Marble herm in the Vatican Museums inscribed with Aspasia's name at the base. For the piano piece by Iannis Xenakis see Herma (Xenakis. In ancient Greece, before his role as protector of merchants and travelers The Vatican Museums (Musei Vaticani in Viale Vaticano in Rome, inside the Vatican City, are one of the greatest museums in the world since they display works Discovered in 1777, this marble herm is a Roman copy of a 5th-century BC original and may represent Aspasia's funerary stele. A funeral is a Ceremony marking a person's Death. Funerary customs comprise the complex of Beliefs and practices used by a Culture to remember A stele (from Greek:, stēlē, ˈstiːli plural stelae,, stēlai, ˈstiːlaɪ also found Latinised singular stela

Aspasia (ca. 470 BC^[1][2]–ca. 400 BC,^[1][3] Greek: Ἀσπασία) was a Milesian woman who was famous for her involvement with the Athenian statesman Pericles. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Miletus (mī lē' təs ( Ancient Greek: Μίλητος literally Transliterated Milētos, Latin Miletus) was an Ancient A celebrity is a widely-recognized or famous person who commands a high degree of public and media attention Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Pericles (also spelled Perikles) (c 495 – 429 BC Greek:, meaning "surrounded by glory" was a prominent and influential Statesman, orator ^[4] Very little is known about the details of her life. She spent most of her adult life in Athens, and she may have influenced Pericles and Athenian politics. She is mentioned in the writings of Plato, Aristophanes, Xenophon, and other authors of the day. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristophanes (Ἀριστοφάνης ˌærɪˈstɒfəniːz in English ca Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca

Ancient writers also reported that Aspasia was a brothel keeper and a harlot, although these accounts are disputed by modern scholars, on the grounds that many of the writers were comic poets concerned with defaming Pericles. ^[5] Some researchers question even the historical tradition that she was a hetaera, or courtesan, and have suggested that she may actually have been married to Pericles. For the elite Ancient Macedonian cavalry ( hetairoi, "companions" see Companion cavalry. A courtesan in mid-16th century usage referred to a mistress or trained artisan of dance and singing especially one associated with wealthy powerful or upper-class ^[α] Aspasia had a son by Pericles, Pericles the Younger, who later became a general in the Athenian military and was executed after the Battle of Arginusae. The naval Battle of Arginusae took place in 406 BC during the Peloponnesian War just east of the island of Lesbos. She is believed to have become the courtesan of Lysicles, another Athenian statesman and general, following the death of Pericles the Elder. Lysicles or Lysikles (? - 428 BC Greek:) was an Athenian general and leader of the democratic faction in the city

Origin and early years

Aspasia was born in the Ionian Greek city of Miletus (in the modern province of Aydın, Turkey). Geography Physical Ionia was of small extent not exceeding 90 geographical miles in length from north to south with a breadth varying from 40 to 55 miles but to this Aidın (Αϊδίνιο is a city in and the seat of Aydın Province in Turkey 's Aegean Region. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Little is known about her family except that her father's name was Axiochus, although it is evident that she must have belonged to a wealthy family, for only the well-to-do could have afforded the excellent education that she received. Some ancient sources claim that she was a Carian prisoner-of-war turned slave; these statements are generally regarded as false. Municipalities of Caria Cramer's detailed catalog of Carian towns in Classical Greece is based entirely on ancient sources ^[β][6]

It is not known under what circumstances she first traveled to Athens. The discovery of a 4th-century grave inscription that mentions the names of Axiochus and Aspasius has led historian Peter K. Bicknell to attempt a reconstruction of Aspasia's family background and Athenian connections. His theory connects her to Alcibiades II of Scambonidae, who was ostracized from Athens in 460 BC and may have spent his exile in Miletus. Ostracism ( ostrakismos) was a procedure under the Athenian democracy in which a prominent Citizen could be expelled from the City-state ^[1] Bicknell conjectures that, following his exile, the elder Alcibiades went to Miletus, where he married the daughter of a certain Axiochus. Alcibiades apparently returned to Athens with his new wife and her younger sister, Aspasia. Bicknell argues that the first child of this marriage was named Axiochus (uncle of the famous Alcibiades) and the second Aspasios. Alcibiades Cleiniou Scambonides (ˌælsɨˈbaɪədiːz (pronunciation Greek:, transliterated Alkibiádēs Kleiníou Skambōnidēs) meaning Alcibiades He also maintains that Pericles met Aspasia through his close connections with Alcibiades's household. ^[7]

Life in Athens

Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904): Socrates seeking Alcibiades in the house of Aspasia, 1861. Jean-Léon Gérôme ( May 11, 1824 – January 10, 1904) was a French painter and sculptor in the style

According to the disputed statements of the ancient writers and some modern scholars, in Athens Aspasia became a hetaera and probably ran a brothel. For the elite Ancient Macedonian cavalry ( hetairoi, "companions" see Companion cavalry. For the 2008 film of this name see The Brothel. For the television series of this name see Cathouse The Series. ^[α][8][9] Hetaerae were professional high-class entertainers, as well as courtesans. A courtesan in mid-16th century usage referred to a mistress or trained artisan of dance and singing especially one associated with wealthy powerful or upper-class Besides developing physical beauty, they differed from most Athenian women in being educated (often to a high standard, as in Aspasia's case), having independence, and paying taxes. The Economy of Ancient Greece was characterized by the extreme importance of Agriculture, all the more so because of the relative poverty of Greece ^[10][11] They were the nearest thing perhaps to liberated women; and Aspasia, who became a vivid figure in Athenian society, was probably an obvious example. ^[10][12] According to Plutarch, Aspasia was compared to the famous Thargelia, another renowned Ionian hetaera of ancient times. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c Thargelia ( Greek:) was a renowned Hetaera (professional high-class entertainer/prostitute something like a Courtesan) in Ancient Greece. ^[13]

Being a foreigner and possibly a hetaera, Aspasia was free of the legal restraints that traditionally confined married women to their homes, and thereby was allowed to participate in the public life of the city. She became the mistress of the statesman Pericles in the early 440s. After he divorced his first wife (c. 445 BC), Aspasia began to live with him, although her marital status remains disputed. ^[γ][14] Their son, Pericles the Younger, must have been born by 440 BC. Aspasia would have to have been quite young, if she were able to bear a child to Lysicles c. 428 BC. ^[15]

In social circles, Aspasia was noted for her ability as a conversationalist and adviser rather than merely an object of physical beauty. ^[9] According to Plutarch, their house became an intellectual centre in Athens, attracting the most prominent writers and thinkers, including the philosopher Socrates. SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. The biographer writes that, despite her immoral life, Athenian men would bring their wives to hear her converse. ^[δ][13][16]

Personal and judicial attacks

Pericles, Aspasia and their friends were not immune from attack, as preeminence in democratic Athens was not equivalent to absolute rule. Athenian democracy developed in the Greek City-state of Athens ^[17] Her relationship with Pericles and her subsequent political influence aroused many reactions. Donald Kagan, a Yale historian, believes that Aspasia was particularly unpopular in the years immediately following the Samian War. Donald Kagan (born 1932 is an American Historian at Yale specializing in Ancient Greece, notable for his four-volume history of the Peloponnesian The Samian War (440-439 BC was an Ancient Greek military conflict between Athens and Samos. ^[18] In 440 BC, Samos was at war with Miletus over Priene, an ancient city of Ionia in the foot-hills of Mycale. Samos (Σάμος is a Greek island in the North Aegean Sea, south of Chios, north of Patmos and the Dodecanese, and off Priene ( Ancient Greek: Πριήνη, Priēnē was an ancient Greek city of Ionia (and member of the Ionian League) at the base Geography Physical Ionia was of small extent not exceeding 90 geographical miles in length from north to south with a breadth varying from 40 to 55 miles but to this Mycale (also Mycǎlé, Mukalê, Mykale and Mycali, Ancient Greek Μυκαλή; called Samsun Daği and Worsted in the war, the Milesians came to Athens to plead their case against the Samians. ^[19] When the Athenians ordered the two sides to stop fighting and submit the case to arbitration at Athens, the Samians refused. In response, Pericles passed a decree dispatching an expedition to Samos. ^[20] The campaign proved to be difficult and the Athenians had to endure heavy casualties before Samos was defeated. According to Plutarch, it was thought that Aspasia, who came from Miletus, was responsible for the Samian War, and that Pericles had decided against and attacked Samos to gratify her. ^[13]

Before the eruption of the Peloponnesian War (431 BC–404 BC), Pericles, some of his closest associates and Aspasia faced a series of personal and legal attacks. Aristophanes (Ἀριστοφάνης ˌærɪˈstɒfəniːz in English ca Comedy was one of two principal dramatic forms in ancient Greece the other being Tragedy. Aspasia, in particular, was accused of corrupting the women of Athens in order to satisfy Pericles' perversions. ^[ε] According to Plutarch, she was put on trial for impiety, with the comic poet Hermippus as prosecutor. Hermippus was the one-eyed Athenian writer of the Old Comedy who flourished during the Peloponnesian War. ^[στ][21] All these accusations were probably nothing more than unproven slanders, but the whole experience was bitter for the Athenian leader. Although Aspasia was acquitted thanks to a rare emotional outburst of Pericles,^[ζ] his friend, Phidias, died in prison. Phidias (or Pheidias; in Ancient Greek,; c[[ 80 BC]] c 430 BC) son of Charmides was an ancient Greek Another friend of his, Anaxagoras, was attacked by the ecclesia (the Athenian Assembly) for his religious beliefs. Anaxagoras ( Greek: Ἀναξαγόρας c 500 BC &ndash 428 BC was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher famous for introducing the Cosmological ecclesia or ekklesia ( Greek) was the principal assembly of the democracy of ancient Athens during its Golden Age ( ^[22] According to Kagan it is possible that Aspasia's trial and acquittal were late inventions, "in which real slanders, suspicions and ribald jokes were converted into an imaginary lawsuit". ^[18] Anthony J. Podlecki, Professor of Classics at the University of British Columbia, asserts that Plutarch or his source possibly misunderstood a scene in some comedy. "Classical literature" redirects here For literature in Classical languages outside the Graeco-Roman sphere see Ancient literature. The University of British Columbia ( UBC) is a Canadian public research University with campuses near Vancouver and in Kelowna ^[23] Kagan argues that even if we believe these stories, Aspasia was unharmed with or without the help of Pericles. ^[24]

In The Acharnians, Aristophanes blames Aspasia for the Peloponnesian War. The Acharnians ( Ancient Greek: / Akharneĩs) is an Old Comedy by the Athenian playwright Aristophanes. Aristophanes (Ἀριστοφάνης ˌærɪˈstɒfəniːz in English ca He claims that the Megarian decree of Pericles, which excluded Megara from trade with Athens or its allies, was retaliation for prostitutes being kidnapped from the house of Aspasia by Megarians. The Megarian Decree was a set of Economic sanctions levied upon Megara circa 432 BC by the Athenian Empire shortly before the outbreak of the Megara ( Greek:, "Big Houses" is an ancient city (pop ^[8] Aristophanes' portrayal of Aspasia as responsible, from personal motives, for the outbreak of the war with Sparta may reflect memory of the earlier episode involving Miletus and Samos. The city of Sparta ( Doric Σπάρτα Attic Σπάρτη ^[25] Plutarch reports also the taunting comments of other comic poets, such as Eupolis and Cratinus. Eupolis (ca 446 BC-411 BC was an Athenian Poet of the Old Comedy, that flourished in the time of the Peloponnesian War. Cratinus ( Greek Κρᾰτῖνος, ca 520 BC- after 423 BC Athenian comic Poet. ^[13] According to Podlecki, Douris appears to have propounded the view that Aspasia instigated both the Samian and Peloponnesian Wars. Douris (Δούρις (ca 352 BC - ca 260 BC) was a Tyrant of Samos and a descendant of Alcibiades of Athens ^[26]

Aspasia was labeled the "New Omphale",^[η] "Deianira",^[η] "Hera"^[θ] and "Helen". For the city in Sicily formerly called Omphale see Daedalium. Deïanira or Dejanira (Latinized in Greek, Δηϊάνειρα or Δῃάνειρα; Deïaneira 'man-destroyer' In the Olympian pantheon of classical Greek Mythology, Hera (ˈhɪərə or /ˈhɛrə/ Greek) or Here ( in Ionic and Homer This article is about the mythological figure Helen of Troy For other uses see Helen (disambiguation and Helen of Troy (disambiguation. ^[ι][27] Further attacks on Pericles' relationship with Aspasia are reported by Athenaeus. Athenaeus ( Ancient Greek - Athếnaios Naukratios Latin Athenaeus Naucratita of Naucratis in Egypt Greek rhetorician and grammarian flourished ^[28] Even Pericles' own son, Xanthippus, who had political ambitions, did not hesitate to slander his father about his domestic affairs. Xanthippus ( Gr) was a wealthy Athenian politician and general during the early part of the fifth century BC ^[22]

Later years and death

Bust of Pericles, Altes Museum (Old Museum), Berlin. The Altes Museum ( German: Old Museum) is one of several internationally renowned museums on Berlin 's Museum Island in Berlin Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany.

In 429 BC during the Plague of Athens, Pericles witnessed the death of his sister and of both his legitimate sons, Xanthippus and his beloved Paralus, from his first wife. The Plague of Athens was a devastating Epidemic which hit the City-state of Athens in ancient Greece during the second year of the Peloponnesian Xanthippus ( Gr) was a wealthy Athenian politician and general during the early part of the fifth century BC With his morale undermined, he burst into tears, and not even Aspasia's companionship could console him. Just before his death, the Athenians allowed a change in the citizenship law of 451 BC that made his half-Athenian son with Aspasia, Pericles the Younger, a citizen and legitimate heir,^[29] a decision all the more striking in considering that Pericles himself had proposed the law confining citizenship to those of Athenian parentage on both sides. ^[30] Pericles died of the plague in the autumn of 429 BC.

Plutarch cites Aeschines Socraticus, who wrote a dialogue on Aspasia (now lost), to the effect that after Pericles's death Aspasia lived with Lysicles, an Athenian general and democratic leader, with whom she had another son; and that she made him the first man at Athens. This article refers to the philosopher For the Athenian orator see Aeschines. A dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog) is a reciprocal Conversation between two or more entities. ^[β][13] Lysicles was killed in action in 428 BC. ^[31][32] With Lysicles' death the contemporaneous record ends. ^[16] It is unknown, for example, if she was alive when her son, Pericles, was elected general or when he was executed after the Battle of Arginusae. The naval Battle of Arginusae took place in 406 BC during the Peloponnesian War just east of the island of Lesbos. The time of her death that most historians give (c. 401 BC-400 BC) is based on the assessment that Aspasia died before the execution of Socrates in 399 BC, a chronology which is implied in the structure of Aeschines' Aspasia. ^[1][3]

References in philosophical works

Ancient philosophical works

Aspasia appears in the philosophical writings of Plato, Xenophon, Aeschines Socraticus and Antisthenes. Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca Antisthenes (Ἀντισθένης lived ca 445-365 BCE was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. Some scholars argue that Plato was impressed by her intelligence and wit and based his character Diotima in the Symposium on her, while others suggest that Diotima was in fact a historical figure. Diotima of Mantinea is a female philosopher who plays an important role in Plato's Symposium. The Symposium is a philosophical dialogue written by Plato sometime after 385 BC ^[33][34] According to Charles Kahn, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Pennsylvania, Diotima is in many respects Plato's response to Aeschines' Aspasia. The University of Pennsylvania (also known as Penn) is a private University located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. ^[35]

In Menexenus, Plato satirizes Aspasia's relationship with Pericles,^[36] and quotes Socrates as claiming ironically that she was a trainer of many orators. Menexenus (Greek Μενέξενоς was one of three sons of Socrates and Xanthippe. Socrates' intention is to cast aspersions on Pericles' rhetorical fame, claiming, also ironically, that since the Athenian statesman was educated by Aspasia, he would be superior in rhetoric to someone educated by Antiphon. Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice Antiphon the Sophist lived in Athens probably in the last two decades of the 5th century BC ^[37] He also attributes authorship of the Funeral Oration to Aspasia and attacks his contemporaries' veneration of Pericles. ^[38] Kahn maintains that Plato has taken from Aeschines the motif of Aspasia as teacher of rhetoric for Pericles and Socrates. ^[35] Plato's Aspasia and Aristophanes' Lysistrata are two apparent exceptions to the rule of women's incapacity as orators, though these fictional characters tell us nothing about the actual status of women in Athens. Lysistrata ( Attic Greek: Λυσιστράτη Lysistratê, Doric Greek: Λυσιστράτα Lysistrata) loosely translated to "she ^[39] As Martha L. Rose, Professor of History at Truman State University, explains, "only in comedy do dogs litigate, birds govern, or women declaim". Truman State University is a public liberal arts and sciences University in Missouri and a member of the Council of Public Liberal Arts ^[40]

Xenophon mentions Aspasia twice in his Socratic writings: in Memorabilia and in Oeconomicus. The Memorabilia are also known by the alternate Latin title Commentarii, the Greek title Apomnemoneumata (Απομνημονεύματα The Oeconomicus In both cases her advice is recommended to Critobulus by Socrates. In Memorabilia Socrates quotes Aspasia as saying that the matchmaker should report truthfully on the good characteristics of the man. ^[41] In Oeconomicus Socrates defers to Aspasia as more knowledgeable about household management and the economic partnership between husband and wife. ^[42]

Painting of Hector Leroux (1682–1740), which portrays Pericles and Aspasia admiring the gigantic statue of Athena in Phidias' studio

Aeschines Socraticus and Antisthenes each named a Socratic dialogue after Aspasia (though neither survives except in fragments). Phidias (or Pheidias; in Ancient Greek,; c[[ 80 BC]] c 430 BC) son of Charmides was an ancient Greek Socratic dialogue ( Greek Σωκρατικός λόγος or Σωκρατικός διάλογος) is a genre of prose literary works developed in Our major sources for Aeschines Socraticus' Aspasia are Athenaeus, Plutarch, and Cicero. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman In the dialogue, Socrates recommends that Callias send his son Hipponicus to Aspasia for instructions. When Callias recoils at the notion of a female teacher, Socrates notes that Aspasia had favorably influenced Pericles and, after his death, Lysicles. In a section of the dialogue, preserved in Latin by Cicero, Aspasia figures as a "female Socrates", counseling first Xenophon's wife and then Xenophon himself (the Xenophon in question is not the famous historian) about acquiring virtue through self-knowledge. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. ^[43][35] Aeschines presents Aspasia as a teacher and inspirer of excellence, connecting these virtues with her status as hetaira. ^[44] According to Kahn, every single episode in Aeschines' Aspasia is not only fictitious but incredible. ^[45]

Of Antisthenes' Aspasia only two or three quotations are extant. ^[1] This dialogue contains much slander, but also anecdotes pertaining to Pericles' biography. ^[46] Antisthenes appears to have attacked not only Aspasia, but the entire family of Pericles, including his sons. The philosopher believes that the great statesman chose the life of pleasure over virtue. ^[47] Thus, Aspasia is presented as the personification of the life of sexual indulgence. ^[44]

Modern literature

Self-portrait Marie Bouliard, as Aspasia, 1794. Marie-Geneviève Bouliard (born Paris, 1763 died Saône-et-Loire, 1825 was a French artist who primarily painted portraits

Aspasia appears in several significant works of modern literature. Her romantic attachment with Pericles has inspired some of the most famous novelists and poets of the last centuries. A novel (from Italian novella, Spanish novela, French nouvelle for "new" "news" or "short story In particular the romanticists of the 19th century and the historical novelists of the 20th century found in their story an inexhaustible source of inspiration. Romanticism is a complex artistic literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the An historical novel is a Novel in which the story is set among historical events or more generally in which the time of the action predates the lifetime of the Author In 1835 Lydia Maria Child, an American abolitionist, novelist, and journalist, published Philothea, a classical romance set in the days of Pericles and Aspasia. Lydia Maria Child ( February 11 1802 &ndash July 7 1880) was an American Abolitionist, Women's rights activist Abolitionism was a political movement of the 18th and 19th century which sought to make Slavery illegal particularly in the United States and British West Indies This book is regarded as the most successful and elaborate of the author's productions, because the female characters, especially Aspasia, are portrayed with great beauty and delicacy. ^[48]

In 1836, Walter Savage Landor, an English writer and poet, published Pericles and Aspasia, one of his most famous books. Walter Savage Landor ( 30 January 1775 – 17 September 1864) was an English Writer and Poet. Pericles and Aspasia is a rendering of classical Athens through a series of imaginary letters, which contain numerous poems. The letters are frequently unfaithful to actual history but attempt to capture the spirit of the Age of Pericles. The Golden Age is the term used to denote the historical period in Ancient Greece lasting roughly from the end of the Persian Wars in 448 BC to either the ^[49] Robert Hamerling is another novelist and poet who was inspired by Aspasia's personality. Robert Hamerling ( March 24, 1830 - July 13, 1889) Austrian Poet, was born of humble parentage at Kirchberg am Walde In 1876 he published his novel Aspasia, a book about the manners and morals of the Age of Pericles and a work of cultural and historical interest. Giacomo Leopardi, an Italian poet influenced by the movement of romanticism, published a group of five poems known as the circle of Aspasia. Giacomo Taldegardo Francesco di Sales Saverio Pietro Leopardi Conte ( June 29, 1798 &ndash June 14, 1837) was an Italian Poet, These Leopardi poems were inspired by his painful experience of desperate and unrequited love for a woman named Fanny Targioni Tozzetti. Leopardi called this person Aspasia, after the companion of Pericles. ^[50]

In 1918, novelist and playwright George Cram Cook produced his first full-length play, The Athenian Women, which portrays Aspasia leading a strike for peace. A playwright, also known as a dramatist, is a person who writes dramatic literature or Drama. A play, or stageplay, is a form of Literature written by a Playwright, almost always consisting of Dialogue between Fictional characters ^[51] Cook combined an anti-war theme with a Greek setting. ^[52] American writer Gertrude Atherton in The Immortal Marriage (1927) treats the story of Pericles and Aspasia and illustrates the period of the Samian War, the Peloponnesian War and the Plague of Athens. Gertrude Franklin Horn Atherton ( October 30, 1857 – June 14, 1948) was an American Writer. Taylor Caldwell's Glory and the Lightning (1974) is another novel that portrays the historical relationship of Aspasia and Pericles. Janet Miriam Holland Taylor Caldwell ( September 7, 1900 &ndash August 30, 1985) was an Anglo - American novelist and ^[53]

A historical fiction book by Elise Garrison, professor emeritus of Texas A&M University, entitled The Milesian Mistress, was published in 2005. Historical fiction is a sub-genre of Fiction that often portrays alternate accounts or dramatization of historical figures or events The meaning of the word professor ( Latin: professor, person who professes to be an expert in some art or science teacher of highest rank) varies Texas A&M University, often called A&M or TAMU, is a Coeducational public Research University located in College Station It follows the life of Aspasia as courtesan and Garrison claimed that she wanted to provide the reader with a look into fifth century BCE Greek life. ^[54]

Fame and assessments

Aspasia's name is closely connected with Pericles' glory and fame. ^[55] Plutarch accepts her as a significant figure both politically and intellectually and expresses his admiration for a woman who "managed as she pleased the foremost men of the state, and afforded the philosophers occasion to discuss her in exalted terms and at great length". ^[13] The biographer says that Aspasia became so renowned that even Cyrus the Younger, who went to war with the King Artaxerxes II of Persia, gave her name to one of his concubines, who before was called Milto. Cyrus (Kuruš the Younger, son of Darius II of Persia (Dārayavahuš and Parysatis, was a Persian prince and General. Artaxerxes II Mnemon ( Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠 Artaxšaçrā, Ἀρταξέρξης (ca After Cyrus had fallen in battle, this woman was carried captive to the King and acquired a great influence with him. ^[13] Lucian calls Aspasia a "model of wisdom", "the admired of the admirable Olympian" and lauds "her political knowledge and insight, her shrewdness and penetration". Lucian of Samosata (Λουκιανός ὁ Σαμοσατεύς Lucianus c ^[56] A Syriac text, according to which Aspasia composed a speech and instructed a man to read it for her in the courts, confirms Aspasia's rhetorical fame. See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language ^[57] Aspasia is said by the Suda, a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia, to have been "clever with regards to words," a sophist, and to have taught rhetoric. The Suda or Souda ( also, Suidas) is a massive 10th century Byzantine Greek historical encyclopedia of the ancient Mediterranean ^[58]

On the basis of such assessments, researchers such as Cheryl Glenn, Professor at the Pennsylvania State University, argue that Aspasia seems to have been the only woman in classical Greece to have distinguished herself in the public sphere and must have influenced Pericles in the composition of his speeches. Lucian of Samosata (Λουκιανός ὁ Σαμοσατεύς Lucianus c The Pennsylvania State University (commonly known as Penn State) is a state-related, land-grant, space grant public research University ^[59] Some scholars believe that Aspasia opened an academy for young women of good families or even invented the Socratic method. The Socratic Method (or Method of Elenchus or Socratic Debate) named after the Classical Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of ^[60][59] However, Robert W. Wallace, Professor of classics at Northwestern University, underscores that "we cannot accept as historical the joke that Aspasia taught Pericles how to speak and hence was a master rhetorician or philosopher". According to Wallace, the intellectual role Aspasia was given by Plato may have derived from comedy. Comedy was one of two principal dramatic forms in ancient Greece the other being Tragedy. ^[5] Kagan describes Aspasia as "a beautiful, independent, brilliantly witty young woman capable of holding her own in conversation with the best minds in Greece and of discussing and illuminating any kind of question with her husband". ^[61] Roger Just, a classicist and Professor of social anthropology at the University of Kent, believes that Aspasia was an exceptional figure, but her example alone is enough to underline the fact that any woman who was to become the intellectual and social equal of a man would have to be a hetaira. "Classical literature" redirects here For literature in Classical languages outside the Graeco-Roman sphere see Ancient literature. Social anthropology is the branch of Anthropology that studies how currently living human beings behave in social groups The University of Kent is a plate glass campus University in Kent, England. ^[9] According to Sr. Prudence Allen, a philosopher and seminary professor, Aspasia moved the potential of women to become philosophers one step forward from the poetic inspirations of Sappho. Sappho (ˈsæfoʊ in English Attic Greek el Σαπφώ sapːʰɔː Aeolic Greek el Ψάπφω) was an Ancient Greek lyric ^[36]

Historicity of her life

The main problem remains, as Jona Lendering points out, that most of the things we know about Aspasia are based on mere hypothesis. Jona Lendering (born October 29 1964 Beneden-Leeuwen) is a Dutch Historian and the author of books on antiquity, Dutch history Thucydides does not mention her; our only sources are the untrustworthy representations and speculations recorded by men in literature and philosophy, who did not care at all about Aspasia as a historical character. Thucydides ( C 460 BC &ndash C 395 BC) ( Greek Θουκυδίδης Thoukydídēs) was a Greek ^[5][39] Therefore, in the figure of Aspasia, we get a range of contradictory portrayals; she is either a good wife like Theano or some combination of courtesan and prostitute like Thargelia. Theano was the priestess of Athena in Troy. She was the daughter of Cisseus, wife of Antenor, and mother of Laodamas. Thargelia ( Greek:) was a renowned Hetaera (professional high-class entertainer/prostitute something like a Courtesan) in Ancient Greece. ^[62] This is the reason modern scholars express their scepticism about the historicity of Aspasia's life. ^[5]

According to Wallace, "for us Aspasia herself possesses and can possess almost no historical reality". ^[5] Hence, Madeleine M. Henry, Professor of Classics at Iowa State University, maintains that "biographical anecdotes that arose in antiquity about Aspasia are wildly colorful, almost completely unverifiable, and still alive and well in the twentieth century". The Iowa State University of Science and Technology, more commonly known as Iowa State University (ISU is a public land-grant and space-grant university She finally concludes that "it is possible to map only the barest possibilities for [Aspasia's] life". ^[63] According to Charles W. Fornara and Loren J. Samons II, Professors of Classics and history, "it may well be, for all we know, that the real Aspasia was more than a match for her fictional counterpart". ^[27]

See also

• Ancient philosophy
• Prostitution in Ancient Greece
• Timeline of Ancient Greece

Notes

Citations

References

Further reading

External links