Citizendia
Your Ad Here

Asperger syndrome
Classification and external resources
ICD-10 F84.5
ICD-9 299.8
OMIM 608638
DiseasesDB 31268
MedlinePlus 001549
eMedicine ped/147 

Asperger syndrome (pronounced /ˈasˌpərgɘr ˌsɪndrəʊm/ in the U. The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify Diseases The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision ( ICD -10) is a coding of diseases and signs symptoms abnormal findings The 2007 version of the ICD is available online at http//wwwwho The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify Diseases The following is a list of codes for International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. The Mendelian Inheritance in Man project is a Database that catalogues all the known Diseases with a genetic component, and—when possible—links them The Diseases Database is a free Website that provides information about the relationships between medical conditions Symptoms, and Medications. MedlinePlus, with the MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia, is a website network containing Health information from the world's largest medical Library eMedicine is an online clinical medical knowledge base that was founded in 1996 by Scott Plantz and Richard Lavely two medical doctors S. , /ˈasˌpəːgɘ/ in Britain; also called Asperger's syndrome, Asperger's disorder, Asperger's or AS) is one of several autism spectrum disorders (ASD) characterized by difficulties in social interaction and by restricted, stereotyped interests and activities. The autism spectrum, also called autism spectrum disorders (ASD or autism spectrum conditions (ASC with the word autistic sometimes replacing autism Social interaction is a dynamic changing sequence of Social actions between individuals (or groups who modify their actions and reactions according to the actions by their A stereotypy (ˈstɛriəˌtаɪpi (plural stereotypies) is a repetitive or ritualistic movement posture or utterance found in patients with Mental retardation, AS is distinguished from the other ASDs in having no general delay in language or cognitive development. Language delay is a failure to develop Language abilities on the usual developmental timetable The Theory of Cognitive Development (one of the most historically influential theories was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss Philosopher (1896–1980 Although not mentioned in standard diagnostic criteria, motor clumsiness and atypical use of language are frequently reported. Motor skills disorder (also known as motor coordination disorder or motor dyspraxia) is a human Developmental disorder that impairs Motor coordination [1][2]

Asperger syndrome is named after Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger who, in 1944, described children in his practice who lacked nonverbal communication skills, failed to demonstrate empathy with their peers, and were physically clumsy. Hans Asperger ( February 18 1906 – October 21 1980) was the Austrian Pediatrician after whom Asperger syndrome Nonverbal communication (NVC is usually understood as the process of Communication through sending and receiving Wordless messages Empathy is the capacity to recognize or understand another's state of mind or Emotion. Fifty years later, AS was recognized in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10), and in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) as Asperger's Disorder. The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify Diseases The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders' ( DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association Questions about many aspects of AS remain: for example, there is lingering doubt about the distinction between AS and high-functioning autism (HFA);[3] partly due to this, the prevalence of AS is not firmly established. High-functioning autism ( HFA) is an informal term applied to autistic individuals who are in some sense able In Epidemiology, the prevalence of a Disease in a Statistical population is defined as the total number of cases of the disease in the population at a given The exact cause of AS is unknown, although research supports the likelihood of a genetic basis, and brain imaging techniques have identified structural and functional differences in specific regions of the brain. Etiology (alternatively aetiology, aitiology) is the study of causation. Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure, function/ Pharmacology of the Brain

There is no single treatment for Asperger syndrome, and the effectiveness of particular interventions is supported by only limited data. Intervention is aimed at improving symptoms and function. The mainstay of treatment is behavioral therapy, focusing on specific deficits to address poor communication skills, obsessive or repetitive routines, and clumsiness. Most individuals with AS can learn to cope with their differences, but may continue to need moral support and encouragement to maintain an independent life. [4] Researchers and people with AS have contributed to a shift in attitudes away from the notion that AS is a deviation from the norm that must be treated or cured, and towards the view that AS is a difference rather than a disability. [5]


Contents

Classification

Hans Asperger described his young patients as "little professors".
Hans Asperger described his young patients as "little professors". Hans Asperger ( February 18 1906 – October 21 1980) was the Austrian Pediatrician after whom Asperger syndrome

Asperger syndrome is one of the autism spectrum disorders (ASD) or pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), which are a spectrum of psychological conditions that are characterized by abnormalities of social interaction and communication that pervade the individual's functioning, and by restricted and repetitive interests and behavior. The autism spectrum, also called autism spectrum disorders (ASD or autism spectrum conditions (ASC with the word autistic sometimes replacing autism The diagnostic category pervasive developmental disorders (PDD as opposed to Specific developmental disorders (SDD refers to a group of five disorders characterized Spectrum disorder in Psychiatry is a term used to describe a Mental disorder when there is thought to be "not a unitary disorder but rather a syndrome composed Social interaction is a dynamic changing sequence of Social actions between individuals (or groups who modify their actions and reactions according to the actions by their Like other psychological development disorders, ASD begins in infancy or childhood, has a steady course without remission or relapse, and has impairments that result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain. [6] ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism phenotype (BAP), which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like traits, such as social deficits. A phenotype is any observable characteristic of an Organism, such as its morphology, Development, biochemical or physiological properties A trait is a distinct phenotypic character of an organism that may be inherited environmentally determined or somewhere in between [7] Of the other four ASD forms, autism is the most similar to AS in signs and likely causes but its diagnosis requires impaired communication and allows delay in cognitive development; Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder share several signs with autism, but may have unrelated causes; and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) is diagnosed when the criteria for a more specific disorder are unmet. Language development. The terminology The Theory of Cognitive Development (one of the most historically influential theories was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss Philosopher (1896–1980 Rett syndrome (also called Rett disorder) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is classified as a Pervasive developmental disorder by the DSM-IV. Childhood disintegrative disorder ( CDD) also known as Heller's syndrome and disintegrative psychosis, is a rare condition characterized by late onset (>3 Pervasive Developmental Disorder - Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS is one of the Pervasive developmental disorders and Autism spectrum disorders PDD-NOS is a [8] The extent of the overlap between AS and high-functioning autism (HFA—autism unaccompanied by mental retardation) is unclear. Several factors complicate the diagnosis of Asperger syndrome (AS an Autism spectrum disorder (ASD High-functioning autism ( HFA) is an informal term applied to autistic individuals who are in some sense able [3][9][10][11] The current ASD classification may not reflect the true nature of the conditions. [12]

Characteristics

A pervasive developmental disorder, Asperger syndrome is distinguished by a pattern of symptoms rather than a single symptom. The diagnostic category pervasive developmental disorders (PDD as opposed to Specific developmental disorders (SDD refers to a group of five disorders characterized It is characterized by qualitative impairment in social interaction, by stereotyped and restricted patterns of activities and interests, and by no clinically significant delay in cognitive development or general delay in language. [13] Intense preoccupation with a narrow subject, one-sided verbosity, restricted prosody and intonation, and motor clumsiness are typical of the condition, but are not required for diagnosis. In Linguistics, prosody (from Greek προσωδία) is the Rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech In Linguistics, intonation is variation of pitch whilst speaking which is not used to distinguish words Motor skills disorder (also known as motor coordination disorder or motor dyspraxia) is a human Developmental disorder that impairs Motor coordination [3]

Social interaction

The lack of demonstrated empathy is possibly the most dysfunctional aspect of Asperger syndrome. [2] Individuals with AS experience difficulties in basic elements of social interaction, which may include a failure to develop friendships or enjoy spontaneous interests or achievements with others, a lack of social or emotional reciprocity, and impaired nonverbal behaviors such as eye contact, facial expression, posture, and gesture. Sociological and cultural aspects of autism come into play with recognition of autism and approaches to educating and socializing autistics Nonverbal communication (NVC is usually understood as the process of Communication through sending and receiving Wordless messages [1]

Unlike those with autism, people with AS are not usually withdrawn around others; they approach others, even if awkwardly, for example by engaging in a one-sided, long-winded speech about a favorite topic while being oblivious to the listener's feelings or reactions, such as signs of boredom or haste to leave. [3] This social awkwardness has been called "active but odd". [3] This failure to react appropriately to social interaction may appear as disregard for other people's feelings, and may come across as insensitive. The cognitive ability of children with AS often lets them articulate social norms in a laboratory context,[1] where they may be able to show a theoretical understanding of other people’s emotions; they typically have difficulty acting on this knowledge in fluid, real-life situations, however. [3] People with AS may analyze and distill their observation of social interaction into rigid behavioral guidelines and apply these rules in awkward ways—such as forced eye contact—resulting in demeanor that appears rigid or socially naïve. Childhood desires for companionship can be numbed through a history of failed social encounters. [1]

The hypothesis that individuals with AS are predisposed to violent or criminal behavior has been investigated and found to be unsupported by data. A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible [1][14] More evidence suggests children with AS are victims rather than victimizers. [15]

Restricted and repetitive interests and behavior

Those with AS often display intense interests, such as this boy's fascination with molecular structure.
Those with AS often display intense interests, such as this boy's fascination with molecular structure.

People with Asperger syndrome display behavior, interests, and activities that are restricted and repetitive and are sometimes abnormally intense or focused. They may stick to inflexible routines or rituals, move in stereotyped and repetitive ways, or preoccupy themselves with parts of objects. [13]

Pursuit of specific and narrow areas of interest is one of the most striking features of AS. [1] Individuals with AS may collect volumes of detailed information on a relatively narrow topic such as dinosaurs or deep fat fryers, without necessarily having genuine understanding of the broader topic. [1][3] For example, a child might memorize camera model numbers while caring little about photography. [1] This behavior is usually apparent by grade school, typically age 5 or 6 in the United States. [1] Although these special interests may change from time to time, they typically become more unusual and narrowly focused, and often dominate social interaction so much that the entire family may become immersed. Because topics such as dinosaurs often capture the interest of children, this symptom may go unrecognized. [3]

Stereotyped and repetitive motor behaviors are a core part of the diagnosis of AS and other ASDs. A stereotypy (ˈstɛriəˌtаɪpi (plural stereotypies) is a repetitive or ritualistic movement posture or utterance found in patients with Mental retardation, [16] They include hand movements such as flapping or twisting, and complex whole-body movements. [13] These are typically repeated in longer bursts and look more voluntary or ritualistic than tics, which are usually faster, less rhythmical and less often symmetrical. A tic is a sudden repetitive nonrhythmic stereotyped motor movement or vocalization involving discrete muscle groups [17]

Speech and language

Although children with Asperger syndrome acquire language skills without significant general delay, and the speech of those with AS typically lacks significant abnormalities, language acquisition and use is often atypical. [3] Abnormalities include verbosity; abrupt transitions; literal interpretations and miscomprehension of nuance; use of metaphor meaningful only to the speaker; auditory perception deficits; unusually pedantic, formal or idiosyncratic speech; and oddities in loudness, pitch, intonation, prosody, and rhythm. Metaphor (from the Greek: μεταφορά - metaphora, meaning "transfer" is language that directly compares seemingly unrelated subjects Auditory Processing Disorder (APD (previously known as "Central Auditory Processing Disorder" (CAPD is a disorder in the way auditory information is processed in A pedant, or pædant, is a person who is overly concerned with Formalism and Precision, or who 'makes a show of learning' In Linguistics, a register is a subset of a Language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting Idiosyncrasy, from Greek ιδιοσυγκρασία idiosunkrasia, "a peculiar temperament" "habit of body" ( idios "one's own" Loudness is the quality of a Sound that is the primary psychological correlate of physical strength (amplitude Tone is the use of pitch in Language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning—that is to distinguish or inflect words In Linguistics, intonation is variation of pitch whilst speaking which is not used to distinguish words In Linguistics, prosody (from Greek προσωδία) is the Rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech Rhythm (from Greek ῥυθμός - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement symmetry" is the variation of the length and accentuation of [1]

Three aspects of communication patterns are of clinical interest: poor prosody, tangential and circumstantial speech, and marked verbosity. Although inflection and intonation may be less rigid or monotonic than in autism, people with AS often have a limited range of intonation; speech may be unusually fast, jerky or loud. Speech may convey a sense of incoherence; the conversational style often includes monologues about topics that bore the listener, fails to provide context for comments, or fails to suppress internal thoughts. Individuals with AS may fail to monitor whether the listener is interested or engaged in the conversation. The speaker's conclusion or point may never be made, and attempts by the listener to elaborate on the speech's content or logic, or to shift to related topics, are often unsuccessful. [3]

Children with AS may have an unusually sophisticated vocabulary at a young age and have been colloquially called "little professors", but have difficulty understanding figurative language and tend to use language literally. Literal and Figurative Languages have been divided into two separate classes by more traditional systems for analyzing Language. [1] Individuals with AS appear to have particular weaknesses in areas of nonliteral language that include humor, irony, and teasing. They usually understand the cognitive basis of humor but may not enjoy it due to lack of understanding of its intent. Humour or humor (see spelling differences) is the tendency of particular cognitive experiences to provoke Laughter and provide Amusement [10]

Other

Individuals with Asperger syndrome may have signs or symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis, but can affect the individual or the family. These include differences in perception and problems with motor skills, sleep, and emotions.

Individuals with AS often have excellent auditory and visual perception. [18] Children with ASD often demonstrate enhanced perception of small changes in patterns such as arrangements of objects or well-known images; typically this is domain-specific and involves processing of fine-grained features. [19] Conversely, compared to individuals with HFA, individuals with AS have deficits in some tasks involving visual-spatial perception, auditory perception, or visual memory. [1] Many accounts of individuals with AS and ASD report other unusual sensory and perceptual skills and experiences. They may be unusually sensitive or insensitive to sound, light, touch, texture, taste, smell, pain, temperature, and other stimuli, and they may exhibit synesthesia, for example, a smell may trigger perception of color;[20] these sensory responses are found in other developmental disorders and are not specific to AS or to ASD. Synesthesia (also spelled synæsthesia or synaesthesia, plural synesthesiae or synaesthesiae)—from the Ancient Greek (syn meaning "with" There is little support for increased fight-or-flight response or failure of habituation in autism; there is more evidence of decreased responsiveness to sensory stimuli, although several studies show no differences. The fight-or-flight response', also called the fright, fight or flight response, hyperarousal or the acute stress response, was first See also Habit (psychology In Psychology, habituation is the psychological process in humans and animals in which there is a decrease in behavioral [21]

Hans Asperger’s initial accounts[1] and other diagnostic schemes[22] include descriptions of motor clumsiness. Motor skills disorder (also known as motor coordination disorder or motor dyspraxia) is a human Developmental disorder that impairs Motor coordination Children with AS may be delayed in acquiring skills requiring motor dexterity, such as riding a bicycle or opening a jar, and may seem to move awkwardly or feel "uncomfortable in their own skin". They may be poorly coordinated, or have an odd or bouncy gait or posture, poor handwriting, or problems with visual-motor integration. [1][3] They may show problems with proprioception (sensation of body position) on measures of apraxia (motor planning disorder), balance, tandem gait, and finger-thumb apposition. Proprioception (ˌproʊpriːəˈsɛpʃən PRO -pree-o-SEP-shun from Latin proprius, meaning "one's own" and perception is the Sense Apraxia is a Neurological disorder characterized by loss of the ability to execute or carry out learned purposeful movements despite having the desire and the physical ability Tandem gait is a Gait (method of walking or running where the toes of the back foot touch the heel of the front foot at each step There is no evidence that these motor skills problems differentiate AS from other high-functioning ASDs. [1]

Children with AS are more likely to have sleep problems, including difficulty in falling asleep, frequent nocturnal awakenings, and early morning awakenings. [23][24] AS is also associated with high levels of alexithymia, which is difficulty in identifying and describing one's emotions. Alexithymia (əˌlɛksəˈθaɪmiə from the Greek words λεξις and θυμος (literally "without words for Emotions " is a term coined by Peter [25] Although AS, lower sleep quality, and alexithymia are associated, their causal relationship is unclear. [24]

Causes

Further information: Causes of autism

Hans Asperger described common symptoms among his patients' family members, especially fathers, and research supports this observation and suggests a genetic contribution to Asperger syndrome. Autism and Autism spectrum disorders are complex Neurodevelopmental disorders Many causes of autism have been proposed but its theory of causation Although no specific gene has yet been identified, multiple factors are believed to play a role in the expression of autism, given the phenotypic variability seen in this group of children. Expressivity is a term used in Genetics that refers to variations of a Phenotype in individuals carrying a particular Genotype. A phenotype is any observable characteristic of an Organism, such as its morphology, Development, biochemical or physiological properties [1][26] Evidence for a genetic link is the tendency for AS to run in families and an observed higher incidence of family members who have behavioral symptoms similar to AS but in a more limited form (for example, slight difficulties with social interaction, language, or reading). Incidence is a measure of the risk of developing some new condition within a specified period of time [4] Most research suggests that all autism spectrum disorders have shared genetic mechanisms, but AS may have a stronger genetic component than autism. [1] There is probably a common group of genes where particular alleles render an individual vulnerable to developing AS; if this is the case, the particular combination of alleles would determine the severity and symptoms for each individual with AS. An allele (ˈæliːl (UK /əˈliːl/ (US (from the Greek αλληλος allelos, meaning each other) is one member of a pair or series of different forms [4]

A few ASD cases have been linked to exposure to teratogens (agents that cause birth defects) during the first eight weeks from conception. Teratology stems from the Greek ( Genitive) meaning monster, or marvel and, meaning word, speech. A congenital disorder is a disease or disorder that is present at birth Human fertilization is the union of a human egg and sperm, usually occurring in the Ampulla of the fallopian tube. Although this does not exclude the possibility that ASD can be initiated or affected later, it is strong evidence that it arises very early in development. [27] Many environmental factors have been hypothesized to act after birth, but none has been confirmed by scientific investigation. [28]

Mechanism

Further information: Mechanism of autism

Asperger syndrome appears to result from developmental factors that affect many or all functional brain systems, as opposed to localized effects. Language development. The terminology [29] Although the specific underpinnings of AS or factors that distinguish it from other ASDs are unknown, and no clear pathology common to individuals with AS has emerged,[1] it is still possible that AS's mechanism is separate from other ASD. [30] Neuroanatomical studies and the associations with teratogens strongly suggest that the mechanism includes alteration of brain development soon after conception. Neuroanatomy is the science for localizing function in the Human brain. Teratology stems from the Greek ( Genitive) meaning monster, or marvel and, meaning word, speech. [27] Abnormal migration of embryonic cells during fetal development may affect the final structure and connectivity of the brain, resulting in alterations in the neural circuits that control thought and behavior. [31] Several theories of mechanism are available; none are likely to be complete explanations. [32]

Functional magnetic resonance imaging provides some evidence for both underconnectivity and mirror neuron theories.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging provides some evidence for both underconnectivity and mirror neuron theories. Functional MRI or functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI is a type of specialized MRI scan [33][34]

The underconnectivity theory hypothesizes underfunctioning high-level neural connections and synchronization, along with an excess of low-level processes. [33] It maps well to general-processing theories such as weak central coherence theory, which hypothesizes that a limited ability to see the big picture underlies the central disturbance in ASD. The weak central coherence theory (WCC also called the Central coherence theory (CC suggests that a specific perceptual - cognitive style loosely described [35] A related theory—enhanced perceptual functioning—focuses more on the superiority of locally oriented and perceptual operations in autistic individuals. In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. [36]

The mirror neuron system (MNS) theory hypothesizes that alterations to the development of the MNS interfere with imitation and lead to Asperger's core feature of social impairment. A mirror neuron is a Neuron which fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another (especially Conspecific [34][37] For example, one study found that activation is delayed in the core circuit for imitation in individuals with AS. [38] This theory maps well to social cognition theories like the theory of mind, which hypothesizes that autistic behavior arises from impairments in ascribing mental states to oneself and others,[39] or hyper-systemizing, which hypothesizes that autistic individuals can systematize internal operation to handle internal events but are less effective at empathizing by handling events generated by other agents. " Theory of mind " is the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs intents desires pretending knowledge etc EQ SQ theory is a theory or model of intelligence that seeks to classify people on the basis of their skills in two factors of Empathizing and systematizing and to measure these Empathy is the capacity to recognize or understand another's state of mind or Emotion. [40]

Other possible mechanisms include serotonin dysfunction[41] and cerebellar dysfunction. Serotonin (ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən ( 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a Monoamine Neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic Neurons The cerebellum ( Latin: "little brain" is a region of the Brain that plays an important role in the integration of sensory perception [42]

Screening

Parents of children with Asperger syndrome can typically trace differences in their children's development to as early as 30 months of age. [26] Developmental screening during a routine check-up by a general practitioner or pediatrician may identify signs that warrant further investigation. [1][4] The diagnosis of AS is complicated by the use of several different screening instruments. [4][22] None have been shown to reliably differentiate between AS and other ASDs. The current "gold standard" in diagnosing ASDs uses the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R)—a semistructured parent interview—and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS)—a conversation and play-based interview with the child. The Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R is structured interview conducted with the parents of individuals who have been referred for the evaluation of possible Autism The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS is a standardized protocol created in 1989 for assessing social and communicative behavior associated with Autism [1]

Diagnosis

Main article: Diagnosis of Asperger syndrome

Standard diagnostic criteria require impairment in social interaction, and repetitive and stereotyped behaviors and interests, without significant delay in language or cognitive development. Several factors complicate the diagnosis of Asperger syndrome (AS an Autism spectrum disorder (ASD Unlike the international standard,[6] U. S. criteria also require significant impairment in day-to-day functioning. [13] Other sets of diagnostic criteria have been proposed by Szatmari et al.[43] and by Gillberg and Gillberg. Peter Szatmari (born 1950 is a Canadian researcher of Autism and Asperger syndrome. [44]

Diagnosis is most commonly made between the ages of four and eleven. [1] A comprehensive assessment involves a multidisciplinary team[2][4][45] that observes across multiple settings,[1] and includes neurological and genetic assessment as well as tests for cognition, psychomotor function, verbal and nonverbal strengths and weaknesses, style of learning, and skills for independent living. [4] Delayed or mistaken diagnosis can be traumatic for individuals and families; for example, misdiagnosis can lead to medications that worsen behavior. [45] Many children with AS are initially misdiagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD is a neurobehavioral developmental disorder affecting about 3-5% of the world's population [1] Diagnosing adults is more challenging, as standard diagnostic criteria are designed for children and the expression of AS changes with age. [46] Conditions that must be considered in a differential diagnosis include other ASDs, the schizophrenia spectrum, ADHD, obsessive compulsive disorder, depression, semantic pragmatic disorder, nonverbal learning disorder,[45] Tourette syndrome,[17] stereotypic movement disorder and bipolar disorder. A differential diagnosis (sometimes abbreviated DDx, ddx Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD is a Chronic Anxiety disorder most commonly characterized by obsessive Distressing Intrusive thoughts Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression Semantic-Pragmatic Disorder ( SPD) or pragmatic language impairment ( PLI) is a developmental disorder that many experts believe is closely related to Nonverbal Learning Disorder (NLD (also known as NVLD) is a developmental or Learning disorder with manifestations in the following domains Tourette syndrome (also called Tourette's syndrome, Tourette's disorder, Gilles de la Tourette syndrome, GTS or more commonly simply Tourette's Stereotypic movement disorder is a disorder of childhood involving repetitive nonfunctional motor behavior (e [26]

Underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis are problems in marginal cases. The cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis. Conversely, the increasing popularity of drug treatment options and the expansion of benefits has motivated providers to overdiagnose ASD. [47] There are indications AS has been diagnosed more frequently in recent years, partly as a residual diagnosis for children of normal intelligence who do not have autism but have social difficulties. There are questions about the external validity of the AS diagnosis, that is, it is unclear whether there is a practical benefit in distinguishing AS from HFA and from PDD-NOS;[48] the same child can receive different diagnoses depending on the screening tool. [4]

Treatment

Further information: Autism therapies

Asperger syndrome treatment attempts to manage distressing symptoms and to teach age-appropriate social, communication and vocational skills that are not naturally acquired during development,[1] with intervention tailored to the needs of the individual child, based on multidisciplinary assessment. Many medications are used to treat problems associated with ASD [49] Although progress has been made, data supporting the efficacy of particular interventions are limited. [1][50]

The ideal treatment for AS coordinates therapies that address core symptoms of the disorder, including poor communication skills and obsessive or repetitive routines. While most professionals agree that the earlier the intervention, the better, there is no single best treatment package. [4] AS treatment resembles that of other high-functioning ASDs, except that it takes into account the linguistic capabilities, verbal strengths, and nonverbal vulnerabilities of individuals with AS. [1] A typical treatment program generally includes:[4]

Of the many studies on behavior-based early intervention programs, most are case studies of up to five participants, and typically examine a few problem behaviors such as self-injury, aggression, noncompliance, stereotypies, or spontaneous language; unintended side effects are largely ignored. Self-injury ( SI) or self-harm ( SH) is deliberate Injury inflicted by a person upon their own body without suicidal intent In Psychology and other social and Behavioral sciences aggression refers to behavior that is intended to cause harm A stereotypy (ˈstɛriəˌtаɪpi (plural stereotypies) is a repetitive or ritualistic movement posture or utterance found in patients with Mental retardation, In Medicine, an adverse effect is a harmful and undesired effect resulting from a medication or other intervention such as Chemotherapy or Surgery. [55] Despite the popularity of social skills training, its effectiveness is not firmly established. [56] A randomized controlled study of a model for training parents in problem behaviors in their children with AS showed that parents attending a one-day workshop or six individual lessons reported fewer behavioral problems, while parents receiving the individual lessons reported less intense behavioral problems in their AS children. [57] Vocational training is important to teach job interview etiquette and workplace behavior to older children and adults with AS, and organization software and personal data assistants to improve the work and life management of people with AS are useful. [1]

No medications directly treat the core symptoms of AS. [53] Although research into the efficacy of pharmaceutical intervention for AS is limited,[1] it is essential to diagnose and treat comorbid conditions. In Medicine, comorbidity (literally "additional Morbidity " is either * The presence of one or more disorders (or diseases in addition to [2] Deficits in self-identifying emotions or in observing effects of one's behavior on others can make it difficult for individuals with AS to see why medication may be appropriate. [53] Medication can be effective in combination with behavioral interventions and environmental accommodations in treating comorbid symptoms such as anxiety, depression, inattention and aggression. Anxiety is a physiological and psychological state characterized by Cognitive, Somatic, Emotional and Behavioral components Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression [1] The atypical neuroleptic medications risperidone and olanzapine have been shown to reduce the associated symptoms of AS;[1] risperidone can reduce repetitive and self-injurious behaviors, aggressive outbursts and impulsivity, and improve stereotypical patterns of behavior and social relatedness. The atypical antipsychotics (also known as second generation antipsychotics) are a group of Antipsychotic drugs used to treat psychiatric conditions Risperidone (pronounced Ris-PER-ǐ-dōn and sold under the trade name Risperdal in the Netherlands, United States, Canada, the Olanzapine ( Zyprexa, Zyprexa Zydis, Zalasta, Zolafren, Olzapin, or in combination with Fluoxetine Symbyax) is The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) fluoxetine, fluvoxamine and sertraline have been effective in treating restricted and repetitive interests and behaviors. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ( SSRIs) are a class of Antidepressants used in the treatment of depression, Anxiety disorders Fluvoxamine ( Luvox) is an Antidepressant which functions as a Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. [1][2][26]

Care must be taken with medications; abnormalities in metabolism, cardiac conduction times, and an increased risk of type 2 diabetes have been raised as concerns with these medications,[58][59] along with serious long-term neurological side effects. Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. The normal electrical conduction in the heart allows the impulse that is generated by the Sinoatrial node (SA node of the Heart to be propagated to (and stimulate the Diabetes mellitus type 2 or Type 2 Diabetes (formerly called non - Insulin -dependent Diabetes mellitus (NIDDM or adult-onset diabetes is a metabolic [55] SSRIs can lead to manifestations of behavioral activation such as increased impulsivity, aggression and sleep disturbance. [26] Weight gain and fatigue are commonly reported side effects of risperidone, which may also lead to increased risk for extrapyramidal symptoms such as restlessness and dystonia[26] and increased serum prolactin levels. In Human anatomy, the extrapyramidal system is a Neural network located in the brain that is part of the Motor system involved in the coordination Dystonia is a neurological Movement disorder in which sustained muscle contractions cause twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal postures Prolactin ( PRL) or Luteotropic hormone ( LTH) is a Peptide hormone primarily associated with Lactation. [60] Sedation and weight gain are more common with olanzapine,[59] which has also been linked with diabetes. [58] Sedative side-effects in school-age children[61] have ramifications for classroom learning. Individuals with AS may be unable to identify and communicate their internal moods and emotions or to tolerate side effects that for most people would not be problematic. [62]

Prognosis

As of 2006, no studies addressing the long-term outcome of individuals with Asperger syndrome are available and there are no systematic long-term follow-up studies of children with AS. [3] Individuals with AS appear to have normal life expectancy but have an increased prevalence of comorbid psychiatric conditions such as depression and anxiety that may significantly affect prognosis. Life expectancy is the average number of years of life remaining at a given age In Epidemiology, the prevalence of a Disease in a Statistical population is defined as the total number of cases of the disease in the population at a given In Medicine, comorbidity (literally "additional Morbidity " is either * The presence of one or more disorders (or diseases in addition to Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression Anxiety disorder is a blanket term covering several different forms of abnormal pathological anxieties Fears and Phobias In clinical usage "fear" Prognosis (older Greek πρόγνωσις modern Greek πρόγνωση - literally fore-knowing foreseeing) is a medical term denoting the Although social impairment is lifelong, outcome is generally more positive than with individuals with lower functioning autism spectrum disorders;[1] for example, ASD symptoms are more likely to diminish with time in children with AS or HFA. [63] Although most students with AS/HFA have average mathematical ability and test slightly worse in mathematics than in general intelligence, some are gifted in mathematics[64] and AS has not prevented some adults from major accomplishments such as winning the Nobel Prize. The Nobel Prize (Nobelpriset (Nobelprisen is a Swedish prize established in the 1895 will of Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel; it was first awarded in Peace, Literature [65]

Children with AS may require special education services because of their social and behavioral difficulties although many attend regular education classes. Special Education is the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures adapted equipment and materials accessible settings and other interventions [3] Adolescents with AS may exhibit ongoing difficulty with self-care, organization and disturbances in social and romantic relationships; despite high cognitive potential, most remain at home, although some do marry and work independently. [1] The "different-ness" adolescents experience can be traumatic. [66] Anxiety may stem from preoccupation over possible violations of routines and rituals, from being placed in a situation without a clear schedule or expectations, or from concern with failing in social encounters;[1] the resulting stress may manifest as inattention, withdrawal, reliance on obsessions, hyperactivity, or aggressive or oppositional behavior. Social Phobia Social anxiety is a term used to describe an experience of Anxiety ( Emotional discomfort Fear, apprehension or Worry [52] Depression is often the result of chronic frustration from repeated failure to engage others socially, and mood disorders requiring treatment may develop. [1]

Education of families is critical in developing strategies for understanding strengths and weaknesses;[2] helping the family to cope improves outcome in children. [15] Prognosis may be improved by diagnosis at a younger age that allows for early interventions, while interventions in adulthood are valuable but less beneficial. [2] There are legal implications for individuals with AS as they run the risk of exploitation by others and may be unable to comprehend the societal implications of their actions. [2]

Epidemiology

Further information: Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders

Prevalence estimates vary enormously. There are many conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders, such as Fragile X syndrome and Epilepsy. In Epidemiology, the prevalence of a Disease in a Statistical population is defined as the total number of cases of the disease in the population at a given A 2003 review of epidemiological studies of children found prevalence rates ranging from 0. An Epidemiological study is a statistical study on human populations which attempts to link human health effects to a specified cause In Epidemiology, the prevalence of a Disease in a Statistical population is defined as the total number of cases of the disease in the population at a given 03 to 4. 84 per 1,000, with the ratio of autism to Asperger syndrome ranging from 1. 5:1 to 16:1;[67] combining the average ratio of 5:1 with a conservative prevalence estimate for autism of 1. 3 per 1,000 suggests indirectly that the prevalence of AS might be around 0. 26 per 1,000. [68] Part of the variance in estimates arises from differences in diagnostic criteria. Several factors complicate the diagnosis of Asperger syndrome (AS an Autism spectrum disorder (ASD For example, a relatively small 2007 study of 5,484 eight-year-old children in Finland found 2. 9 children per 1,000 met the ICD-10 criteria for an AS diagnosis, 2. 7 per 1,000 for Gillberg and Gillberg criteria, 2. 5 for DSM-IV, 1. 6 for Szatmari et al. , and 4. 3 per 1,000 for the union of the four criteria. Boys seem to be at higher risk for AS than girls; estimates of the sex ratio range from 1. 6:1 to 4:1, using the Gillberg and Gillberg criteria. [69]

Anxiety and depression are the most common other conditions seen at the same time; comorbidity of these in persons with AS is estimated at 65%. Anxiety is a physiological and psychological state characterized by Cognitive, Somatic, Emotional and Behavioral components Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression In Medicine, comorbidity (literally "additional Morbidity " is either * The presence of one or more disorders (or diseases in addition to [1] Depression is common in adolescents and adults; children are likely to present with ADHD. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD is a neurobehavioral developmental disorder affecting about 3-5% of the world's population [70] Reports have associated AS with medical conditions such as aminoaciduria and ligamentous laxity, but these have been case reports or small studies and no factors have been associated with AS across studies. Aminoaciduria is the presence of Amino acids in the Urine. Small amounts of amino acids are also present in normal urine Ligamentous laxity is a term given to describe "loose Ligaments. [1] One study of males with AS found an increased rate of epilepsy and a high rate (51%) of nonverbal learning disorder. Epilepsy is a common chronic Neurological disorder that is characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. Nonverbal Learning Disorder (NLD (also known as NVLD) is a developmental or Learning disorder with manifestations in the following domains [71] AS is associated with tics, Tourette syndrome, and bipolar disorder, and the repetitive behaviors of AS have many similarities with the symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. A tic is a sudden repetitive nonrhythmic stereotyped motor movement or vocalization involving discrete muscle groups Tourette syndrome (also called Tourette's syndrome, Tourette's disorder, Gilles de la Tourette syndrome, GTS or more commonly simply Tourette's Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD is a Chronic Anxiety disorder most commonly characterized by obsessive Distressing Intrusive thoughts [72]

History

Main article: History of Asperger syndrome

Named after the Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger (1906–80), Asperger syndrome is a relatively new diagnosis in the field of autism. The history of Asperger syndrome (AS an Autism spectrum disorder (ASD is brief Asperger syndrome is a relatively new diagnosis in the field of Autism Hans Asperger ( February 18 1906 – October 21 1980) was the Austrian Pediatrician after whom Asperger syndrome [73] In 1944, Asperger described four children in his practice[2] who had difficulty in integrating themselves socially. The children lacked nonverbal communication skills, failed to demonstrate empathy with their peers, and were physically clumsy. Asperger called the condition "autistic psychopathy" and described it as primarily marked by social isolation. Social isolation can contribute toward many emotional behavioural and physical disorders including anxiety panic attacks eating disorders addictions substance abuse violent behaviour [4] Unlike today's AS, autistic psychopathy could be found in people of all levels of intelligence, including those with mental retardation. [74] He called his young patients "little professors",[75] and believed some would be capable of exceptional achievement and original thought later in life. [2] His paper was published during wartime and in German, so it was not widely read elsewhere.

Lorna Wing popularized the term Asperger syndrome in the English-speaking medical community in her 1981 publication[76] of a series of case studies of children showing similar symptoms,[73] and Uta Frith translated Asperger's paper to English in 1991. Lorna Wing, MD FRCPsych (b October 7, 1928) is an English Psychiatrist and Physician. Uta Frith FRS (b May 25 1941 is a leading Developmental psychologist working at the Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience at University College London [75] Sets of diagnostic criteria were outlined by Gillberg and Gillberg in 1989 and by Szatmari et al. in the same year. [69] AS became a standard diagnosis in 1992, when it was included in the tenth edition of the World Health Organization’s diagnostic manual, International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10); in 1994, it was added to the fourth edition of the American Psychiatric Association's diagnostic reference, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision ( ICD -10) is a coding of diseases and signs symptoms abnormal findings The American Psychiatric Association (APA is the main Professional organization of Psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders' ( DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association [4]

Hundreds of books, articles and websites now describe AS, and prevalence estimates have increased dramatically for ASD, with AS recognized as an important subgroup. [73] Whether it should be seen as distinct from high-functioning autism is a fundamental issue requiring further study. [2] There is little consensus among clinical researchers about the use of the term Asperger's syndrome, and there are questions about the empirical validation of the DSM-IV and ICD-10 criteria. [3]

Cultural aspects

Further information: Sociological and cultural aspects of autism

People with Asperger syndrome may refer to themselves in casual conversation as aspies, coined by Liane Holliday Willey in 1999. Sociological and cultural aspects of autism come into play with recognition of autism and approaches to educating and socializing autistics Liane Holliday Willey, EdD (born 1959, cousin of Nadja Swift RN is a popular keynote speaker and Best-selling American author [77] The word neurotypical (abbreviated NT) describes a person whose neurological development and state are typical, and is often used to refer to non-autistic people. Neurotypical (or NT) people have Neurological development and state that are consistent with what most people would perceive as normal in their ability The Internet has allowed individuals with AS to communicate and celebrate with each other in a way that was not previously possible due to their rarity and geographic dispersal. The Internet is a global system of interconnected Computer networks Autistic Pride Day is a celebration of the Neurodiversity of people on the Autism spectrum on June 18 each year A subculture of aspies has formed. Sociological and cultural aspects of autism come into play with recognition of autism and approaches to educating and socializing autistics Internet sites like Wrong Planet have made it easier for individuals to connect. Wrong Planet (sometimes referred to by its URL, WrongPlanetnet is an online community for individuals with Autism and Asperger syndrome. [78]

Autistic people have contributed to a shift in perception of autism spectrum disorders as complex syndromes rather than diseases that must be cured. In Medicine and Psychology, the term syndrome refers to the association of several clinically recognizable features signs (observed by a physician Proponents of this view reject the notion that there is an "ideal" brain configuration and that any deviation from the norm is pathological; they promote tolerance for what they call neurodiversity. Pathology; please do not remove --> ( Neurodiversity is an idea that asserts that atypical (neurodivergent neurological development is a normal human difference that is to be tolerated and respected as any other [79] These views are the basis for the autistic rights and autistic pride movements. The autism rights movement ( ARM) is a Social movement that encourages autistic people their caregivers and society to adopt a position of Neurodiversity Sociological and cultural aspects of autism come into play with recognition of autism and approaches to educating and socializing autistics [80]

Simon Baron-Cohen has argued that AS and high-functioning autism are different cognitive styles, not disabilities, and that a diagnosis of AS/HFA should not be received as a family tragedy, but as interesting information, such as learning that a child is left-handed. Simon Baron-Cohen is a professor of Developmental psychopathology in the departments of Psychiatry and Experimental psychology, a Fellow of Trinity According to Baron-Cohen, "people with AS/HFA might not necessarily be disabled in an environment in which an exact mind, attracted to detecting small details, is an advantage. "[5] Tony Attwood argues, "the unusual profile of abilities that we define as Asperger's syndrome has probably been an important and valuable characteristic of our species throughout evolution. Dr Tony Attwood (born Feb 9 1952 in Birmingham, England is an English Psychologist who lives in Queensland, Australia, and author "[81]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak McPartland J, Klin A (2006). "Asperger's syndrome". Adolesc Med Clin 17 (3): 771–88. doi:10.1016/j.admecli.2006.06.010. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17030291.  
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Baskin JH, Sperber M, Price BH (2006). "Asperger syndrome revisited". Rev Neurol Dis 3 (1): 1–7. PMID 16596080.  
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Klin A (2006). "Autism and Asperger syndrome: an overview". Rev Bras Psiquiatr 28 (suppl 1): S3–S11. doi:10.1590/S1516-44462006000500002. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16791390.  
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) (2007-07-31). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 30 BC - Battle of Alexandria: Mark Antony achieves a minor victory over Octavian 's forces but most of his army subsequently Asperger syndrome fact sheet. Retrieved on 2007-08-24. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar 's General Gaius Scribonius Curio is defeated in the Second Battle of the Bagradas River NIH Publication No. 05-5624.
  5. ^ a b Baron-Cohen S (2000). "Is Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism necessarily a disability?". Dev Psychopathol 12 (3): 489–500. doi:10.1017/S0954579400003126. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 11014749.  
  6. ^ a b World Health Organization (2006). "F84. Pervasive developmental disorders", International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th ed. (ICD-10). The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision ( ICD -10) is a coding of diseases and signs symptoms abnormal findings Retrieved on 2007-06-25. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 524 - Battle of Vézeronce, the Franks defeat the Burgundians  
  7. ^ Piven J, Palmer P, Jacobi D, Childress D, Arndt S (1997). "Broader autism phenotype: evidence from a family history study of multiple-incidence autism families" (PDF). Am J Psychiatry 154 (2): 185–90. PMID 9016266.  
  8. ^ Lord C, Cook EH, Leventhal BL, Amaral DG (2000). David G Amaral, PhD is a professor of Psychiatry at the University of California Davis, and since 1998 has been the research director at the M "Autism spectrum disorders". Neuron 28 (2): 355–63. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(00)00115-X. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 11144346.  
  9. ^ Witwer AN, Lecavalier L (2008). "Examining the validity of autism spectrum disorder subtypes". J Autism Dev Disord. doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0541-2. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 18327636.  
  10. ^ a b Kasari C, Rotheram-Fuller E (2005). "Current trends in psychological research on children with high-functioning autism and Asperger disorder". Curr Opin Psychiatry 18 (5): 497–501. doi:10.1097/01.yco.0000179486.47144.61. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16639107.  
  11. ^ Witwer AN, Lecavalier L (2008). "Examining the validity of autism spectrum disorder subtypes". J Autism Dev Disord. doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0541-2. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 18327636.  
  12. ^ Szatmari P (2000). Peter Szatmari (born 1950 is a Canadian researcher of Autism and Asperger syndrome. "The classification of autism, Asperger's syndrome, and pervasive developmental disorder". Can J Psychiatry 45 (8): 731–38. PMID 11086556.  
  13. ^ a b c d American Psychiatric Association (2000). The American Psychiatric Association (APA is the main Professional organization of Psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the "Diagnostic criteria for 299.80 Asperger's Disorder (AD)", Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. , text revision (DSM-IV-TR). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders' ( DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association ISBN 0-89042-025-4. Retrieved on 2007-06-28. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul.  
  14. ^ Allen D, Evans C, Hider A, Hawkins S, Peckett H, Morgan H (2008). "Offending behaviour in adults with Asperger syndrome". J Autism Dev Disord 38 (4): 748–58. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0442-9. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17805955.  
  15. ^ a b Tsatsanis KD (2003). "Outcome research in Asperger syndrome and autism". Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 12 (1): 47–63. doi:10.1016/S1056-4993(02)00056-1. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 12512398.  
  16. ^ South M, Ozonoff S, McMahon WM (2005). "Repetitive behavior profiles in Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism". J Autism Dev Disord 35 (2): 145–58. doi:10.1007/s10803-004-1992-8. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 15909401.  
  17. ^ a b Rapin I (2001). "Autism spectrum disorders: relevance to Tourette syndrome". Adv Neurol 85: 89–101. PMID 11530449.  
  18. ^ Frith U (2004). "Emanuel Miller lecture: confusions and controversies about Asperger syndrome". J Child Psychol Psychiatry 45 (4): 672–86. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00262.x. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 15056300.  
  19. ^ Prior M, Ozonoff S (2007). "Psychological factors in autism", in Volkmar FR: Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders, 2nd ed, Cambridge University Press, 69–128. ISBN 0-521-54957-4.  
  20. ^ Bogdashina O (2003). Sensory Perceptional Issues in Autism and Asperger Syndrome: Different Sensory Experiences, Different Perceptual Worlds. Jessica Kingsley. ISBN 1-843101-66-1.  
  21. ^ Rogers SJ, Ozonoff S (2005). "Annotation: what do we know about sensory dysfunction in autism? A critical review of the empirical evidence". J Child Psychol Psychiatry 46 (12): 1255–68. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01431.x. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16313426.  
  22. ^ a b Ehlers S, Gillberg C (1993). "The epidemiology of Asperger's syndrome. A total population study". J Child Psychol Psychiat 34 (8): 1327–50. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1993.tb02094.x. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 8294522.  
  23. ^ Polimeni MA, Richdale AL, Francis AJ (2005). "A survey of sleep problems in autism, Asperger's disorder and typically developing children". J Intellect Disabil Res 49 (4): 260–8. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2005.00642.x. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 15816813.  
  24. ^ a b Tani P, Lindberg N, Joukamaa M et al. (2004). "Asperger syndrome, alexithymia and perception of sleep". Neuropsychobiology 49 (2): 64–70. doi:10.1159/000076412. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 14981336.  
  25. ^ Alexithymia and AS:
  26. ^ a b c d e f Foster B, King BH (2003). "Asperger syndrome: to be or not to be?". Curr Opin Pediatr 15 (5): 491–4. doi:10.1097/00008480-200310000-00008. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 14508298.  
  27. ^ a b Arndt TL, Stodgell CJ, Rodier PM (2005). "The teratology of autism". Int J Dev Neurosci 23 (2–3): 189–99. doi:10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2004.11.001. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 15749245.  
  28. ^ Rutter M (2005). For the motorcycle racer see Michael Rutter (motorcycle racer Professor Sir Michael Rutter (born 1933 is the first consultant of child psychiatry in the "Incidence of autism spectrum disorders: changes over time and their meaning". Acta Paediatr 94 (1): 2–15. PMID 15858952.  
  29. ^ Müller RA (2007). "The study of autism as a distributed disorder". Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 13 (1): 85–95. doi:10.1002/mrdd.20141. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17326118.  
  30. ^ Rinehart NJ, Bradshaw JL, Brereton AV, Tonge BJ (2002). "A clinical and neurobehavioural review of high-functioning autism and Asperger's disorder". Aust N Z J Psychiatry 36 (6): 762–70. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1614.2002.01097.x. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 12406118.  
  31. ^ Berthier ML, Starkstein SE, Leiguarda R (1990). "Developmental cortical anomalies in Asperger's syndrome: neuroradiological findings in two patients". J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2 (2): 197–201. PMID 2136076.  
  32. ^ Happé F, Ronald A, Plomin R (2006). "Time to give up on a single explanation for autism". Nat Neurosci 9 (10): 1218–20. doi:10.1038/nn1770. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17001340.  
  33. ^ a b Just MA, Cherkassky VL, Keller TA, Kana RK, Minshew NJ (2007). "Functional and anatomical cortical underconnectivity in autism: evidence from an FMRI study of an executive function task and corpus callosum morphometry". Cereb Cortex 17 (4): 951-61. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhl006. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16772313.  
  34. ^ a b Iacoboni M, Dapretto M (2006). "The mirror neuron system and the consequences of its dysfunction". Nat Rev Neurosci 7 (12): 942–51. doi:10.1038/nrn2024. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17115076.  
  35. ^ Happé F, Frith U (2006). Uta Frith FRS (b May 25 1941 is a leading Developmental psychologist working at the Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience at University College London "The weak coherence account: detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders". J Autism Dev Disord 36 (1): 5–25. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-0039-0. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16450045.  
  36. ^ Mottron L, Dawson M, Soulières I, Hubert B, Burack J (2006). Michelle Dawson (born 1961 is an autistic person and an autism researcher "Enhanced perceptual functioning in autism: an update, and eight principles of autistic perception". J Autism Dev Disord 36 (1): 27–43. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-0040-7. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16453071.  
  37. ^ Ramachandran VS, Oberman LM (2006). Vilayanur S "Rama" Ramachandran is a neurologist best known for his work in the fields of Behavioral neurology and Psychophysics. "Broken mirrors: a theory of autism" (PDF). Sci Am 295 (5): 62–9. PMID 17076085.  
  38. ^ Nishitani N, Avikainen S, Hari R (2004). "Abnormal imitation-related cortical activation sequences in Asperger's syndrome". Ann Neurol 55 (4): 558–62. doi:10.1002/ana.20031. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 15048895.  
  39. ^ Baron-Cohen S, Leslie AM, Frith U (1985). "Does the autistic child have a 'theory of mind'?" (PDF). Cognition 21 (1): 37–46. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 2934210.  
  40. ^ Baron-Cohen S (2006). Simon Baron-Cohen is a professor of Developmental psychopathology in the departments of Psychiatry and Experimental psychology, a Fellow of Trinity "The hyper-systemizing, assortative mating theory of autism". Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 30 (5): 865–72. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.01.010. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16519981.  
  41. ^ Murphy DG, Daly E, Schmitz N et al. (2006). "Cortical serotonin 5-HT2A receptor binding and social communication in adults with Asperger's syndrome: an in vivo SPECT study". Am J Psychiatry 163 (5): 934–6. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.5.934. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16648340.  
  42. ^ Gowen E, Miall RC (2005). "Behavioural aspects of cerebellar function in adults with Asperger syndrome". Cerebellum 4 (4): 279–89. doi:10.1080/14734220500355332. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16321884.  
  43. ^ Szatmari P, Bremner R, Nagy J (1989). "Asperger's syndrome: a review of clinical features". Can J Psychiatry 34 (6): 554–60. PMID 2766209.  
  44. ^ Gillberg IC, Gillberg C (1989). "Asperger syndrome—some epidemiological considerations: a research note". J Child Psychol Psychiatry 30 (4): 631–8. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1989.tb00275.x. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 2670981.  
  45. ^ a b c Fitzgerald M, Corvin A (2001). "Diagnosis and differential diagnosis of Asperger syndrome". Adv Psychiatric Treat 7 (4): 310–8. doi:10.1192/apt.7.4.310. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
  46. ^ Tantam D (2003). "The challenge of adolescents and adults with Asperger syndrome". Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 12 (1): 143–63. doi:10.1016/S1056-4993(02)00053-6. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 12512403.  
  47. ^ Shattuck PT, Grosse SD (2007). "Issues related to the diagnosis and treatment of autism spectrum disorders". Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 13 (2): 129–35. doi:10.1002/mrdd.20143. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17563895.  
  48. ^ Klin A, Volkmar FR (2003). "Asperger syndrome: diagnosis and external validity". Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 12 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1016/S1056-4993(02)00052-4. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 12512395.  
  49. ^ Khouzam HR, El-Gabalawi F, Pirwani N, Priest F (2004). "Asperger's disorder: a review of its diagnosis and treatment". Compr Psychiatry 45 (3): 184–91. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2004.02.004. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 15124148.  
  50. ^ Attwood T (2003). "Frameworks for behavioral interventions". Child Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 12 (1): 65–86. PMID 12512399.  
  51. ^ Krasny L, Williams BJ, Provencal S, Ozonoff S (2003). "Social skills interventions for the autism spectrum: essential ingredients and a model curriculum". Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 12 (1): 107–22. doi:10.1016/S1056-4993(02)00051-2. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 12512401.  
  52. ^ a b Myles BS (2003). "Behavioral forms of stress management for individuals with Asperger syndrome". Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 12 (1): 123–41. doi:10.1016/S1056-4993(02)00048-2. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 12512402.  
  53. ^ a b c Towbin KE (2003). "Strategies for pharmacologic treatment of high functioning autism and Asperger syndrome". Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 12 (1): 23–45. doi:10.1016/S1056-4993(02)00049-4. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 12512397.  
  54. ^ Paul R (2003). "Promoting social communication in high functioning individuals with autistic spectrum disorders". Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 12 (1): 87–106. doi:10.1016/S1056-4993(02)00047-0. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 12512400.  
  55. ^ a b Matson JL (2007). "Determining treatment outcome in early intervention programs for autism spectrum disorders: a critical analysis of measurement issues in learning based interventions". Res Dev Disabil 28 (2): 207–18. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2005.07.006. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16682171.  
  56. ^ Rao PA, Beidel DC, Murray MJ (2008). "Social skills interventions for children with Asperger's syndrome or high-functioning autism: a review and recommendations". J Autism Dev Disord 38 (2): 353–61. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0402-4. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17641962.  
  57. ^ Sofronoff K, Leslie A, Brown W (2004). "Parent management training and Asperger syndrome: a randomized controlled trial to evaluate a parent based intervention". Autism 8 (3): 301-17. doi:10.1177/1362361304045215. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 15358872.  
  58. ^ a b Newcomer JW (2007). "Antipsychotic medications: metabolic and cardiovascular risk". J Clin Psychiatry 68 (suppl 4): 8–13. PMID 17539694.  
  59. ^ a b Chavez B, Chavez-Brown M, Sopko MA, Rey JA (2007). "Atypical antipsychotics in children with pervasive developmental disorders". Pediatr Drugs 9 (4): 249–66. PMID 17705564.  
  60. ^ Staller J (2006). "The effect of long-term antipsychotic treatment on prolactin". J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 16 (3): 317–26. doi:10.1089/cap.2006.16.317. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16768639.  
  61. ^ Stachnik JM, Nunn-Thompson C (2007). "Use of atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of autistic disorder". Ann Pharmacother 41 (4): 626–34. doi:10.1345/aph.1H527. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17389666.  
  62. ^ Blacher J, Kraemer B, Schalow M (2003). "Asperger syndrome and high functioning autism: research concerns and emerging foci". Curr Opin Psychiatry 16 (5): 535–542. doi:10.1097/01.yco.0000087260.35258.64. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
  63. ^ Coplan J, Jawad AF (2005). "Modeling clinical outcome of children with autistic spectrum disorders". Pediatrics 116 (1): 117–22. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-1118. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 15995041. Lay summary – press release (2005-07-05). Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1295 - Scotland and France form an alliance the beginnings of the Auld Alliance, against England.  
  64. ^ Chiang HM, Lin YH (2007). "Mathematical ability of students with Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism". Autism 11 (6): 547–56. doi:10.1177/1362361307083259. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17947290.  
  65. ^ Herera S. "Mild autism has 'selective advantages'", CNBC, 2005-02-25. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 138 - The Emperor Hadrian adopts Antoninus Pius, effectively making him his successor Retrieved on 2007-11-14. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1533 - Conquistadors from Spain under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro arrive in Cajamarca, Inca  
  66. ^ Moran M (2006). "Asperger's may be answer to diagnostic mysteries". Psychiatr News 41 (19): 21.  
  67. ^ Fombonne E, Tidmarsh L (2003). "Epidemiologic data on Asperger disorder". Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 12 (1): 15–21. doi:10.1016/S1056-4993(02)00050-0. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 12512396.  
  68. ^ Fombonne E (2007). Eric Fombonne, MD FRCP (b 1954 Paris, France) is a professor of Psychiatry and an Epidemiologist. "Epidemiological surveys of pervasive developmental disorders", in Volkmar FR: Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders, 2nd ed, Cambridge University Press, 33–68. ISBN 0-521-54957-4.  
  69. ^ a b Mattila ML, Kielinen M, Jussila K et al. (2007). "An epidemiological and diagnostic study of Asperger syndrome according to four sets of diagnostic criteria". J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 46 (5): 636–46. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e318033ff42. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17450055.  
  70. ^ Ghaziuddin M, Weidmer-Mikhail E, Ghaziuddin N (1998). "Comorbidity of Asperger syndrome: a preliminary report". J Intellect Disabil Res 42 (4): 279–83. PMID 9786442.  
  71. ^ Cederlund M, Gillberg C (2004). "One hundred males with Asperger syndrome: a clinical study of background and associated factors". Dev Med Child Neurol 46 (10): 652–60. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2004.tb00977.x. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 15473168.  
  72. ^ Gillberg C, Billstedt E (2000). "Autism and Asperger syndrome: coexistence with other clinical disorders". Acta Psychiatr Scand 102 (5): 321–30. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2000.102005321.x. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 11098802.  
  73. ^ a b c Baron-Cohen S, Klin A (2006). "What's so special about Asperger Syndrome?" (PDF). Brain Cogn 61 (1): 1–4. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2006.02.002. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16563588.  
  74. ^ Wing L (1991). "The relationship between Asperger's syndrome and Kanner's autism", in Frith U: Autism and Asperger syndrome. Cambridge University Press, 93–121. ISBN 0-521-38608-X.  
  75. ^ a b Asperger H; tr. Hans Asperger ( February 18 1906 – October 21 1980) was the Austrian Pediatrician after whom Asperger syndrome and annot. Frith U [1944] (1991). "'Autistic psychopathy' in childhood", in Frith U: Autism and Asperger syndrome. Cambridge University Press, 37–92. ISBN 0-521-38608-X.  
  76. ^ Wing L (1981). Lorna Wing, MD FRCPsych (b October 7, 1928) is an English Psychiatrist and Physician. "Asperger's syndrome: a clinical account". Psychol Med 11 (1): 115–29. PMID 7208735.  
  77. ^ Willey LH (1999). Pretending to be Normal: Living with Asperger's Syndrome. Jessica Kingsley. ISBN 1-85302-749-9.  
  78. ^ Clarke J, van Amerom G (2007). "'Surplus suffering': differences between organizational understandings of Asperger's syndrome and those people who claim the 'disorder'". Disabil Soc 22 (7): 761–76. doi:10.1080/09687590701659618. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
  79. ^ Williams CC (2005). "In search of an Asperger", in Stoddart KP: Children, Youth and Adults with Asperger Syndrome: Integrating Multiple Perspectives. Jessica Kingsley, 242–52. ISBN 1-84310-319-2.  “The life prospects of people with AS would change if we shifted from viewing AS as a set of dysfunctions, to viewing it as a set of differences that have merit. ” 
  80. ^ Dakin CJ (2005). "Life on the outside: A personal perspective of Asperger syndrome", in Stoddart KP: Children, Youth and Adults with Asperger Syndrome: Integrating Multiple Perspectives. Jessica Kingsley, 352–61. ISBN 1-84310-319-2.  
  81. ^ Attwood T (2006). Dr Tony Attwood (born Feb 9 1952 in Birmingham, England is an English Psychologist who lives in Queensland, Australia, and author The Complete Guide to Asperger's Syndrome. Jessica Kingsley, p. 12. ISBN 1-84310-495-4.  

External links

The Open Directory Project ( ODP) also known as dmoz (from directory

Dictionary

Asperger syndrome

-noun

  1. Alternative spelling of Asperger's syndrome.
© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
 Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic