Section of the dome of Florence Cathedral. The Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore is the Cathedral church ( Duomo) of Florence, Italy.

Architecture is the activity of designing and constructing buildings and other physical structures, primarily done to provide socially purposeful shelter. Design is used both as a Noun and a Verb. The term is often tied to the various Applied arts and Engineering (See design disciplines In the fields of Architecture and Civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the Building or assembling of Infrastructure In Architecture, Construction, Engineering and real estate development the word building may refer to one of the following Any man-made Structure is a fundamental and sometimes Intangible notion covering the Recognition, Observation, nature, and Stability of A wider definition often includes the design of the total built environment, from the macro level of how a building integrates with its surrounding man made landscape (see town planning, urban design, and landscape architecture) to the micro level of architectural or construction details and, sometimes, furniture. Urban design concerns the arrangement appearance and functionality of towns and cities and in particular the shaping and uses of urban Public space. Landscape architecture involves the investigation and designed response to the landscape Furniture is the Mass noun for the movable objects which may support the human body (seating furniture and beds, provide storage or hold objects on horizontal The term "architecture" is also used for the profession of providing architectural services. An architect is a licensed individual who leads a design team in the Planning and Design of buildings and participates in oversight of Building Construction

Architects have as their primary object providing for the spatial and shelter needs of people in groups of some kind (families, schools, churches, businesses, etc. ) by the creative organisation of materials and components in a land- or city-scape, dealing with mass, space, form, volume, texture, structure, light, shadow, materials, program, and pragmatic elements such as cost, construction limitations and technology, to achieve an end which is functional, economical, practical and often with artistic and aesthetic aspects. Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object Space is the extent within which Matter is physically extended and objects and Events have positions relative to one another The volume of any solid plasma vacuum or theoretical object is how much three- Dimensional space it occupies often quantified numerically Texture refers to the properties held and sensations caused by the external surface of objects received through the sense of touch. Structure is a fundamental and sometimes Intangible notion covering the Recognition, Observation, nature, and Stability of Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 A shadow is an area where direct light from a light source cannot reach due to obstruction by an object Materials are physical Substances used as inputs to production or Manufacturing. An architectural brief is in its broadest sense a requirement a client may have that an Architect designs to meet usually by creating a building to accommodate the requirement(s This distinguishes architecture from engineering design, which has as its primary object the creative manipulation of materials and forms using mathematical and scientific principles. Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and For the song by 311, see Grassroots. Applied science is the application of knowledge from one or more natural scientific

Separate from the design process, architecture is also experienced ^[1] through the senses, which therefore gives rise to aural ^[2] , visual, olfactory ^[3], and tactile ^[4] architecture. As people move through a space, architecture is experienced as a time sequence. ^[5] Even though our culture considers architecture to be a visual experience, the other senses play a role in how we experience both natural and built environments. Attitudes towards the senses depend on culture ^[6]. The design process and the sensory experience of a space are distinctly separate views, each with its own language and assumptions.

Architectural works are perceived as cultural and political symbols and works of art. The musical instrument is spelled Cymbal. A symbol is something --- such as an object, Picture, written word a sound a piece Historical civilizations are often known primarily through their architectural achievements. A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements Such buildings as the pyramids of Egypt and the Roman Colosseum are cultural symbols, and are an important link in public consciousness, even when scholars have discovered much about a past civilization through other means. A pyramid is a Building where the upper surfaces are triangular and converge on one point Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 The Colosseum or Roman Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre ( Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio Scholarly method &mdash or as it is more commonly called scholarship &mdash is the body of principles and practices used by scholars to make their claims about the world as Cities, regions and cultures continue to identify themselves with (and are known by) their architectural monuments. ^[7]

Brunelleschi, in the building of the dome, not only transformed the cathedral and the city of Florence, but also the role and status of the architect. Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 – April 15, 1446) was one of the foremost architects and engineers of the Italian Renaissance.

Etymology and application of the term

The word "architecture" comes from the Latin architectura and that from Greek αρχιτέκτων (architekton), "master builder", from the combination of αρχι- (archi-), "chief" or "leader" and τέκτων (tekton), a "builder" or "carpenter"^[8][9]. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly While the primary application of the word "architecture" pertains to the built environment, by extension, the term has come to denote the art and discipline of creating an actual (or inferring an implied or apparent) plan of any complex object or system. The phrase built environment refers to the man-made surroundings that provide the setting for human activity ranging from the large-scale civic surroundings to the personal places Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual In its most general sense discipline refers to systematic instruction given to a Disciple. System (from Latin systēma, in turn from Greek systēma is a set of interacting or interdependent Entities, real or abstract The term can be used to connote the implied architecture of mathematics or of abstract things such as music, the apparent architecture of natural things, such as geological formations or the structure of biological cells, or explicitly planned architectures of human-made things such as software, computers, enterprises, and databases, in addition to buildings. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Structural biology is the branch of Molecular biology concerned with the Architecture and shape of biological Macromolecules especially Proteins A computer is a Machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions. The term Enterprise Architecture, refers to many things Like architecture in general it can refer to a description a process or a profession A Computer Database is a structured collection of records or data that is stored in a computer system In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a subjective mapping from a human perspective (that of the user in the case of abstract or physical artifacts) to the elements or components of some kind of structure or system, which preserves the relationships among the elements or components. In Mathematics and related technical fields the term map or mapping is often a Synonym for function. In Mathematics, the elements or members of a set (or more generally a class) are all those objects which when collected together make up the Structure is a fundamental and sometimes Intangible notion covering the Recognition, Observation, nature, and Stability of

The Architect

Main article: architect

Design for a gardener's cottage and engine house in the grounds of a castle. An architect is a licensed individual who leads a design team in the Planning and Design of buildings and participates in oversight of Building Construction Ludwig Persius, Berlin, 1836. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany.

Architecture as a profession is the practice of providing architectural services. The term profession is applied to those persons who have specialized and technical skill or knowledge which they apply for a fee to certain tasks that ordinary and unqualified people cannot An architect is a licensed individual who leads a design team in the Planning and Design of buildings and participates in oversight of Building Construction The practice of architecture includes the planning, designing and oversight of a building's construction by an architect. Architectural services typically address both feasibility and cost for the builder, as well as function and aesthetics for the user. In the fields of Architecture and Civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the Building or assembling of Infrastructure Aesthetics or esthetics ( also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values sometimes called

Architecture did not start to become professionalized until the late nineteenth century. Before then, architects had ateliers and architectural education varied, from a more formal training as at the École des Beaux-Arts in France, which was founded in the mid seventeenth century, to the more informal system where students worked in an atelier until they could become independent. École des Beaux-Arts ("School of Fine Arts" refers to a number of influential Art schools in France. There were also so-called gentlemen architects, which were architects with private means. This was a tradition particularly strong in England during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Lord Burlington, designer of Chiswick House, (1723-49) is an example. Lord Burlington redirects here Lord Burlington most frequently refers to the architect and patron Richard Boyle 3rd Earl of Burlington. Chiswick House is a neo- Palladian Villa in Burlington Lane Chiswick, in the London Borough of Hounslow. Some architects were also sculptors, such as Bernini, theater designers such as Filippo Juvarra and John Vanbrugh, and painters, such as Michelangelo and Le Corbusier. "Bernini" redirects here For people named Bernini see Bernini (surname. Filippo Juvarra, ( March 7, 1678 - January 31, 1736) was an Italian Architect and Scene Sir John Vanbrugh (pronounced "Van'-bru" (24 January 1664? – 26 March 1726 was an English Architect and Dramatist, perhaps best known Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni Two biographies were published of him during his lifetime One of them by Giorgio Vasari, proposed that he was the pinnacle of all Charles-Édouard Jeanneret-Gris, who chose to be known as Le Corbusier ( October 6, 1887 – August 27, 1965) was a Swiss

In the 1440s, the Florentine architect, Alberti, wrote his De Re Aedificatoria, published in 1485, a year before the first edition of Vitruvius, with which he was already familiar. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum ^[10]. ^[11] Alberti gives the earliest definition of the role of the architect. The architect is to be concerned firstly with the construction. This encompasses all the practical matters of site, of materials and their limitations and of human capability. The second concern is "articulation"; the building must work and must please and suit the needs of those who use it. The third concern of the architect is aesthetics, both of proportion and of ornament.

The role of the architect is constantly evolving, and is central to the design and implementation of the environments in which people live. The social environment (context, also known as the Milieu, is the identical or similar Social positions and Social roles as a whole that influence the individuals In order to obtain the skills and knowledge required to design, plan, and oversee a diverse range of projects, architects must go through extensive formal education, coupled with a requisite amount of professional practice.

The work of an architect is an interdisciplinary field, drawing upon mathematics, science, art, technology, social sciences, politics and history, and is often governed by the architect's personal approach or philosophy. In Academia, Pedagogy, Physical sciences, Earth sciences, Human sciences and Social sciences Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Vitruvius, the earliest known architectural theorist, states: "Architecture is a science, arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning: by the help of which a judgement is formed of those works which are the result of other arts. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum " He adds that an architect should be well versed in other fields of learning such as music and astronomy. Music is an Art form in which the medium is Sound organized in Time. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study ^[11] Vitruvius' broad definition of the architect still holds true to some extent today, even though business concerns and the computer have reshaped the activities and definition of the modern architect in significant ways.

Theory of Architecture

Historic treatises

Plan, front view and side view of a typical column of Persepolis palace of Persia. Persepolis ( Old Persian: Pārsa, Modern Persian: تخت جمشید/پارسه Takht-e Jamshid or Chehel Minar) was the ceremonial The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia

Persepolis palace after 2500 years, Persia. Persepolis ( Old Persian: Pārsa, Modern Persian: تخت جمشید/پارسه Takht-e Jamshid or Chehel Minar) was the ceremonial The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia

The earliest written work on the subject of architecture is De architectura, by the Roman architect Vitruvius in the early 1st century CE. De architectura ( Latin: "On architecture" is a treatise on Architecture written by the Roman Architect Vitruvius Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum ^[11] According to Vitruvius, a good building should satisfy the three principles of firmitatis utilitatis venustatis,^{[12] [13]} which translates roughly as -

• Durability - it should stand up robustly and remain in good condition.
• Utility - it should be useful and function well for the people using it.
• Beauty - it should delight people and raise their spirits.

According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfil each of these three attributes as well as possible.

The Parthenon, Athens, "the supreme example among architectural sites. The Parthenon ( Ancient Greek:) is a temple of the Greek goddess Athena, built in the 5th century BC on the Athenian Acropolis Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's " (Fletcher). Sir Banister Flight Fletcher ( February 15, 1866, London &mdash August 17, 1953, London was an English Architect ^[14]

Leone Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament also played a part. Leon Battista Alberti ( February 14, 1404 &ndash April 25, 1472) was an Italian author artist Architect, Poet De re aedificatoria ( English: On the Art of Building) is a classic architectural treatise written by Leon Battista Alberti between For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden Mean. The most important aspect of beauty was therefore an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially; and was based on universal, recognisable truths. The notion of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of Vasari. Giorgio Vasari ( 30 July 1511 – 27 June 1574) was an Italian painter and Architect, who is today famous ^[15] The treatises, by the 18th century, had been translated into Italian, French, Spanish and English.

In the early nineteenth century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the titled suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he disparaged, with an idealized image of neo-medieval world. Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin ( 1 March 1812 – 14 September 1852) was an English Architect, designer and theorist of design now Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only “true Christian form of architecture. See also Gothic art Gothic architecture is a style of Architecture which flourished during the high and late medieval period. ”

The 19th century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, published 1849,^[16] was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. John Ruskin (8 February 1819 &ndash 20 January 1900 is best known for his work as an Art critic, sage writer, and Social critic, but is remembered Architecture was the "art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men … that the sight of them" contributes "to his mental health, power, and pleasure". For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance. His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way "adorned". For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, at the very least.

On the difference between the ideals of "architecture" and mere "construction", the renowned 20th C. In the fields of Architecture and Civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the Building or assembling of Infrastructure architect Le Corbusier wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Charles-Édouard Jeanneret-Gris, who chose to be known as Le Corbusier ( October 6, 1887 – August 27, 1965) was a Swiss Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture". ^[17]

The Wainwright Building in St. The Wainwright Building is a 10-story red-brick landmark office building in downtown St Louis, designed by Louis Sullivan. Louis Henri Sullivan (September 4 1856 &ndash April 14 1924 was an American Architect, and has been called the "father of modernism.

Europe's Gate, Madrid; the first intentionally inclined buildings in the world. The Puerta de Europa towers ( Gate of Europe or Europe's Gate or just Torres KIO) are two twin office buildings in Madrid.

Modern concepts of architecture

The great 19th century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design: "Form follows function". Louis Henri Sullivan (September 4 1856 &ndash April 14 1924 was an American Architect, and has been called the "father of modernism. Form follows function is a principle associated with Modern architecture and Industrial design in the 20th Century which states that the shape of a building or object

While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to functionality was met with both popularity and scepticism, it had the effect of introducing the concept of "function" in place of Vitruvius "utility". "Function" came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural.

Nunzia Rondanini stated, "Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own particular way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that, in and of itself, it will promote social development. To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to art for art's sake is not only reactionary; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality". ^[18]

Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism, and phenomenology. In Epistemology and in its broadest sense rationalism is "any view appealing to Reason as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286 In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. For the use of structuralism in biology see Structuralism (biology Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze Post-structuralism encompasses the intellectual developments of continental philosophers and critical theorists who wrote with tendencies of twentieth-century

Sydney Opera House, designed by Utzon. The Sydney Opera House is located in Sydney New South Wales, Australia Jørn Utzon, AC (born 9 April 1918 is a Danish Architect most notable for designing the Sydney Opera House in Australia photo E. Lau.

In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function, the consideration of sustainability. Sustainability, in a general sense is the capacity to maintain a certain process or state indefinitely To satisfy the modern ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water and waste management and lighting.

History

Main article: History of architecture

Vernacular architecture in Denmark. The History of architecture traces the changes in the History of Architecture through various countries and dates The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe

Origins and the ancient world

Architecture first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc. ) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). For other kinds of building materials see Hardware, Biology, Star formation. As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, architecture became a craft. A craft is a Skill, especially involving practical arts. It may refer to a Trade or particular art Here there is first a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed Vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Vernacular Architecture is a term used to categorize methods of Construction which use locally available resources to address local needs Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day.

Angkor, Cambodia. Angkor is a name conventionally applied to the region of Cambodia serving as the seat of the Khmer empire that flourished from approximately the 9th century to The Kingdom of Cambodia ( formerly known as Kampuchea (, transliterated: Preăh Réachéanachâkr Kâmpŭchea) is a country in South East

Early human settlements were mostly rural. Rural areas can be large and isolated (also referred to as "the country" and/or "the countryside over the course of time Due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and evolved very rapidly in some cases, such as that of Çatal Huyuk in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro in Pakistan. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Mohenjo-daro (موئن جودڑو موئن جو دڙو मोहन जोदड़ो Mound of the Dead was one of the largest city-settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization In many ancient civilizations, like the Egyptians' and Mesopotamians', architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, while in other ancient cultures such as Persia architecture and urban planning was used to exemplify the power of the state. The term supernatural or supranatural ( Latin: super, supra "above" + natura "nature" pertains to entities events The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia

The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged. Urbanism is the study of cities &mdash their Geographic, Economic, Political, Social and Cultural environment Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Architectural styles developed.

Texts on architecture began to be written in the Classical period. These became canons to be followed in important works, especially religious architecture. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of Vitruvius, the Kao Gong Ji of ancient China^[19] and Vaastu Shastra of ancient India. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Vaastu Shastra deals with various aspects of Designing and Building living environments that are in harmony with the physical and metaphysical India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country

The architecture of different parts of Asia developed along different lines to that of Europe, Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. In many Asian countries a pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape. Natural landscapes ""are Landscapes beyond cultural influence

The Taj Mahal, in India, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and was cited as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage. The Taj Mahal (tɑdʒ India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex Islamic art encompasses the arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country "

The Medieval builder

Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, developing from the architectural forms of the ancient Middle East but developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Islamic architecture has encompassed a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day influencing the design and construction The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa and Spain, and were to become a significant stylistic influence on European architecture during the Medieval period.

Wells Cathedral, Somerset, England. Wells Cathedral is a Church of England Cathedral in Wells, Somerset, England. Somerset ( or) is a county in south west England The County town is Taunton, which is in the south of the county

In Europe, in both the Classical and Medieval periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individuals and the names of the architects frequently unknown, despite the vast scale of the many religious buildings extant from this period. Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean During the Medieval period guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their trade and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers The role of architect was usually one with master builder, except in the case where a cleric, such as the Abbot Suger at Saint Denis, Paris, provided the design. Suger (c 1081 &ndash 13 January 1151) was one of the last French abbot-statesmen a historian and the influential first patron of Gothic architecture Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged.

Renaissance and the architect

La Rotonda, by Palladio. Villa Capra "La Rotonda" is a Renaissance Villa just outside Vicenza, northern Italy, designed by Andrea Palladio. Andrea Palladio ( November 30, 1508 – August 19, 1580) was an Italian Architect, widely considered the most influential

With the Renaissance and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Buildings were ascribed to specific architects - Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio - and the cult of the individual had begun. Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 – April 15, 1446) was one of the foremost architects and engineers of the Italian Renaissance. Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni Two biographies were published of him during his lifetime One of them by Giorgio Vasari, proposed that he was the pinnacle of all Andrea Palladio ( November 30, 1508 – August 19, 1580) was an Italian Architect, widely considered the most influential But there was no dividing line between artist, architect and engineer, or any of the related vocations. The definition of an artist is wide-ranging and covers a broad spectrum of Activities to do with creating Art, practicing the Arts and/or demonstrating An architect is a licensed individual who leads a design team in the Planning and Design of buildings and participates in oversight of Building Construction An engineer is a person professionally engaged in a field of Engineering. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.

With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to lose ground on some technical aspects of building design. Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and He therefore concentrated on aesthetics and the humanist aspects. Aesthetics or esthetics ( also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values sometimes called

St Pancras Midland Hotel, London

There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish Baronial styles. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. The Gothic Revival is an architectural movement which began The Scottish Baronial style is part of the Gothic revival in architectural styles drawing on stylistic elements and forms from Castles Tower houses

Formal architectural training, in the 19th century, at, for example Ecole des Beaux Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility. École des Beaux-Arts ("School of Fine Arts" refers to a number of influential Art schools in France. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects, graduating to the role from draughtsmen or clerks.

Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and consumption. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production. Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. House builders could access current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals.

Modernism and reaction of architecture

The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern Architecture. This article is concerned with architectural aspects of Modernism; for the most recent developments in architecture see Contemporary architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The Deutscher Werkbund (German Work Federation was a German association of artists architects designers and industrialists The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here. Industrial design is an Applied art whereby the Aesthetics and Usability of mass-produced products may be improved for marketability and

Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Germany in 1919, consciously rejected history and looked at architecture as a synthesis of art, craft, and technology. ("House of Building" or "Building School" is the common term for the, a school in Germany that combined crafts and the fine arts and was famous Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology

When Modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. This article is concerned with architectural aspects of Modernism; for the most recent developments in architecture see Contemporary architecture. Avant-garde (avɑ̃gaʁd in French) means "advance guard" or "vanguard Immediately after World War I, pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order.

Fallingwater by Frank Lloyd Wright. Fallingwater, also known as the Edgar J Kaufmann Sr Residence, is a House designed by American Architect Frank Lloyd Wright Frank Lloyd Wright (June 8 1867 &ndash April 9 1959 was an American (of Welsh descent Architect, Interior designer, Writer, and educator who

The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings that displayed their construction and structure, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind traditional forms, were seen as beautiful in their own right. Architects such as Mies van der Rohe worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (ˈlʊdvɪç miːs faːn dɛʀ ˈʀoːɐ born Maria Ludwig Michael Mies ( March 27, 1886 &ndash August 17, 1969 The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the

Many architects resisted Modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of ornamented styles. As the founders of the International Style lost influence in the late 1970s, Postmodernism developed as a reaction against the austerity of Modernism. The International style was a major Architectural style of the 1920s and 1930s Postmodernism literally means 'after the modernist movement' While " Modern " itself refers to something "related to the present" the movement of modernism Robert Venturi's contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (a building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of this approach. Robert Charles Venturi Jr (born June 25, 1925 in Philadelphia) is an award-winning American Architect and founding principal of the firm Venturi

Architecture today

Gare do Oriente Railway Station, Lisbon, by Santiago Calatrava. Gare do Oriente ( pron. gaɾ(ɨ du oɾi'ẽt(ɨ is one of the main transport hubs in Lisbon, Portugal. Lisbon (Lisboa liʒˈboɐ is the Capital and largest city of Portugal. Santiago Calatrava Valls (born July 28, 1951) is an internationally recognized and award-winning Valencian Spanish Architect,

Part of the architectural profession, and also some non-architects, responded to Modernism and Postmodernism by going to what they considered the root of the problem. Modernism describes an array of Cultural movements rooted in the changes in Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century Postmodernism literally means 'after the modernist movement' While " Modern " itself refers to something "related to the present" the movement of modernism They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to give a livable environment. The Design Methodology Movement involving people such as Christopher Alexander started searching for more people-oriented designs. Christopher Alexander (born October 4, 1936 in Vienna, Austria) is an architect noted for his theories about design and for more than 200 Extensive studies on areas such as behavioral, environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process.

As the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary. Architecture today usually requires a team of specialist professionals, with the architect being one of many, although usually the team leader.

During the last two decades of the twentieth century and into the new millennium, the field of architecture saw the rise of specializations by project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect ^[a] from the 'project' architect ^[b].

Moving the issues of environmental sustainability into the mainstream is a significant development in the architecture profession. Sustainability, in a general sense is the capacity to maintain a certain process or state indefinitely Sustainability in architecture was pioneered in the 1970s by architects such as Ian McHarg in the US and Brenda and Robert Vale in the UK and New Zealand. Ian L McHarg ( November 20[[ 920]] - March 5[[ 001]]) was born in Glasgow Scotland and became a landscape architect and a renowned writer on regional planning Professor Brenda Vale and Doctor Robert Vale are architects writers pioneer researchers and leading experts in the field of sustainable housing There has been an acceleration in the number of buildings which seek to meet green building sustainable design principles. Green building is the practice of increasing the efficiency with which buildings use resources — Energy, Water, and Materials — while reducing building Sustainable design (also referred to as "green design" "eco-design" or "design for environment" is the art of designing physical objects the built environment

It is now expected that architects will integrate sustainable principles into their projects. ^[20]

Contemporary architecture in Bangalore, India

The American Institute of Architects acknowledges that half of today's global warming greenhouse gas emissions come from buildings - more than transportation or industry. Bangalore ( officially Bengaluru ( Kannada: ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು) is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The American Institute of Architects (AIA is a professional organization for Architects in the United States. [4] AIA states that immediate action by the building sector is essential to avoid hazardous man-made climate change. They have an "Architecture 2030" plan [5] to reduce new building energy consumption by 90% in 2030, and net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2035. Passive solar building design has been demonstrating essential elements of 70% to 90% energy consumption reduction in roughly 300,000 buildings since the 1978 U. Passive solar buildings aim to maintain interior Thermal comfort throughout the sun's daily and annual cycles whilst reducing the requirement for active heating and cooling S. Solar Energy Tax Incentives. Many of these energy efficiency features can be added at little-or-no additional net cost during construction. Newer zero energy buildings have reduced net annual energy consumption, producing excess energy and selling it back to the power company during moderate months. A zero energy building ( ZEB) or net zero energy building is a general term applied to a Building with a net energy consumption of zero over a typical year The demand for zero energy buildings is growing rapidly - subsidies are available for this type of building [6] - The supply of zero energy buildings has fallen far short of current demand. Off-the-grid buildings are now demonstrating total self sufficiency. The term off the grid or off-grid refers to living in a self-sufficient manner without reliance on one or more public utilities The 2009 Bank of America Tower (New York) has many innovative energy features. The Bank of America Tower at One Bryant Park is a Skyscraper currently undergoing construction in the Midtown Manhattan district of New York City,

President George Bush’s 2006 Solar America Initiative expects architects and builders to design and construct new zero energy buildings by 2015. [7] The U. S. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007^[21] funded the new Solar Air Conditioning Research and Development Program, to develop technology innovations and mass production economies of scale. Mass production (also called flow production, repetitive flow production, series production, or serial production) is the production of The U. S. Department of Energy and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) also sponsor The Solar Decathlon ^[22] , an international competition among universities for solar energy alternatives when it comes to houses. The houses built by the team are exhibited on the National Mall for the public to experience.

See also

Main list: List of basic architecture topics

Notes

References

External links

• Architecture.com, published by Royal Institute of British Architects
• Arab Architecture