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Arabic literature (Arabic: الأدب العربي Al-Adab Al-Arabi) is the writing produced, both prose and poetry, by speakers (not necessarily native speakers) of the Arabic language. The history of literature is the historical development of Writings in Prose or Poetry which attempt to provide Entertainment, enlightenment The History of literature begins with the History of writing, in Bronze Age Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, although the oldest literary Sumerian literature is the oldest literature in the worldThe Sumerians invented the first writing system beginning with cuneiform Logograms Ancient Egyptian literature comprises texts written in the Egyptian language during the pharaonic period of Egypt. Babylonian literature is one of the world's oldest Drawing on the traditions of Sumerian literature, the Babylonians compiled a vast textual tradition of mythological A classical language, is a language with a Literature that is "classical"&mdashie "it should be ancient it should be an independent tradition that arose mostly Chinese classic texts or Chinese canonical texts ( refer to the pre- Qin Chinese texts especially the Confucian Four Books and Five Classics Ancient Greek literature refers to Literature written in the Greek language until the 4th century AD Latin literature, the body of written works in the Latin language remains an enduring legacy of the culture of Ancient Rome. Middle Persian literature is Persian literature of the 1st millennium AD, especially of the Sassanid period Pali literature is concerned mainly with Theravada Buddhism, of which Pali is the traditional language Literature in Sanskrit begins with the Vedas, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India; the golden age of Classical Syriac literature is Literature written in the Syriac language, an eastern Aramaic language. Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature created between the years 300 BCE and 600 CE Medieval literature is a broad subject encompassing essentially all written works available in Europe beyond and during the Middle Ages (encompassing the one thousand Anglo-Saxon literature (or Old English literature) encompasses Literature written in Anglo-Saxon (Old English during the 600-year Anglo-Saxon Byzantine literature may be defined as the Greek literature of the Middle Ages, whether written in the territory of the Byzantine Empire or outside Medieval French literature is for the purpose of this article Literature written in Oïl languages (particularly Old French and early Middle Medieval German literature refers to Literature written in Germany stretching from the Carolingian dynasty; various dates have been given for the end of the See also Israeli literature. Hebrew literature consists of ancient medieval and modern writings in the Hebrew language. Indian literature is generally acknowledged as one of the oldest in the world The earliest Irish authors It is unclear when literacy first came to Ireland This is a list of Japanese classic texts. These classical works of Japanese literature are grouped by genres in a chronological order Kannada literature is the body of literature of Kannada, a Dravidian language spoken mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka and written in the Nepal Bhasa literature refers to Literature in Nepal Bhasa History Nepal Bhasa has a long history as regards literature Old Norse literature refers to the vernacular literature of the Scandinavian peoples up to ca Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost Mediaeval Welsh literature is the literature written in the Welsh language during the Middle Ages. The History of literature of the Early Modern period ( 16th, 17th and partly 18th century literature) Renaissance Literature refers to the period in European literature, which began in Italy during the 15th century and spread around Europe through Baroque art redirects here Please disambiguate such links to Baroque painting, Baroque sculpture, etc The History of literature in the Modern period in Europe begins with the Age of Enlightenment and the conclusion of the Baroque period in the 18th century See also 17th century in literature, other events of the 18th century, 19th century in literature, List of years in literature. See also 18th century in literature, other events of the 19th century, 20th century in literature, List of years in literature. See also 19th century in literature, other events of the 20th century, 21st century in literature, List of years in literature. Medieval literature is a broad subject encompassing essentially all written works available in Europe beyond and during the Middle Ages (encompassing the one thousand Renaissance Literature refers to the period in European literature, which began in Italy during the 15th century and spread around Europe through See also Ancient literature, 10th century in literature, List of years in literature. According to the mediæval poet Jean Bodel, the Matter of Rome was the literary cycle made up of Greek and Roman mythology The Matter of France, also known as the Carolingian cycle, is a body of Legendary history that springs from the Old French Medieval literature The Matter of Britain is a name given collectively to the Legends that concern the Celtic and legendary History of Great Britain, especially those Byzantine literature may be defined as the Greek literature of the Middle Ages, whether written in the territory of the Byzantine Empire or outside Medieval literature is a broad subject encompassing essentially all written works available in Europe beyond and during the Middle Ages (encompassing the one thousand See also Israeli literature. Hebrew literature consists of ancient medieval and modern writings in the Hebrew language. Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost Renaissance Literature refers to the period in European literature, which began in Italy during the 15th century and spread around Europe through Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language For the Wikipedia guideline regarding editing articles see WikipediaManual of Style. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language It does not usually include works written using the Arabic alphabet but not in the Arabic language such as Persian literature and Urdu literature. The Arabic alphabet is the script used for writing several languages of Asia and Africa such as Arabic, Persian, and Urdu. Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost Urdu literature has a long and colorful history that is inextricably tied to the development of that very language Urdu, in which it is written The Arabic word used for literature is adab which is derived from a word meaning "to invite someone for a meal" and implies politeness, culture and enrichment. This is a sub-article of Islamic jurisprudence and Etiquette.

Arabic literature emerged in the 6th century with only fragments of the written language appearing before then. The 6th century is the period from 501 to 600 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. It was the Qur'an in the 7th century which would have the greatest lasting effect on Arabic culture and its literature. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Literature See also Arabic literature Arabic literature is the writing produced both Prose and Poetry, by speakers of the Arabic literature flourished during the Islamic Golden Age and continues to the present day.

Contents 1 Pre-Islamic literature 2 The Qur'an and Islam 3 Islamic scholarship 4 Arabic poetry 5 Non-fiction literature 5.1 Compilations and manuals 5.2 Biography, history, and geography 5.3 Diaries 6 Fiction literature 6.1 Epic literature 6.2 Maqama 6.3 Romantic poetry 6.4 Plays 6.5 Philosophical novels 6.6 Science fiction 7 The decline of Arabic literature 8 Modern literature 8.1 Modern Arabic novels 8.2 Modern plays 9 Women in Arabic literature 10 Literary criticism 11 Outside views of Arabic literature 12 Noted authors 12.1 Poetry 12.2 Prose 12.2.1 Historical 12.2.2 Modern 13 Notes and references 14 See also 15 External links

Pre-Islamic literature

Further information: Pre-Islamic poetry

The period before the writing of the Qur'an and the rise of Islam is known to Muslims as Jahiliyyah or period of ignorance. Arabic poetry ( Arabic, الِشعر العربي ash-shi`ru 'l-`arabiy) is the earliest form of Arabic literature. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Jahiliyyah, al-Jahiliyah or jahalia ( Arabic: جاهلية) is an Islamic concept of "ignorance of divine guidance" or "the Whilst this ignorance refers mainly to religious ignorance, there is little written literature before this time, although significant oral tradition is postulated. Oral tradition, oral culture and oral lore is a way for a society to transmit history, literature, law and other Knowledges Tales like those about Sinbad and Antar bin Shaddad were probably current, but were recorded later.  'Antara Ibn Shaddād al-'Absi عنترة بن شداد العبسي was a pre-Islamic Arab hero and poet ( fl The final decades of the 6th century, however, begin to show the flowering of a lively written tradition. The 6th century is the period from 501 to 600 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. This tradition was captured over two centuries later with two important compilations of the Mu'allaqat and the Mufaddaliyat. The Mu'allaqāt ( Arabic معلقات /al-muʕallaqaːt/ is the title of a group of seven long Arabic poems or qasida (singular qaṣīda The Mufaddaliyat or Mofaddaliyat, Arabic المفضليات (Ar These collections probably give us a biased picture of the writings of the time as only the best poems are preserved; some of the poems may represent only the best part of a long poem. However they can be stories and novels and even fairy tales as well.

The Qur'an and Islam

The Qur'an had a significant influence on the Arab language. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran The language used in the Qur'an is called classical Arabic and while modern Arabic has diverged slightly, the classical is still the style to be admired. Classical Arabic (CA also known as Qur'anic or Koranic Arabic, is the form of the Arabic language used in literary texts from Umayyad Not only is the Qur'an the first work of any significant length written in the language it also has a far more complicated structure than the earlier literary works with its 114 suras (chapters) which contain 6,236 ayat (verses). Sura (sometimes spelt "Surah" ar سورة, plural "Suwar" ar سور is an Arabic term literally meaning "something enclosed or surrounded Ayah (ar آية, plural Ayat ar آيات) is the Arabic word for sign or Miracle, cognate with Hebrew ot, It contains injunctions, narratives, homilies, parables, direct addresses from God, instructions and even comments on itself on how it will be received and understood. An injunction is an Equitable remedy in the form of a Court order, whereby a party is required to do or interact with in certain ways all right or to refrain from A narrative or story is a construct created in a suitable format (written spoken poetry prose images song Theater, or Dance) that describes a sequence of A homily is a commentary that follows a reading of scripture In the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, and in the Eastern Orthodox Church A parable is a brief succinct story in Prose or verse, that illustrates a Moral or Religious lesson It is also, paradoxically, admired for its layers of metaphor as well as its clarity, a feature it mentions itself in sura 16:103.

Although it contains elements of both prose and poetry, and therefore is closest to Saj or rhymed prose, the Qur'an is regarded as entirely apart from these classifications. Rhymed prose is a Literary form and Literary genre, written in unmetrical Rhymes This form has been known in many different cultures Rhymed prose is a Literary form and Literary genre, written in unmetrical Rhymes This form has been known in many different cultures The text is believed to be divine revelation and is seen by some Muslims as being eternal or 'uncreated'. Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion This leads to the doctrine of i'jaz or inimitability of the Qur'an which implies that nobody can copy the work's style nor should anybody try.

This doctrine of i'jaz possibly had a slight limiting effect on Arabic literature; proscribing exactly what could be written. The Qur'an itself criticises poets in the 26th sura, actually called Ash-Shu'ara or The Poets:

And as to the poets, those who go astray follow them.

16:224

This may have exerted dominance over the pre-Islamic poets of the 6th century whose popularity may have vied with the Qur'an amongst the people. The 6th century is the period from 501 to 600 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. There were a marked lack of significant poets until the 8th century. The 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. One notable exception was Hassan ibn Thabit who wrote poems in praise of Muhammad and was known as the "prophet's poet". Hassan ibn Thabit (حسان بن ثابت (died 674 was an Arabian Poet and one of the Sahaba, or companions of Muhammad. IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Just as the Bible has held an important place in the literature of other languages, The Qur'an is important to Arabic. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin It is the source of many ideas, allusions and quotes and its moral message informs many works.

Aside from the Qur'an the hadith or tradition of what Muhammed is supposed to have said and done are important literature. Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic The entire body of these acts and words are called sunnah or way and the ones regarded as sahih or genuine of them are collected into hadith. Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” Some of the most significant collections of hadith include those by Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj and Muhammad ibn Isma'il al-Bukhari. Abul Husayn Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj Qushayri al-Nisapuri ( Arabic: أبو الحسين مسلم بن الحجاج القشيري النيشابوري (lived c Al-Bukhari (البخاري or just Bukhari is an Arabic Nesbat, meaning "from Bukhara " the old Transoxiana location of

The other important genre of work in Qur'anic study is the tafsir or commentaries on the Qur'an. Tafsir ( Arabic: تفسير, tafsīr, "interpretation" is the Arabic word for Exegesis In Literary criticism, close reading describes the careful sustained interpretation of a brief passage of text Arab writings relating to religion also includes many sermons and devotional pieces as well as the sayings of Ali which were collected in the 10th century as Nahj al-Balaghah or The Peak of Eloquence. A sermon is an oration by a Prophet or member of the Clergy. Sermons address a Biblical, theological, or religious topic ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (a=علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب|t=ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib 13th Rajab, 24 BH – 21st Ramaḍān, 40 AH The Nahj al-Balagha ( Arabic: نهج البلاغة "Peak of Eloquence" is the most famous collections of Shi'a hadith, attributed to Ali

Islamic scholarship

The research into the life and times of Muhammad, and determining the genuine parts of the sunnah, was an important early reason for scholarship in or about the Arabic language. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language The Brethren of Purity ( Arabic اخوان الصفا Ikhwan al-Safa; also translated as Brethren of Sincerity) were a mysterious The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language It was also the reason for the collecting of pre-Islamic poetry; as some of these poets were close to the prophet—Labid actually meeting Muhammed and converting to Islam—and their writings illuminated the times when these event occurred. Labīd ( Abu Aqil Labīd ibn Rabī'ah) Arabic لَبيد بن ربيعة بن مالك أبو عقيل العامِري (c Muhammad also inspired the first Arabic biographies, known as al-sirah al-nabawiyyah; the earliest was by Wahb ibn Munabbih, but Muhammad ibn Ishaq wrote the best known. A biography (from the Greek words bíos (βίος meaning "life" and gráphein (γράφειν meaning "to write" is an account Wahb ibn Munabbih ( Arabic, وهب بن منبه)was a Muslim traditionist of Dhimar (two days' journey from Sanaa) in Yemen Whilst covering the life of the prophet they also told of the battles and events of early Islam and have numerous digressions on older biblical traditions.

Some of the earliest work studying the Arabic language was started in the name of Islam. Tradition has it that the caliph Ali, after reading a Qur'an with errors in it, asked Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali to write a work codifying Arabic grammar. ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (a=علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب|t=ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib 13th Rajab, 24 BH – 21st Ramaḍān, 40 AH TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Aswad Al-Du'ali ( Arabic:أبو الأسود الدؤلي (c Arabic is a Semitic language See Arabic language for more information on the language in general Khalil ibn Ahmad would later write Kitab al-Ayn, the first dictionary of Arabic, along with works on prosody and music, and his pupil Sibawayh would produce the most respected work of Arabic grammar known simply as al-Kitab or The Book. Khalīl ibn Ahmad Al Farāhīdi (أبو عبد الرحمن ، الخليل بن أحمد الفراهيدي (More commonly known as Al Farāhīdi (c In Linguistics, prosody (from Greek προσωδία) is the Rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech Music is an Art form in which the medium is Sound organized in Time. Sibawayh ( Sibuyeh in Persian, سيبويه Sîbawayh in Arabic, سیبویه was a linguist of Persian origin born

Other caliphs exerted their influence on Arabic with 'Abd al-Malik making it the official language for administration of the new empire, and al-Ma'mun setting up the Bayt al-Hikma or House of Wisdom in Baghdad for research and translations. Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (646-705 (عبد الملك بن مروان was the 5th Umayyad Caliph. Abu Jafar al-Ma'mun ibn Harun (also spelled Almamon and el-Mâmoûn) ( September 14, 786 &ndash August 9, 833) (المأمون The House of Wisdom ( Arabic: بيت الحكمة; Bait al-Hikma) was a library and translation institute in Abbassid -era Baghdad, Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Basrah and Kufah were two other important seats of learning in the early Arab world, between which there was a strong rivalry. Basra ( BGN: AlBasrah also called Basorah Abillah and Uruk or IRAQ The name that British colony has adopted for Basra Kufa ( Arabic, ar الكوفة) is a city in modern Iraq, about 170 km south of Baghdad, and 10 km northeast of Najaf.

The institutions set up mainly to investigate more fully the Islamic religion were invaluable in studying many other subjects. Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik was instrumental in enriching the literature by instructing scholars to translate works into Arabic. "Hisham" redirects here For the hadith narrator see Hisham ibn Urwah. The first was probably Aristotle's correspondence with Alexander the Great translated by Salm Abu al-'Ala'. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' From the east, and in a very different literary genre, Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa translated the animal fables of the Panchatantra. Abdullah Ibn Dhadawayh ( Persian: عبدالله ابن دادویه) also known as Rouzbeh pur-e Dādvayh ( Persian: روزبه پور دادوَيه A fable is a succinct story in prose or verse that features Animals Plants inanimate objects, or forces of nature which are The Panchatantra (also spelled Pañcatantra, in Sanskrit: पञ्चतन्त्र 'Five Principles' or Kalīleh o Demneh These translations would keep alive scholarship and learning, particularly that of ancient Greece, during the dark ages in Europe and the works would often be first re-introduced to Europe from the Arabic versions. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca This article is about the phrase "Dark Age(s" as a characterization of the Early Middle Ages in Western Europe

Arabic poetry

Main article: Arabic poetry

A large proportion of Arabic literature before the 20th century is in the form of poetry, and even prose from this period is either filled with snippets of poetry or is in the form of saj or rhymed prose. Arabic poetry ( Arabic, الِشعر العربي ash-shi`ru 'l-`arabiy) is the earliest form of Arabic literature. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on Saj‘ is a form of Rhymed prose in Arabic literature. It is named so because of its evenness or monotony or from a fancied resemblance between its Rhythm The themes of the poetry range from high-flown hymns of praise to bitter personal attacks and from religious and mystical ideas to poems on sex and wine. An important feature of the poetry which would be applied to all of the literature was the idea that it must be pleasing to the ear. The poetry and much of the prose was written with the design that it would be spoken aloud and great care was taken to make all writing as mellifluous as possible. Indeed saj originally meant the cooing of a dove.

Non-fiction literature

Compilations and manuals

In the late 9th century Ibn al-Nadim, a Baghdadi bookseller, compiled a crucial work in the study of Arabic literature. The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Abu'l-Faraj Muhammad bin Ishaq al-Nadim ( Arabic: ابو الفرج محمد بن إسحاق النديم whose father was known as al-Warraq (Arabic الورّاق Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Kitab al-Fihrist is a catalogue of all books available for sale in Baghdad and it gives a fascinating overview of the state of the literature at that time.

One of the most common forms of literature during the Abbasid period was the compilation. These were collections of facts, ideas, instructive stories and poems on a single topic and covers subjects as diverse as house and garden, women, gate-crashers, blind people, envy, animals and misers. These last three compilations were written by al-Jahiz the acknowledged master of the form. Al-Jāḥiẓ (in Arabic الجاحظ (real name Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri) (born in Basra, c These collections were important for any nadim, a companion to a ruler or noble whose role was often involved regaling the ruler with stories and information to entertain or advise. Nadim Arabic Noun Masculine Companion and familiar friend partner in table fellowship faithful comrade

A type of work closely allied to the collection was the manual in which writers like ibn Qutaybah offered instruction in subjects like etiquette, how to rule, how to be a bureaucrat and even how to write. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Qutaybah (828 - 889 CE / 213 - 276 AH was a renowned Islamic scholar from Ibn Qutaybah also wrote one of the earliest histories of the Arabs, drawing together biblical stories, Arabic folk tales and more historical events. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Qutaybah (828 - 889 CE / 213 - 276 AH was a renowned Islamic scholar from History The concept of folklore developed as part of the 19th century ideology of Romantic nationalism, leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological

The subject of sex was frequently investigated in Arabic literature. The ghazal or love poem had a long history being at times tender and chaste and at other times rather explicit. In Poetry, the ghazal ( Arabic / Persian / Urdu: غزل; Hindi: ग़ज़ल Turkish gazel) is a In the Sufi tradition the love poem would take on a wider, mystical and religious importance. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Sex manuals were also written such as The Perfumed Garden, Ṭawq al-Ḥamāmah or The Dove's Neckring by ibn Hazm and Nuzhat al-albab fi-ma la yujad fi kitab or Delight of Hearts Concerning What will Never Be Found in a Book by Ahmad al-Tifashi. The Perfumed Garden ( Arabic:الروض العاطر في نزهة الخاطر by Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Nafzawi is a Sex manual and work The Ring of the Dove ( Arabic: طوق الحمامة Ṭawq al-Ḥamāmah) is a treatise on love written ca Ibn Hazm ( 7 November 994 &ndash 15 August 1064 was an Andalusian - Arab philosopher, litterateur Ahmad al-Tifashi (or Ahmad ibn Yusuf al-Tīfāchī born in Tunisia (died 1253 was an Arabic poet writer and anthologist Countering such works are one like Rawdat al-muhibbin wa-nuzhat al-mushtaqin or Meadow of Lovers and Diversion of the Infatuated by ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah who advises on how to separate love and lust and avoid sin. Not to be confused with the other Islamic scholar Ibn al-Jawzi.

Biography, history, and geography

Further information: Historiography of early Islam, Islamic sociology, and Early Muslim sociology

Aside from the early biographies of Muhammad, the first major biographer to weigh character rather than just producing a hymn of praise was al-Baladhuri with his Kitab ansab al-ashraf or Book of the Genealogies of the Noble, a collection of biographies. Maqāma ( Arabic: مقامة pl maqāmāt, مقامات; literally "assemblies" are an (originally Arabic The Historiography of early Islam refers to the study of the early origins of Islam based on a critical analysis evaluation and examination of authentic Primary Islamic Sociology is a discipline of Islamic studies and the Social sciences. A biography (from the Greek words bíos (βίος meaning "life" and gráphein (γράφειν meaning "to write" is an account TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ahmad Ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri Arabic (أحمد بن يحيى بن جابر البلاذري Genealogies of the Nobles ( Arabic: أنساب الأشراف transliterated: Ansab al-Ashraf is a history book related to Another important biographical dictionary was begun by ibn Khallikan and expanded by al-Safadi and one of the first significant autobiographies was Kitab al-I'tibar which told of Usamah ibn Munqidh and his experiences in fighting in the Crusades. Abu-l ‘Abbas Ahmad ibn Khallikan (أبو العباس أحمد بن خلكان ( September 22, 1211 &ndash October 30, 1282) was a Kurdish An autobiography, from the Greek αὐτός autos "self" βίος bios "life" and γράφειν graphein "to write" Kitab al-I'tibar ( The Book of Learning by Example) is the autobiography of Usāmah ibn-Munqidh, an Arab Syrian diplomat and soldier of the Usamah ibn Murshid ibn Munqidh (1095-1188 also Osama Usama Ussama or Usmah Arabic: أسامة بن منقذ) an Arab Historian, Politician The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents

Ibn Khurdadhbih, apparently an official in the postal service wrote one of the first travel books and the form remained a popular one in Arabic literature with books by ibn Hawqal, ibn Fadlan, al-Istakhri, al-Muqaddasi, al-Idrisi and most famously the travels of ibn Battutah. Abu'l Qasim Ubaid'Allah ibn Khordadbeh ( Persian: fa ابوالقاسم عبیدالله ابن خردادبه) (c A guide book is a book for Tourists or travelers that provides details about a Geographic location, Tourist destination, or Itinerary. Mohammed Abul-Kassem ibn Hawqal (محمد أبو القاسم بن حوقل born in Nisibis; travelled 943-969 CE was a 10th century Arab writer geographer and Ahmad Ibn Fadlān ibn al-Abbās ibn Rašīd ibn Hammād (أحمد بن فضلان بن العباس بن رشيد بن حماد was a 10th century Arab Muslim Muhammad ibn Ahmad Shams al-Din Al-Muqaddasi (محمد بن أحمد شمس الدين المقدسي also Transliterated as Al-Maqdisi and el-Mukaddasi Abu Abd Allah Muhammad al-Idrisi al-Qurtubi al-Hasani al-Sabti or simply El Idrisi ( Arabic أبو عبد الله محمد الإدريسي Latin: Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Al Lawati Al Tanji Ibn Battuta (أبو عبد الله محمد ابن عبد الله اللواتي الطنجي بن بطوطة (born February These give a fascinating view of the many cultures of the wider Islamic world and also offer Muslim perspectives on the non-Muslim peoples on the edges of the empire. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion They also indicated just how great a trading power the Muslim peoples had become. These were often sprawling accounts that included details of both geography and history. Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology

Some writers concentrated solely on history like al-Ya'qubi and al-Tabari, whilst others focused on a small portion of history such as ibn al-Azraq, with a history of Mecca, and ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur, writing a history of Baghdad. Ahmad ibn Abu Ya'qub ibn Ja'far ibn Wahb Ibn Wadih al-Ya'qubi (? – 897 known as Ya'qubi, was a Muslim historian and Geographer Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-923 أبو جعفر محمد بن جرير الطبري was one of the earliest most prominent and famous Persian Historians Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous The historian regarded as the greatest of all Arabic historians though is ibn Khaldun whose history Muqaddimah focuses on society and is a founding text in sociology and economics. Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 The Muqaddimah, or the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun ( Arabic: ar مقدّمة ابن خلدون Amazigh: Tazwarit n Ibn Xldun Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

Diaries

In the medieval Near East, Arabic diaries were first being written from before the 10th century, though the medieval diary which most resembles the modern diary was that of Ibn Banna in the 11th century. For other uses of the term 'diary' see Diary (disambiguation. His diary was the earliest to be arranged in order of date (ta'rikh in Arabic), very much like modern diaries. ^[1]

Fiction literature

In the Arab world, there was a great distinction between al-fusha (quality language) and al-ammiyyah (language of the common people). Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Not many writers would write works in this al-ammiyyah or common language and it was felt that literature had to be improving, educational and with purpose rather than just entertainment. This did not stop the common role of the hakawati or story-teller who would retell the entertaining parts of more educational works or one of the many Arabic fables or folk-tales, which were often not written down in many cases. A fable is a succinct story in prose or verse that features Animals Plants inanimate objects, or forces of nature which are History The concept of folklore developed as part of the 19th century ideology of Romantic nationalism, leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological Nevertheless, some of the earliest novels, including the first philosophical novels, were written by Arabic authors. A novel (from Italian novella, Spanish novela, French nouvelle for "new" "news" or "short story Philosophical novels are works of Fiction in which a significant proportion of the novel is devoted to a discussion of the sort of questions normally addressed in discursive

Epic literature

Main article: Arabic epic literature

The most famous example of Arabic fiction is the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), easily the best known of all Arabic literature and which still affects many of the ideas non-Arabs have about Arabic culture. Arabic epic literature encompasses Epic poetry and Epic fantasy in Arabic literature. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Hadith Bayāḍ wa Riyāḍ ( Arabic, حديث بياض ورياض Translated The Story of Bayad and Riyad) or Qissat Bayad wa Riyad is a Literature See also Arabic literature Arabic literature is the writing produced both Prose and Poetry, by speakers of the Although regarded as primarily Arabic it was in fact developed from a Persian work and the stories in turn may have their roots in India. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country A good example of the lack of popular Arabic prose fiction is that the stories of Aladdin and Ali Baba, usually regarded as part of the Tales from One Thousand and One Nights, were not actually part of the Tales. Aladdin (an Anglicisation of the Arabic name (originally Syrian Alāʼ ad-Dīn, Arabic: علاء الدين literally "nobility of the faith" Ali Baba ( Arabic, Persian: علي بابا is a Fictional character based in Ancient Arabia. They were first included in French translation of the Tales by Antoine Galland who heard them being told by a traditional storyteller and only existed in incomplete Arabic manuscripts before that. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Antoine Galland ( April 4, 1646 &mdash February 17, 1715) was a French Orientalist and Archaeologist, most The other great character from Arabic literature Sinbad is from the Tales.

The One Thousand and One Nights is usually placed in the genre of Arabic epic literature along with several other works. Arabic epic literature encompasses Epic poetry and Epic fantasy in Arabic literature. They are usually, like the Tales, collections of short stories or episodes strung together into a long tale. The extant versions were mostly written down relatively late on, after the 14th century, although many were undoubtedly collected earlier and many of the original stories are probably pre-Islamic. Types of stories in these collections include animal fables, proverbs, stories of jihad or propagation of the faith, humorous tales, moral tales, tales about the wily con-man Ali Zaybaq and tales about the prankster Juha. A proverb (from the Latin proverbium) also called a byword or nayword, is a simple and concrete Saying popularly known and repeated Jihad (جهاد ʤɪhæːd an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims.

Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, considered the greatest epic of Italian literature, derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on Islamic eschatology: the Hadith and the Kitab al-Miraj (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before^[2] as Liber Scale Machometi, "The Book of Muhammad's Ladder") concerning Muhammad's ascension to Heaven, and the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi. The Divine Comedy Islamic eschatology is concerned with the al-Qiyāmah "Last Judgement" Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic The Kitab al Miraj (Arabic كتاب المعراج "Book of Ascension" is a Muslim book concerned with Muhammad 's ascension into the Heavens (known as IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Arabi (ابن عربي ( July 28, 1165 - November 10, 1240) was an

Maqama

Maqama not only straddles the divide between prose and poetry, being instead a form of rhymed prose, it is also part way between fiction and non-fiction. Maqamat Badi' al-Zaman al-Hamadhani, ( Arabic مقامات بديع الزمان الهمذاني) an Arabic[http //www Badi' al-Zamān al-Hamadāni or Badi' al-Zamān al-Hamadhāni (967 - 1007 Arabic: بديع الزمان الهمذاني) was a tenth century master of The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Maqāma ( Arabic: مقامة pl maqāmāt, مقامات; literally "assemblies" are an (originally Arabic For the Wikipedia guideline regarding editing articles see WikipediaManual of Style. Rhymed prose is a Literary form and Literary genre, written in unmetrical Rhymes This form has been known in many different cultures Over a series of short narratives, which are fictionalised versions of real life situations, different ideas are contemplated. A good example of this is a maqama on musk, which purports to compare the feature of different perfumes but is in fact a work of political satire comparing several competing rulers. Maqama also makes use of the doctrine of badi or deliberately adding complexity to display the writer's dexterity with language. Al-Hamadhani is regarded as the originator of the maqama and his work was taken up by Abu Muhammad al-Qasim al-Hariri with one of al-Hariri's maqama a study of al-Hamadhani own work. Badi' al-Zamān al-Hamadāni or Badi' al-Zamān al-Hamadhāni (967 - 1007 Arabic: بديع الزمان الهمذاني) was a tenth century master of Muhammad al-Qasim ibn Ali ibn Muhammad ibn Uthman al-Hariri ( محمد القاسم بن علي بن محمد بن عثمان الحريري) popularly known as al-Hariri Maqama was an incredibly popular form of Arabic literature, being one of the few forms which continued to be written during the decline of Arabic in the 17th and 18th century. As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 17th Century was that Century which lasted from 1601 - 1700 in the Gregorian calendar The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system

Romantic poetry

A famous example of Arabic poetry on romance (love) is Layla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. Arabic poetry ( Arabic, الِشعر العربي ash-shi`ru 'l-`arabiy) is the earliest form of Arabic literature. NOTICE TO WOULD-BE-ROMEOS*************** For the film see Leyli o Majnun (1936 film. Layla and Majnun, also known as The Madman of Layla - in Arabic It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet, which was itself said to have been inspired by a Latin version of Layla and Majnun to an extent. Love is any of a number of Emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong Affection. Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written early in the Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. ^[3]

There were several elements of courtly love which were developed in Arabic literature, namely the notions of "love for love's sake" and "exaltation of the beloved lady" which have been traced back to Arabic literature of the 9th and 10th centuries. Courtly love was a Medieval European conception of ennobling love which found its genesis in the ducal and princely courts of Aquitaine, Provence The notion of the "ennobling power" of love was developed in the early 11th century by the Persian psychologist and philosopher, Ibn Sina (known as "Avicenna" in Europe), in his Arabic treatise Risala fi'l-Ishq (Treatise on Love). Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The final element of courtly love, the concept of "love as desire never to be fulfilled", was also at times implicit in Arabic poetry. Arabic poetry ( Arabic, الِشعر العربي ash-shi`ru 'l-`arabiy) is the earliest form of Arabic literature. ^[4]

Plays

Theatre and drama has only been a visible part of Arabic literature in the modern era. There may have been a much longer theatrical tradition but it was probably not regarded as legitimate literature and mostly went unrecorded. There is an ancient tradition of public performance amongst Shi'i Muslims of a play depicting the life and death of al-Husayn at the battle of Karbala in 680 CE. Ḥusayn ibn ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar حسين بن علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب)‎ (third of Shaban 4 AH / 8th January 626 AD at Medina The Battle of Karbala took place on Muharram 10 61 AH ( October 9 or 10 680 CE in Karbala, in present day Iraq. Events By Place Europe The Bulgars subjugate the country of current-day Bulgaria. There are also several plays composed by Shams al-din Muhammad ibn Daniyal in the 13th century when he mentions that older plays are getting stale and offers his new works as fresh material.

The Moors had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent George Peele (born in London and baptized 25 July 1556 &ndash buried 9 November 1596) was an English Dramatist William Shakespeare ( baptised Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. The Battle of Alcazar is a play by George Peele, probably written and first staged in the late 1580s published in 1594. The Merchant of Venice is a play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1596 and 1598 Titus Andronicus may be Shakespeare's earliest Tragedy; it is believed to have been written sometime between 1584 and the early 1590s Othello is the Title character of William Shakespeare's Othello. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century. Delegation (also called deputation) is the assignment of authority and responsibility to another person (normally from a manager to a subordinate to carry out specific activities Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Romance and reality The Victorian era and the early twentieth century idealised the Elizabethan era ^[5]

Philosophical novels

The Arab Islamic philosophers, Ibn Tufail (Abubacer)^[6] and Ibn al-Nafis,^[7] were pioneers of the philosophical novel as they wrote the earliest novels dealing with philosophical fiction. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Philosophical novels are works of Fiction in which a significant proportion of the novel is devoted to a discussion of the sort of questions normally addressed in discursive A novel (from Italian novella, Spanish novela, French nouvelle for "new" "news" or "short story Philosophy and Literature is an Academic journal founded in 1977 Ibn Tufail wrote the first Arabic fictional novel Philosophus Autodidactus as a response to al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers. Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān ( حي بن يقظان " Alive son of Awake " Philosophus Autodidactus " The Self-Taught Philosopher Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died The Incoherence of the Philosophers ( Tahāfut al-Falāsifaʰ) in Arabic (تهافت الفلاسفة is the title of a landmark 11th century Polemic in Islamic This was followed by Ibn al-Nafis who wrote a fictional narrative Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic individuals spontaneously generated in a cave and living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. The Protagonist or main character is the central figure of a story. Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is self-education or self-directed learning In the Natural sciences, Abiogenesis, or origin of life, is the study of how Life on Earth emerged from Inanimate Organic A cave is a natural underground void large enough for a human to enter The term desert island, or deserted island, refers to an Island which is uninhabited or sparsely inhabited However, while Hayy lives alone on the desert island for most of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus (until he meets a castaway named Absal), the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus (when castaways take him back to civilization with them), developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel. A castaway is a person who is cast adrift or ashore While the situation usually happens after a Shipwreck, some people voluntarily stay behind on a deserted island either Coming of age is a young person's transition from Adolescence to Adulthood The age at which this transition takes place varies in society as does the nature ^[8][9]

Ibn al-Nafis described his book Theologus Autodidactus as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world. " He presents rational arguments for bodily resurrection and the immortality of the human soul, using both demonstrative reasoning and material from the hadith corpus to prove his case. This article concerns itself with Jesus Christ Christian, Islamic and other religious interpretations of resurrection in general Immortality (or eternal life) is the concept of living in physical or spiritual form for an Infinite length of Time. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living Reasoning is the cognitive process of looking for Reasons for beliefs conclusions actions or feelings Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to the metaphysical claim of Avicenna and Ibn Tufail that bodily resurrection cannot be proven through reason, a view that was earlier criticized by al-Ghazali. Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science ^[10] Ibn al-Nafis' work was later translated into Latin and English as Theologus Autodidactus in the early 20th century.

A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, entitled Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Edward Pococke (1604-1691 was an English Orientalist and biblical scholar The first English translation by Simon Ockley was published in 1708, and German and Dutch translations were also published at the time. Simon Ockley (1678 – August 9, 1720) was a British Orientalist. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, which also featured a desert island narrative and was regarded as the first novel in English. Daniel Defoe (1659/1661 — April 24, 1731 was an English Writer, Journalist, and Pamphleteer, who gained enduring fame for The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (of York Mariner Who lived Eight and Twenty Years all alone in an un-inhabited Island on the Coast of America near the Mouth The following works of literature have each been claimed as the first Novel in English. ^{[11][12][13][14]} Philosophus Autodidactus also inspired Robert Boyle, an acquaintance of Pococke, to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist, in the late 17th century. Robert Boyle was a Natural philosopher, chemist physicist inventor and early Gentleman scientist, noted for his work in Physics and Chemistry ^[15] The story also anticipated Rousseau's Émile in some ways, and is also similar to the later story of Mowgli in Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book as well the character of Tarzan, in that a baby is abandoned in a deserted tropical island where he is taken care of and fed by a mother wolf. Mowgli (ˈmaʊɡli is a fictional character who originally appeared in Rudyard Kipling 's Short story "In the Rukh" (collected in Many Inventions Joseph Rudyard Kipling (30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936 was an English Author and poet The Jungle Book (1894 is a collection of stories written by Rudyard Kipling. Tarzan is a Fictional character, an archetypal Feral child raised in the African jungle by Apes who later returns to civilization only to The grey wolf or gray wolf ( Canis lupus) also known as the timber wolf or simply wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora Other European writers influenced by Philosophus Autodidactus include John Locke,^[16] Gottfried Leibniz,^[14] Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens,^[17] George Keith, Robert Barclay, the Quakers,^[18] and Samuel Hartlib. John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. Melchisédech (or Melchisédec) Thévenot (c 1620 - October 29, 1692) was a French author scientist traveler cartographer John Wallis ( November 23, 1616 - October 28, 1703) was an English mathematician who is given partial credit for the Christiaan Huygens (ˈhaɪgənz in English ˈhœyɣəns in Dutch) ( April 14, 1629 &ndash July 8, 1695) was a Dutch George Keith (1638/9 – March 27, 1716) was a Scottish Missionary. Robert Barclay ( December 23, 1648 – October 3, 1690) one of the most eminent Writers belonging to the Religious Society Samuel Hartli(eb (ca 1600 &ndash 1662 was a German Briton Polymath, an expert in many subjects called "the Great Intelligencer of Europe" ^[15]

Science fiction

Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Siera al-Nabawiyyah (The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet's Biography), known in English as Theologus Autodidactus, written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213-1288), is the earliest known science fiction novel. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( While also being an early desert island story and coming of age story, the novel deals with various science fiction elements such as spontaneous generation, futurology, the end of the world and doomsday, resurrection, and the afterlife. The term desert island, or deserted island, refers to an Island which is uninhabited or sparsely inhabited Coming of age is a young person's transition from Adolescence to Adulthood The age at which this transition takes place varies in society as does the nature In the Natural sciences, Abiogenesis, or origin of life, is the study of how Life on Earth emerged from Inanimate Organic Futures Studies, Foresight, or Futurology is the science art and practice of postulating possible probable and preferable futures and the worldviews Eschatology (from the Greek, Eschatos meaning "last" and -logy meaning "the study of" is a part of Theology This article concerns itself with Jesus Christ Christian, Islamic and other religious interpretations of resurrection in general AfterLife is a film drama set in Scotland directed by Alison Peebles made in 2003 about an ambitious Scottish journalist forced to choose between Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and geology known in his time. Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain Islamic religious teachings in terms of science and philosophy. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar ^[19]

Other examples of early Arabic proto-science fiction include the "The City of Brass" and "The Ebony Horse" stories within the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights),^[20] al-Farabi's Opinions of the residents of a splendid city about a utopian society, and al-Qazwini's futuristic tale of Awaj bin 'Unaq about a giant who travelled to Earth from a distant planet. A story within a story is a Literary device or Conceit in which one story is told during the action of another story TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi Utopia is a name for an ideal community taken from the title of a book written in 1516 by Sir Thomas More describing a fictional Island in the Abu Yahya Zakariya' ibn Muhammad al-Qazwini ( أبو يحيئ زكريا بن محمد القزويني) (born 1203 - died 1283 was a Persian physician ^[21]

The decline of Arabic literature

The expansion of the Arab people in the 7th and 8th century brought them into contact with a variety of different peoples who would affect their culture. The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Most significant for literature was the ancient civilization of Persia. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Shu'ubiyya is the name of the conflict between the Arabs and Non-Arabs. Shu'ubiyyah ( Arabic: الشعوبية refers to the response by non- Arab Muslims to the privileged status of Arabs within the Ummah. Although producing heated debate amongst scholars and varying styles of literature, this was not a damaging conflict and had more to do with forging a single Islamic cultural identity. Bashshar ibn Burd, of Persian heritage, summed up his own stance in a few lines of poetry:

Never did he sing camel songs behind a scabby beast,

nor pierce the bitter colocynth out of sheer hunger

nor dig a lizard out of the ground and eat it. Bashār ibn Burd (714-784 ( بشار بن برد) nicknamed "al-Mura'ath" meaning the wattled was a poet in the late Umayyad and the early . .

The cultural heritage of the desert dwelling Arabs continued to show its influence even though many scholars and writers were living in the large Arab cities. When Khalil ibn Ahmad enumerated the parts of poetry he called the line of verse a bayt or tent and sabah or tent-rope for a foot. Khalīl ibn Ahmad Al Farāhīdi (أبو عبد الرحمن ، الخليل بن أحمد الفراهيدي (More commonly known as Al Farāhīdi (c Even during the 20th century this nostalgia for the simple desert life would appear or at least be consciously revived. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on

A slow resurgence of the Persian language and a re-location of the government and main seat of learning to Baghdad, reduced the production of Arabic literature. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Many Arabic themes and styles were taken up in Persian with Omar Khayyam, Attar and Rumi all clearly influenced by the earlier work. For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین Abū Hamīd bin Abū Bakr Ibrāhīm (born 1145-46 in Nishapur &ndash died c The Arabic language still initially retained its importance in politics and administration, although the rise of the Ottoman Empire confined it solely to religion. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Alongside Persian, the many variants of the Turkic languages would dominate the literature of the Arab region until the 20th century. The Turkic languages constitute a Language family of some thirty languages spoken by Turkic peoples across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the The twentieth century of the Common Era began on Nevertheless, some Arabic influences remained visible.

Modern literature

Modern Asian literature
Arabic literature Bengali literature Chinese literature Indian literature Japanese literature Korean literature Nepalese literature Pakistani literature Vietnamese literature

A revival took place in Arabic literature during the 19th century along with much of Arabic culture and it is referred to in Arabic as al-Nahda (النهضة), or Renaissance. The term Bengali literature refers to literary works written in Bengali language particularly from Bangladesh and Indian province of West Bengal Chinese literature extends back thousands of years from the earliest recorded dynastic court Archives to the mature fictional Novel that arose during the Ming Dynasty Indian literature is generally acknowledged as one of the oldest in the world Japanese literature spans a period of almost two millennia Early works were heavily influenced by cultural contact with China and Chinese literature, often written Korean literature is the body of Literature produced in Korea or by Korean writers Nepalese literature refers to the literature of Nepal. This is different from Nepali literature which is the literature in Nepali language (Khas kura Pakistani literature, that is the Literature of Pakistan, as a distinct literature gradually came into being after Pakistan gained its nationhood as a sovereign Vietnamese literature is Literature, both oral and written created largely by Vietnamese-speaking people although Francophone Vietnamese and English-speaking Vietnamese The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar Several Arab political parties and movements have been named "al-Nahda" For the Tunisian political party see Renaissance Party; for the This resurgence of writing in Arabic was confined mainly to Egypt until the 20th century when it spread to other countries in the region. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on This Renaissance was not only felt within the Arab world but also beyond with a great interest in the translating of Arabic works into European languages. Although the use of the Arabic language was revived, many of the tropes of the previous literature which served to make it so ornate and complicated were dropped. See also Figure of speech In linguistics trope is a rhetorical Figure of speech that consists of a play on words i Also the western forms of the short story and the novel were preferred over the traditional Arabic forms. A novel (from Italian novella, Spanish novela, French nouvelle for "new" "news" or "short story

Just as in the 8th century when a movement to translate ancient Greek and other literature helped vitalise Arabic literature, another translation movement would offer new ideas and material for Arabic. The 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c An early popular success was The Count of Monte Cristo which spurred a host of historical novels on Arabic subjects. The Count of Monte Cristo ( Le Comte de Monte-Cristo) is an Adventure novel by Alexandre Dumas père. An historical novel is a Novel in which the story is set among historical events or more generally in which the time of the action predates the lifetime of the Author Two important translators were Rifa'a el-Tahtawi and Jabra Ibrahim Jabra. Rifa'a el-Tahtawi (also spelled Tahtawy; Arabic: رفاعة الطهطاوي born in Tahta, Egypt 1801 died in 1873 was an Egyptian Jabra Ibrahim Jabra (1919&ndash1994 is a Palestinian Author of Syriac-Orthodox origin who was born in Bethlehem at the time of the British Mandate

Major political change in the region during the mid-20th century caused problems for writers. Many suffered censorship and some such as Sun'allah Ibrahim and Abdul Rahman Munif were imprisoned. Abdul Rahman Munif ( 1933 - January 24, 2004) (عبد الرحمن منيف is one of the most important Arabic novelists of the 20th century At the same time, others who had written works supporting or praiseworthy of governments were promoted to positions of authority within cultural bodies. Non-fiction writers and academics have also produced political polemics and criticisms aiming to re-shape Arabic politics. Some of the best known are Taha Hussein's The Future of Culture in Egypt which was an important work of Egyptian nationalism and the works of Nawal el-Saadawi who campaigns for women's rights. Taha Hussein ( November 14, 1889 &mdash October 28, 1973) ( طه حسين) (nicknamed "the dean of Arabic literature"was The Future of Culture in Egypt (مستقبل الثقافه في مصر) is a 1938 book by the Egyptian Writer Taha Hussein. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Nawal El Saadawi (نوال السعداوى (born October 27, 1931) is an Egyptian Feminist writer activist and physician

Modern Arabic novels

Characteristic of the nahda period of revival were two distinct trends. The Neo-Classical movement sought to rediscover the literary traditions of the past, and was influenced by traditional literary genres such as the maqama and the Thousand and One Nights. Maqāma ( Arabic: مقامة pl maqāmāt, مقامات; literally "assemblies" are an (originally Arabic In contrast, the Modernist movement began by translating Western works, primarily novels, into Arabic.

Individual authors in Syria, Lebanon, and Egypt created original works by imitating the classical maqama. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The most prominent of these was al-Muwaylihi, whose book, The Hadith of Issa ibn Hisham (حديث عيسى بن هشام), critiqued Egyptian society in the period of Ismail. Isma'il Pasha, known as Ismail the Magnificent (إسماعيل باشا ( December 31, 1830 &ndash March 2, 1895) was Wāli This work constitutes the first stage in the development of the modern Arabic novel. This trend was furthered by Georgy Zeidan, a Lebanese Christian writer who immigrated with his family to Egypt following the Damascus riots of 1860. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Year 1860 ( MDCCLX) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year starting In the early twentieth century, Zeidan serialized his historical novels in the Egyptian newspaper al-Hilal. These novels were extremely popular because of their clarity of language, simple structure, and the author's vivid imagination. Two other important writers from this period were Khalil Gibran and Mikha'il Na'ima, both of whom incorporated philosophical musings into their works. Kahlil Gibran (born Gibrān Khalīl Gibrān bin Mikhā'īl bin Sa'ad; Arabic ar جبران خليل جبران بن ميخائيل بن سعد (born January Mikha'il Na'ima (also spelled Mikhail Naimy; Arabic: ميخائيل نعيمة) (b

Nevertheless, literary critics do not consider the works of these four authors to be true novels, but rather indications of the form that the modern novel would assume. Many of these critics point to Zaynab, a novel by Muhammad Husayn Haykal as the first true Arabic-language novel, while others point to Adraa Denshawi by Muhammad Tahir Haqqi. Husayn Haykal 's Zaynab is the first modern Egyptian novel published in 1913 Muhammad Husayn Haykal ( Arabic: ar محمد حسين هيكل ( August 20, 1888 – 1956 was an Egyptian writer journalist politician

A common theme in the modern Arabic novel is the study of family life with obvious resonances with the wider family of the Arabic world. Many of the novels have been unable to avoid the politics and conflicts of the region with war often acting as background to small scale family dramas. The works of Naguib Mahfuz depict life in Cairo, and his Cairo Trilogy, describing the struggles of a modern Cairene family across three generations, won him a Nobel prize for literature in 1988. Naguib Mahfouz (نجيب محفوظ Nagīb Maḥfūẓ ( December 11, 1911 – August 30, 2006) was an Egyptian Novelist Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. The Cairo Trilogy is a Trilogy of novels written by Egyptian novelist and Nobel Prize winner Naguib Mahfouz. The Nobel Prize in Literature (Nobelpriset i litteratur is awarded annually since 1901 to an author from any country who has in the words from the will of Alfred Year 1988 ( MCMLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar) He was the first Arabic writer to win the prize.

Modern plays

Modern Arabic drama began to be written in the 19th century chiefly in Egypt and mainly influenced and in imitation of French works. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar It was not until the 20th century that it began to develop a distinctly Arab flavour and be seen elsewhere. The most important Arab playwright was Tawfiq al-Hakim whose first play was a re-telling of the Qur'anic story of the Seven sleepers and the second an epilogue for the Thousand and One Nights. Tawfiq al-Hakim or Tawfik al-Hakim ( October 9, 1898 - July 26, 1987 ( توفيق الحكيم) was a prominent Egyptian The Roman Martyrology mentions the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus under the date of 27 July, as follows "Commemoration of the seven Holy Sleeper of Other important dramatists of the region include Yusuf al'Ani of Iraq and Saadallah Wannous of Syria. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Saadallah Wannous ( سعد الله ونوس) (1941-1997 Syrian Playwright. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية

Women in Arabic literature

Whilst not playing a major part in Arabic literature women have had a continuing role. Hanan al-Shaykh (b November 12, 1945, Beirut) is a Lebanese author of contemporary Arab women's The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The earliest poetesses were al-Khansa and Layla al-Akhyaliyyah of the 7th century. Tumadir bint Amru al-Harith bint al-Sharid, usually simply referred to as Al-Khansa ( Arabic translated as either " Gazelle " or "short-nosed" Layla Bint Abullah Bin Shaddad Bin Ka’b Al Akheeliyya, or simply Layla Al Akheeliyya (Ar The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Their concentration on the ritha' or elegy suggests that this was a form designated for women to work in. A later poetess Walladah, Umawi princess of al-Andulus wrote Sufi poetry and was the lover of fellow poet ibn Zaydun. Wallada bint al-Mustakfi ( ولادة بنت المستكفي) (born in Cordova in 994 - died March 26, 1091) was an Arab Andalusian Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Abu al-Waleed Ahmad Ibn Zaydún al-Makhzumi (1003-1071 known as Ibn Zaydún ( Arabic full name أبو الوليد أحمد بن زيدون المخزومي These and other minor women writers suggest a hidden world of female literature. Women still played an important part as characters in Arabic literature with Sirat al-amirah Dhat al-Himmah an Arabic epic with a female warrior as the chief protagonist and Scheherazade cunningly telling stories in the Thousand and One Nights to save her life. Arabic epic literature encompasses Epic poetry and Epic fantasy in Arabic literature. Scheherazade (ʃəˌhɛrəˈzɑːd -ˈzɑːdə sometimes Scheherazadea, Persian transliteration Shahrazad or Shahrzād (شهرزاد Šahrzād

Modern Arabic literature has allowed a greater number of female writers' works to be published: May Ziade, Fadwa Touqan, Suhayr al-Qalamawi, Ulfat Idlibi, Layla Ba'albakki and Alifa Rifaat are just some of the novelists and short story writers. May Ziade (née Marie, with Ziade also written Ziadé or Ziadeh) ( مي زيادة) ( February 11 1886. Fadwa Touqan (فدوي طوقان also transliterated as Fadwa Tuqan, Fadwa Tuqant Fadwa Touquan and Fadwa Alifa Rifaat ( June 5, 1930 - 1996 was a controversial Egyptian author whose short stories reflect on the life of traditional Muslim There has also be a number of significant female academics such as Zaynab al-Ghazali, Nawal el-Saadawi and Fatema Mernissi who amongst other subject wrote of the place of women in Muslim society. Nawal El Saadawi (نوال السعداوى (born October 27, 1931) is an Egyptian Feminist writer activist and physician Fatema or Fatima Mernissi (فاطمة مرنيسي is a Moroccan Feminist writer and Sociologist. Women writers also courted controversy with Layla Ba'albakki charged with insulting public decency with her short story Spaceships of Tenderness to the Moon.

Literary criticism

Criticism has been inherent in Arabic literature from the start. The poetry festivals of the pre-Islamic period often pitched two poets against each other in a war of verse in which one would be deemed to have won by the audience. The subject adopted a more official status with Islamic study of the Qur'an. Although nothing which might be termed 'literary criticism', in the modern sense, was applied to a work held to be i'jaz or inimitable and divinely inspired, analysis was permitted. This study allowed for better understanding of the message and facilitated interpretation for practical use, all of which help the development of a critical method important for later work on other literature. A clear distinction regularly drawn between works in literary language and popular works has meant that only part of the literature in Arabic was usually considered worthy of study and criticism.

Some of the first studies of the poetry are Qawa'id al-shi'r or The Rules of Poetry by Tha'lab and Naqd al-shi'r Poetic Criticism by Qudamah ibn Ja'far. Other works tended to continue the tradition of contrasting two poets in order to determine which one best follows the rule of classical poetic structure. Plagiarism also became a significant idea exercising the critcs' concerns. The works of al-Mutanabbi were particularly studied with this concern. Abou-t-Tayyib Ahmad ibn al-Husayn al-Mutanabbi ( Arabic: أبو الطيب احمد بن الحسين المتنبّي) ‎ (915&ndash965 was an Arab ( He was considered by many the greatest of all Arab poets but his own arrogant self-regard for his abilities did not endear him to other writers and they looked for a source for his verse. Just as there were collections of facts written about many different subjects, numerous collections detailing every possible rhetorical figure used in literature emerged as well as how to write guides. In Rhetoric, a rhetorical device or resource of language is a technique that an author or speaker uses to evoke an Emotional response in the audience (the

Modern criticism at first compared the new works unfavourably with the classical ideals of the past but these standards were soon rejected as too artificial. The adoption of the forms of European romantic poetry dictated the introduction of corresponding critical standards. Romanticism largely began as a reaction against the prevailing Enlightenment ideals of the day Taha Hussayn, himself keen on European thought, would even dare to challenge the Qur'an with modern critical analysis in which he pointed out the ideas and stories borrowed from pre-Islamic poetry. Taha Hussein ( November 14, 1889 &mdash October 28, 1973) ( طه حسين) (nicknamed "the dean of Arabic literature"was

Outside views of Arabic literature

Literature in Arabic has been largely unknown outside the Islamic world. Arabic has frequently acted as a time capsule, preserving literature form ancient civilisations to be re-discovered in Renaissance Europe and as a conduit for transmitting literature from distant regions. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere In this role though it is rarely read but simply re-translated into another standard language like Latin. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. One of the first important translations of Arabic literature was Robert of Ketton's translation of the Qur'an in the 12th century but it would not be until the early 18th century that much of Arabic's diverse literature would be recognised, largely due to Arabists such as Forster Fitzgerald Arbuthnot and his books such as Arabic Authors: A Manual of Arabian History and Literature. Robert of Ketton ( Latin: Robertus Ketenensis) (1110? &ndash 1160? was an English Medieval theologian, astronomer and Arabist. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system This is an article about the western scholars known as Arabists, not the political movement Pan-Arabism. Forster Fitzgerald Arbuthnot ( 21 May, 1833 &ndash 25 May, 1901) was a notable British Orientalist and translator ^[22]

Antoine Galland's translation of the Thousand and One Nights was the first major work in Arabic which found great success outside the Muslim world. Antoine Galland ( April 4, 1646 &mdash February 17, 1715) was a French Orientalist and Archaeologist, most Other significant translators were Friedrich Rückert and Richard Burton, along with many working at Fort William, India. Friedrich Rückert ( May 16, 1788 &ndash January 31, 1866) was a German Poet, Translator and professor of Captain Sir Richard Francis Burton KCMG FRGS (19 March 1821 &ndash 20 October 1890 was an English Explorer, Translator, writer Fort William is a Fort built in Calcutta on the Eastern banks of the river Hooghly, the major distributary of river Ganges during the The Arabic works and many more in other eastern languages fuelled a fascination in Orientalism within Europe. Orientalism refers to the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West by writers designers and artists and can also refer to a sympathetic stance Works of dubious 'foreign' morals were particularly popular but even these were censored for content, such as homosexual references, which were not permitted in Victorian society. Culture The Victorian fascination with novelty resulted in a deep interest in the relationship between modernity and cultural continuities Most of the works chosen for translation helped confirm the stereotypes of the audiences with many more still untranslated. Few modern Arabic works have been translated into other languages.

Noted authors

Poetry

• Ahmad ibn-al-Husayn al-Mutanabbi, (915–965)
• Abu Tammam
• Abu Nuwas, (756–815)
• Al-Khansa(7th century female poet)
• Al-Farazdaq
• Asma bint Marwan
• Jarir ibn Atiyah
• Ibn Zaydun
• Taghribat Bani Hilal forms part of the epic tradition. Abou-t-Tayyib Ahmad ibn al-Husayn al-Mutanabbi ( Arabic: أبو الطيب احمد بن الحسين المتنبّي) ‎ (915&ndash965 was an Arab ( Abu Tammam ( Habib ibn Aus) Arabic, أبو تمام حبيب بن أوس (c Abu-Nuwas al-Hasan ben Hani al-Hakami ( 750 &ndash 810) known as Abū-Nuwās ( Arabic: ابونواس) was one of the greatest of classical Tumadir bint Amru al-Harith bint al-Sharid, usually simply referred to as Al-Khansa ( Arabic translated as either " Gazelle " or "short-nosed" Hammam ibn Ghalib Abu Firas, (همام بن غالب ، ابو فراس commonly known as al-Farazdaq (الفرزدق (Ar Asmā bint Marwān ( Arabic: عصماء بنت مروان namely "'Asmā the daughter of Marwān" was a female Poet who lived in Hijaz in medieval Jarir ibn `Atiyah al-Khatfi (ca 650 &ndash ca 728) was an Arab Poet and Satirist. Abu al-Waleed Ahmad Ibn Zaydún al-Makhzumi (1003-1071 known as Ibn Zaydún ( Arabic full name أبو الوليد أحمد بن زيدون المخزومي Taghribat Bani Hilal (تغريبة بني هلال also known as Sirat Abu Zeid Al Hilali سيرة ابي زيد الهلالي is an Arabic epic recounting the Banu Hilal An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation

See also: List of Arabic language poets

Prose

Historical

• Antara Ibn Shaddad al-'Absi, pre-Islamic Arab hero and poet (fl. List of Arabic language poets most of whom were Arabs and who wrote in the Arabic language.  'Antara Ibn Shaddād al-'Absi عنترة بن شداد العبسي was a pre-Islamic Arab hero and poet ( fl 580 CE).
• Muhammad alqasim al-Hariri (1054–1122)
• Al-Jahiz (776–869)
• Muhammad al-Nawaji bin Hasan bin Ali bin Othman, Cairene mystic, Sufi and poet (1383?–1455)
• Ibn Tufail, also philosopher

Modern

• Naguib Mahfouz, (1911-2006) Nobel Prize for Literature (1988), famous for the Cairo Trilogy about life in the sprawling inner city
• 'Abbas Mahmud Al-Aqqad, notable Egyptian author and thinker
• Zakaria Tamer, Syrian writer, noted for his short stories
• Tayeb Salih, Sudanese writer
• Abdul Rahman Munif
• Hanna Mina, Syria's foremost novelist
• May Ziadeh, pioneer female writer
• Ahlam Mosteghanemi, notable for being the first Algerian woman published in English
• Hanan al-Shaykh, controversial female Lebanese writer. Al-Jāḥiẓ (in Arabic الجاحظ (real name Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri) (born in Basra, c TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name Naguib Mahfouz (نجيب محفوظ Nagīb Maḥfūẓ ( December 11, 1911 – August 30, 2006) was an Egyptian Novelist The Nobel Prize in Literature (Nobelpriset i litteratur is awarded annually since 1901 to an author from any country who has in the words from the will of Alfred The year 1988 in literature involved some significant events and new books Abbas Mahmoud al-Akkad Maḥmūd al-‘Aqqād}} (عباس محمود العقاد ( June 28, 1889 &ndash March 12, 1964) was an Egyptian Zakaria Tamer ( زكريا تامر) also transliterated Zakariya Tamir (strict transliteration) (born January 2, 1931 in Al-Tayyib Salih (الطيّب صالح is a noted Sudanese writer Abdul Rahman Munif ( 1933 - January 24, 2004) (عبد الرحمن منيف is one of the most important Arabic novelists of the 20th century May Ziade (née Marie, with Ziade also written Ziadé or Ziadeh) ( مي زيادة) ( February 11 1886. Ahlam (or Ahlem Mosteghanemi (born 13 April 1953) the daughter of Algerian revolutionary leader Mohammed Chérif, is a notable Algerian Hanan al-Shaykh (b November 12, 1945, Beirut) is a Lebanese author of contemporary Arab women's Author of "The Story of Zahra"
• Ghassan Kanafani, Palestinian writer and political activist
• Elias Khoury, Lebanese novelist
• Sonallah Ibrahim, leftist Egyptian novelist
• Gibran Khalil Gibran, (1883-1931) Lebanese poet and philosopher

Notes and references

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• Roger Allen, The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction (1982) ISBN 0-9507885-0-3.
• Alamgir Hashmi, The Worlds of Muslim Imagination (1986) ISBN 0-00-500407-1.
• Rasheed El-Enany, Naguib Mahfouz: The Pursuit of Meaning (1993) ISBN 0-415-07395-2
• Cambridge History of Arabic Literature, multiple authors and editors
  • Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period (1983) ISBN 0-521-24015-8
  • 'Abbasid Belles Lettres (1990) ISBN 0-521-24016-6
  • Religion, Learning and Science in the 'Abbasid Period (1991) ISBN 0-521-32763-6
  • The Literature of Al-Andalus (2000) ISBN 0-521-47159-1
  • Modern Arabic Literature (1993) ISBN 0-521-33197-8

See also

• Arabic epic literature
• Literary Arabic
• Arabist
• List of Islamic texts
• School of Salamanca
• Resalat Al-Ghufran
• Islamic science
• Islamic Golden Age

External links

• Biography of Abu Nuwas
• Biography and poetry of Muhammad al-Nawaji bin Hasan bin Ali bin Othman
• Center For Arabic Culture (CAC)
• Encyclopaedia Britannica, Arabic Literature
• The original Arabic manuscript of Tawq Alhamama
• Arabic-A Selection of Great Writers
• Classical Arabic Blog

Arabic epic literature encompasses Epic poetry and Epic fantasy in Arabic literature. Literary Arabic (ar اللغة العربية الفصحى "the Eloquent Arabic language" or Standard Arabic is the literary and standard variety This is an article about the western scholars known as Arabists, not the political movement Pan-Arabism. Qur'an Text Surahs ** Ayah Commentary/Exegesis Tafsir The School of Salamanca is the Renaissance of thought in diverse intellectual areas by Spanish theologians, rooted in the intellectual and pedagogical Resalat Al-Ghufran ( Arabic رسالة الغفران) meaning The Epistle of Forgiveness, is a famous Arabic book from the 10th century written

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