The Aramaeans (also Arameans) were a Semitic (West Semitic language group), semi-nomadic and pastoralist people who lived in upper Mesopotamia and Syria. In Linguistics and Ethnology, Semitic (from the Biblical " Shem " Hebrew שם translated as "name" Arabic: ساميّ Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Aram is the name of a region mentioned in the Bible located in central Syria, including where the city of Aleppo (aka Halab now stands Aramaeans never had a unified empire; they were divided into independent kingdoms all across the Near East. B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century Yet to these Aramaeans befell the privilege of imposing their language and culture upon the entire Near East and beyond, fostered in part by the mass relocations enacted by successive empires, including the Assyrians and Babylonians. B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Scholars even have used the term "Aramaization" for the process by which Assyro-Babylonian peoples became Aramaic-speaking. ^[1]

Language

Main article: Aramaic language

Aramaeans are mostly defined by their use of the Aramaic language, first written using the Phoenician alphabet slightly modified. Aramaic is a Semitic language with Aramaic is a Semitic language with The Phoenician alphabet is a continuation of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, by convention taken to originate around 1050 BC Their language, namely Aramaic, belongs—like Hebrew, Ammonite and others—to the north-western group of Semitic dialects. Aramaic is a Semitic language with Ammon or Ammonites ( also referred to in the Bible as the "children of Ammon" were a people (also known from Assyrian and other records living east In Linguistics and Ethnology, Semitic (from the Biblical " Shem " Hebrew שם translated as "name" Arabic: ساميّ As early as the 8th century BC, Aramaic language and writing competed with the Akkadian language and script (cuneiform) in Assyria, and thereafter it spread throughout the Orient. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Around 500 BC, when the Achaemenid monarchs looked for a language that could be understood by all their subjects, they chose Aramaic, which became the lingua franca of their vast empire. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Aramaic is a Semitic language with A lingua franca (from Italian, literally meaning Frankish language, see etymology under Sabir and Italian below is any Language widely It was not until Greek emerged several centuries later that Aramaic lost its prestige as the most sophisticated language; it remained unchallenged as the common dialect of all peoples of the Near East and was to remain so until the Arab invasion (7th century AD). Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Aramaic is a Semitic language with B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding

According to the linguist Klaus Beyer, the history of the Aramaic language is broken down into three broad periods:

• Old Aramaic (1100 BC–AD 200), including:
  • The Biblical Aramaic of the Hebrew Bible.
  • The Aramaic of Jesus.
  • The Aramaic of the Targums.

The turning point of Old Aramaic was about 500 BC when it shifted to Imperial Aramaic, the lingua franca of the Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian Empires.

• Middle Aramaic (200–1200), including:
  • Literary Syriac.
  • The Aramaic of the Talmuds and Midrashim.

In this period the Nabataeans "l" is often turned into "n", and there are a few Arabic loan words. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions exist from the early days of the kingdom, but most are from the first four centuries. The language is written in a cursive script that is the precursor to the modern Arabic alphabet. The number of Arabic loan words increases through the centuries, until, in the fourth century, Nabataean merges seamlessly with Arabic.

• Modern Aramaic (1200 – present), including:
  • Various modern vernaculars.

These languages are not all mutually understandable, for instance Eastern Syriac is called Chaldean or Assyrian and is very different from the language of the few Mandaeans living in the province of Khuzestan in Iran who speak Modern Mandaic. Very little remains of Western Aramaic, which today is only now spoken in the Christian village of Ma'lula in Syria and the Muslim villages of Bakh`a and Jubb`adin in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains. Ma'loula ( معلولا, Ma‘lūlā, from the Aramaic word ܡܥܠܐ, ma‘lā, meaning 'entrance' is a Aramean-Syriac

History

The origin of the Aramaeans is still uncertain, arising from the limited amount of evidence regarding the mention of Aramaeans in Mesopotamian inscriptions. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding An inscription of Naram-Sin of Akkad (c. 2250 BC) provides the earliest reference to "Aram" as a place name, but scholars have disagreed as to its actual location and significance. Other early references to a place or people of "Aram" have appeared at the archives of Mari (c. Mari (modern Tell Hariri, Syria) was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city located 11 kilometers north-west of the modern town of 1900 BC) and at Ugarit (c. Ugarit ( Ugaritic: ʼugrt; Hebrew:; Arabic:) (modern Ras Shamra رأس شمرة ("top/head/cape of the wild Fennel 1300 BC).

14th century BC

Nomadic pastoralists have always been a feature of the Middle East, but their numbers seem to vary according to climatic conditions and the force of neighbouring states inducing permanent settlement. Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that Pastoralism or pastoral farming is the branch of Agriculture concerned with the raising of Livestock. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The period of the Late Bronze Age seems to have been one of increasing aridity, weakening neighbouring states, and inducing transhumance pastoralists to spend longer and longer periods with their flocks. Transhumance is a term with two accepted usages Older sources use transhumance for vertical seasonal Livestock movement typically to higher Urban settlements diminished in size, until eventually fully nomadic pastoralist lifestyles came to dominate the region. These highly mobile, competitive tribesmen with their sudden raids were a continued threat to long distance trade and interfered with the collection of taxes and tribute. In the early 14th century BC, much of Israel was under Aramaean rule for eight years according to the Biblical Book of Judges until Othniel defeated the forces led by Chushan-Rishathaim, the King of Aram-Naharaim. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Book of Judges ( Hebrew: Sefer Shoftim ספר שופטים is a book of the Bible originally written in Hebrew. Chushan-Rishathaim (כּוּשַׁן רִשְׁעָתַיִם was king of Aram Naharaim or Northwest Mesopotamia. Aram-Naharaim or "Aram of Two Rivers" is a region that is mentioned five times in the Hebrew Bible. Other entities mentioned in the Hebrew Bible include Aram Damascus and Aram Rehob. Aram Damascus was an Aramaean state centered around Damascus in Syria, from the late 12th century BCE to 734 BCE Aram Rehob was an early Aramaean kingdom of which the chief city was Rehob or Beth-Rehob associated with Aram- Zobah as hostile to King David.

The Ahlamû (= wanderers) are first mentioned in the el-Amarna letters alluding to the king of Babylon; the presence of the Ahlamû are also attested in Assyria, Nippur and even at Dilmun (Bahrain); Shalmaneser I (1274-1245 BC) defeated the Shattuara, King of Mitanni and his Hittite and Ahlamû mercenaries are mentioned in the Jazirah. The Amarna letters (sometimes "Amarna correspondence" or "Amarna tablets" are an archive of correspondence on Clay tablets mostly diplomatic Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Nippur (URUENLIL; Sumerian: Nibru Akkadian: Nibbur) from the Sumerian for 'lord wind' (Enlil is modern ? in Afak Al Qadisyah Dilmun (sometimes transliterated Telmun) is a land mentioned by Mesopotamian Civilizations as a trade partner source of raw material copper and Entrepot The Kingdom of Bahrain (in مملكة البحرين,, literally Kingdom of the Two Seas) is an Island country in the Persian Gulf Shalmaneser I ( Shulmanu-asharidu) king of Assyria. (1274 BC – 1245 BC or 1265 BC - 1235 BC Son of Adad-nirari I, he succeeded his father as King Shattuara, also spelled Šattuara was a king of the Hurrian kingdom of Hanigalbat in the thirteenth century BC Mitanni ( Hittite cuneiform, also Mittani) or Hanigalbat ( Assyrian Hanigalbat Khanigalbat cuneiform) The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established The term appears equivalent to the Egyptian term Shasu (Shsw = wanderer), who replaced the outlaw 'Apiru (cuneiform SA. GAZ) as the major source of instability in the Egyptian Levantine empire from the reign of Tutankhamun onwards. In the following century, the Ahlamû cut the road from Babylon to Hattusas, and Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244-1208 BC) claims that he conquered Mari, Hana and Rapiqum on the Euphrates and "the mountain of the Ahlamû", apparently the region of Jebel Bishri. Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Hattusa (URU Ḫa-at-tu-ša 𒌷𒄩𒀜𒌅𒊭 Unicode cuneiform article to display these cuneiform characters--> Tukulti-Ninurta I was a king of Assyria. (reigned 1243 BC – 1207 BC He succeeded Shalmaneser I, his father as king and won a major victory against the Hittites Mari (modern Tell Hariri, Syria) was an ancient Sumerian and Amorite city located 11 kilometers north-west of the modern town of The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת

12th century BC

For the first time, an inscription of Tiglath-Pileser I (1115-1077 BC) refers to the "Ahlamû-Aramaeans" (Ahlame Armaia) and shortly after, the Ahlamû rapidly disappear from Assyrian annals, to be replaced by the Aramaeans (Aramu, Arimi). Tiglath-Pileser I (from the Hebraic form of Akkadian: Tukultī-apil-Ešarra, "my trust is in the son of Esharra " was a king Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture "Ahlamû-Aramaeans" would consider the Aramaeans as an important and in time dominant faction of the Ahlamû tribes, however it is possible that the two peoples had nothing in common, but operated in the same area. ^[2] It is conceivable that the name "Arameans" was a more accurate form of the earlier ethnonym Martu (Amorites, westerners) in the Assyrian tablets. Amorite ( Sumerian MARTU, Akkadian Tidnum or Amurrūm, Egyptian Amar, Hebrew ’emōrî

11th century BC

The Aramaeans were, in the 11th century BC, established in Syria. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية The Bible tells us that Saul, David and Solomon (late 11th to 10th centuries) fought against the Aramaeans kingdoms across the northern frontier of Israel: Aram-Sôvah in the Beq’a, Aram-Bêt-Rehob and Aram-Ma’akah around Mount Hermon, Geshur in the Hauran, and Damascus. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin Saul (שאול המלך (or Sha'ul) ( Arabic: طالوت,Tālūt ( (reigned 1047 - 1007 BCE is identified in the Books of Samuel, 1 Chronicles David, Arabic: داوود or داود dawud, "beloved" was the second king of the united Kingdom of Israel according to the Hebrew Bible King Solomon ( Ge'ez: ስለሞን Arabic: ar سليمان, Sulayman, all from the Triliteral root S-L-M, "peace" For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Farther north, the Aramaeans were in possession of Hamath on the Orontes and were soon to become strong enough to dissociate with the Neo-Hittite block. Hama (ancient Hamath; Arabic: حماة meaning fortress is a city on the banks of the Orontes river in central Syria north of See Orontid dynasty for the Armenian kings and satraps called Orontes The states that are called Neo-Hittite, or more recently Syro-Hittite, were Luwian, Aramaic and Phoenician -speaking political entities of

10th – 9th centuries BC

The Aramaeans conquered, during the 10th and the 9th centuries, Sam’al (Zenjirli), also known as Yaudi, the region from Arpad to Aleppo which they renamed Bît-Agushi, and Til Barsip, which became the chief town of Bît-Adini, also known as Beth Eden. For other meanings see Aleppo (disambiguation. Halab redirects here for other meanings see Halab (disambiguation. Til Barsip (or Til Barsib, modern Tell Ahmar, Syria) is an ancient site situated by the Euphrates river Beth Eden (The House of Eden A city or region of Syria called sometimes Bit Adini in Assyrian sources was an Aramaean state that existed as an independent kingdom At the same time, Aramaeans moved to the east of the Euphrates, where they settled in such numbers that the whole region became known as Aram-Naharaim or "Aram of the two rivers". The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת One of their earliest kingdoms in Mesopotamia was Bît-bahiâni (Tell Halaf). Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Tell Halaf ( Akkadian: Guzana; تل حلف, Syria) North of Sam'al was the Aramaean state of Bit-Gabari, sandwiched between the Neo-Hittite states of Carchemish, Gurgum, Tabal, Khattina and Unqi. The states that are called Neo-Hittite, or more recently Syro-Hittite, were Luwian, Aramaic and Phoenician -speaking political entities of Carchemish (called Europus by the Greco-Romans) was an important ancient city of the Mitanni and Hittite empires now on the frontier between Whilst these later states maintained a Neo-Hittite hieroglyphic for official communication, it would seem that the population of these small states was progressively Aramaeanised.

From 8th century BC

Aramaean kingdoms were subjugated by Adad-nirari II, Ashurnasirpal II, and his son Shalmaneser III, who destroyed many of the small tribes, and gave control of Syria and local trade and natural resources to the Assyrians. Adad-nirari II is generally considered to be the first King of Assyria in the Neo-Assyrian period. Ashur-nasir-pal II ( Transliteration: Aššur-nâṣir-apli, meaning " Ashur is guardian of the heir" was king of Assyria from 884 BC-859 Shalmaneser III ( Šulmānu-ašarēdu, "the god Shulmanu is pre-eminent" was king of Assyria (859 BC-824 BC and son of the previous ruler The Assyrians are an Ethnic group whose origins lie in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria. Some Assyrian Kings even took Aramaean wives. ^[3] Though without a state, Arameans continued their presence in the Near East. B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century

Religion and art

See also Canaanite gods. Ancient Semitic religion spans the Polytheistic religions of the Semitic speaking peoples of the Ancient Near East.

It appears from their inscriptions as well as from their names, that Aramaeans worshipped Sumero-Akkadian and Canaanite gods, such Haddad, (Adad), the storm-god, El, the supreme deity of Canaan, Sin, Ishtar (whom they called ‘Attar), the Phoenician goddess Anat (‘Atta) and others. Canaanites redirects here For the 1940s social and political movement in Israel, see Canaanites (movement. Eli (Hebrew אל is the Northwest Semitic word and name either translated into English as "god" or "God" or left untranslated as Eli, depending Sin (Akkadian Sîn, Suen; Sumerian Nanna) is a Sumerian God in Mesopotamian mythology. Ishtar ( D IŠTAR 𒀭𒌋𒁯 is the Assyrian and Babylonian counterpart to the Sumerian Inanna and to Anat, also ‘Anat is a major northwest Semitic goddess ‘Anat in Ugarit In the Ugaritic Ba‘al / Hadad cycle ‘Anat

The Aramaeans apparently followed the traditions of the country where they settled. The King of Damascus, for instance, employed Phoenician sculptors and ivory-carvers. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun In tell Halaf-Guzana, the palace of Kapara, an Aramaean ruler (9th century B. King Kapara (also Gabara) of Guzana (Tell Halaf was the ruler of a small Aramaean kingdom of Bit Bahiani in the 10th or 9th century BC (Albright C. ), was decorated with orthostats and with statues that display a mixture of Mesopotamian, Hittite and Hurrian influences. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established The Hurrians (also Khurrites; cuneiform Ḫu-ur-ri 𒄷𒌨𒊑 were a people of the Ancient Near East, who lived in northern Mesopotamia

Modern

Main articles: Aramean-Syriac people and Modern Arameans

Further information: Names of Syriac Christians

Modern Arameans are known as "Syriacs" or "Arameans". The Aramean-Syriac people ( Syriac: arc [[arcܣܘܪܝܝܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ ܐܪܡܝܐ]]) are an Ethnic group who are widely The Aramean-Syriac people ( Syriac: arc [[arcܣܘܪܝܝܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ ܐܪܡܝܐ]]) are an Ethnic group who are widely The various communities of adherents of Syriac Christianity and speakers of Neo-Syriac advocate different terms for ethnic self-designation "Assyrians" The Aramean-Syriac people ( Syriac: arc [[arcܣܘܪܝܝܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ ܐܪܡܝܐ]]) are an Ethnic group who are widely They are primarily followers of the various churches of Syriac Christianity. Syriac Christianity is a culturally and linguistically distinctive community within Eastern Christianity.

External references

• Jewish Encyclopedia: Aram-Naharaim
• The Arameans

References

• S. Moscati, 'The Aramaean Ahlamû', FSS, IV (1959), pp. 303-7;
• M. Freiherr Von Oppenheim, Der Tell Halaf, Leipzig, 1931 pp. 71-198;
• M. Freiherr Von Oppenheim, Tell Halaf, III, Die Bauwerke, Berlin, 1950;
• A. Moortgat, Tell Halaf IV, Die Bildwerke, Berlin, 1955;
• B. Hrouda, Tell Halaf IV, Die Kleinfunde aus historischer Zeit, Berlin, 1962;
• G. Roux, Ancient Iraq, London, 1980.
• Beyer, Klaus (1986). "The Aramaic language: its distribution and subdivisions". (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht). ISBN 3-525-53573-2.

Notes