha
- Barpujari, H. K. (1983), Amerikan Michanerisakal aru Unabimsa Satikar Asam, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha
- Barua, Birinchi Kumar (1965, c1964), History of Assamese Literature, Guwahati: East-West Centre Press
- Barua, Hem (1965), Assamese Literature, New Delhi: National Book Trust
- Brown, William Barclay (1895), An Outline Grammar of the Deori Chutiya Language Spoken in Upper Assam with an Introduction, Illustrative Sentences, and Short Vocabulary, Shillong: The Assam Secretariat Printing Office
- Dhekial Phukan, Anandaram 1829-1859 (1977), Anandaram Dhekiyal Phukanar Racana Samgrah, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall
- Endle, Sidney (1884), Outline of the Kachari (Baro) Language as Spoken in District Darrang, Assam, Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press
- Gogoi, Lila (1972), Sahitya-Samskriti-Buranji, Dibrugarh: New Book Stall
- Gogoi, Lila (1986), The Buranjis, Historical Literature of Assam, New Delhi: Omsons Publications
- Goswami, Praphulladatta (1954), Folk-Literature of Assam, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies in Assam
- Gurdon, Philip Richard Thornhagh (1896), Some Assamese Proverbs, Shillong: The Assam Secretariat Printing Office
- Kakati, Banikanta (1959), Aspects of Early Assamese Literature, Guwahati: Gauhati University
- Kay, S. P. (1904), An English-Mikir Vocabulary, Shillong: The Assam Secretariat Printing Office
- Medhi, Kaliram (1988), Assamese Grammar and Origin of the Assamese Language, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board
- Miles, Bronson (1867), A Dictionary in Assamese and English, Sibsagar, Assam: American Baptist Mission Press
- Morey, Stephen (2005), The Tai languages of Assam : a grammar and texts, Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, ISBN 0858835495
History
- Antrobus, H. (1957), A History of the Assam Company, Edinburgh: Private Printing by T. and A. Constable
- Barabaruwa, Hiteswara 1876-1939 (1981), Ahomar Din, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board
- Barooah, Nirode K. (1970), David Scott In North-East India, 1802-1831, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
- Barua, Harakanta 1813-1900 (1962), Asama Buranji, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Assam
- Barpujari, H. K. (1963), Assam in the Days of the Company, 1826-1858, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall
- Barpujari, H. K. (1977), Political History of Assam. Department for the Preparation of Political History of Assam, Guwahati: Government of Assam
- Barua, Kanak Lal, An Early History of Kamarupa, From the Earliest Time to the Sixteenth Century, Guwahati: Lawyers Book Stall
- Barua, Kanak Lal, Studies in the Early History of Assam, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha
- Baruah, Swarna Lata (1993), Last days of Ahom monarchy : a history of Assam from 1769-1826, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
- Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1949), Anglo-Assamese Relations, 1771-1826, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies in Assam
- Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1947), Annals of the Delhi Badshahate, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Government of Assam
- Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1957), Atan Buragohain and His Times, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall
- Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1962), Deodhai Asam Buranji, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies
- Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1928), Early British Relations with Assam, Shillong: Assam Secretariat Press
- Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1947), Lachit Barphukan and His Times, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Government of Assam
- Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1964), Satasari Asama Buranji, Guwahati: Gauhati University
- Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar (1975), Swargadew Rajeswarasimha, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board
- Buchanan, Francis Hamilton 1762-1829 (1963), An Account of Assam, Guwahati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies
- Duara Barbarua, Srinath (1933), Tungkhungia Buranji, Bombay: H. Milford, Oxford University Press
- Gait, Edward Albert 1863-1950 (1926), A History of Assam, Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co.
- Gogoi, Padmeswar (1968), The Tai and the Tai Kingdoms, Guwahati: Gauhati University
- Guha, Amalendu (1983), The Ahom Political System, Calcutta: Centre for Studies in Social Sciences
- Hunter, William Wilson 1840-1900 (1879), A Statistical Account of Assam, London: Trubner & Co.
Tradition and Culture
- Barkath, Sukumar (1976), Hastibidyarnnara Sarasamgraha (English & Assamese), 18th Century, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board
- Barua, Birinchi Kumar (1969), A Cultural History of Assam, Guwahati: Lawyer's Book Stall
- Barua, Birinchi Kumar (1960), Sankardeva, Guwahati: Assam Academy for Cultural Relations
- Gandhiya, Jayakanta (1988), Huncari, Mukali Bihu, aru Bihunac, Dibrugarh
- Goswami, Praphulladatta (1960), Ballads and Tales of Assam, Guwahati: Gauhati University
- Goswami, Praphulladatta (1988), Bohag Bihu of Assam and Bihu Songs, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board
- Mahanta, Pona (1985), Western Influence on Modern Assamese Drama, Delhi: Mittal Publications
- Medhi, Kaliram (1978), Studies in the Vaisnava Literature and Culture of Assam, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha
External links
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