Apple
Blossoms, fruits, and leaves of the apple tree (Malus domestica)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Rosales Family: Rosaceae Subfamily: Maloideae Genus: Malus Species: M. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. The flowering plants or angiosperms ( Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most widespread group Dicotyledons, or "dicots", is a name for a group of Flowering plants whose Seed typically has two embryonic leaves or Cotyledons There For other meanings see Rosales (disambiguation. Rosales is an order of Flowering plants including nine families The Rosaceae or Rose family is a large family of Plants with about 3000-4000 species in 100-160 genera The Maloideae ( apple subfamily is a large subfamily of the rose family Rosaceae with 28 genera including approximately 1100 species worldwide with most species Malus, the apples, is a genus of about 30–35 species of small Deciduous Trees or Shrubs in the family Rosaceae. domestica
Binomial name
Malus domestica Borkh.

The apple is the pomaceous fruit of the apple tree, species Malus domestica in the rose family Rosaceae. Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen ( December 3, 1760 - November 30, 1806) was a German naturalist. In botany a pome (after the Latin name for an Apple: pomum) is a type of Fruit produced by Flowering plants in the Subfamily The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. A rose is a perennial flowering Shrub or vine of the Genus Rosa, within the family Rosaceae, that contains over 100 species The Rosaceae or Rose family is a large family of Plants with about 3000-4000 species in 100-160 genera It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits. Tillage is the agricultural preparation of the Soil by Ploughing ripping or turning it The tree is small and deciduous, reaching 5–12 m tall, with a broad, often densely twiggy crown. Botany Autumn leaf color. See --> In Botany and Horticulture, deciduous Plants, including ^[1] The leaves are alternately arranged simple ovals 5–12 cm long and 3–6 cm broad on a 2–5 cm petiole with an acute tip, serrated margin and a slightly downy underside. In Botany, a leaf is an above-ground Plant organ specialized for Photosynthesis. In Botany, a leaf is an above-ground Plant organ specialized for Photosynthesis. In Botany, the petiole is the small stalk attaching the Leaf blade to the stem. Flowers are produced in spring simultaneous with the budding of the leaves. A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also Spring is one of the four Temperate Seasons Spring marks the transition from Winter into Summer. The flowers are white with a pink tinge that gradually fades, five petaled, 2. A petal (from Ancient Greek petalon "leaf" "thin plate" regarded as a highly modified leaf is one member or part of the corolla 5–3. 5 cm in diameter. A centimetre ( American spelling: centimeter, symbol cm) is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one hundredth The fruit matures in autumn, and is typically 5–9 cm diameter. Autumn (also known as fall in North American English) is one of the four Temperate Seasons Autumn marks the transition from Summer The centre of the fruit contains five carpels arranged in a five-point star, each carpel containing one to three seeds. A gynoecium (from Ancient Greek gyne, "woman" is the Female reproductive part of a Flower. A five-pointed star (☆ is a very common Ideogram throughout the world A seed (in some plants referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic Plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat usually with some stored ^[1]

The tree originated from Asia, where its wild ancestor is still found today. There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples resulting in range of desired characteristics. A cultivar is a cultivated Plant that has been selected and given a unique name because of its decorative or useful characteristics it is usually distinct from similar It should be noted however, that cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock. A rootstock is a Plant, and sometimes just the Stump, which already has an established healthy root system, used for Grafting a cutting or ^[2]

At least 55 million tonnes of apples were grown worldwide in 2005, with a value of about $10 billion. China produced about two-fifths of this total. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The United States is the second leading producer, with more than 7. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the 5% of the world production. ^[3] Turkey, France, Italy and Iran are among the leading apple exporters. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics.

Botanical information

See also: List of Lepidoptera that feed on apple trees and Fruit tree propagation

Wild Malus sieversii apple in Kazakhstan

The wild ancestor of Malus domestica is Malus sieversii. Apples ( Malus spp are used as food plants by the Larvae of a large number of Lepidoptera species including Bucculatricidae Fruit tree propagation is usually carried out through Asexual reproduction by Grafting or budding the desired variety onto a suitable Rootstock Malus sieversii is a wild apple native to the mountains of Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the An ancestor is a Parent or ( recursively) the parent of an ancestor (i Malus sieversii is a wild apple native to the mountains of Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan It has no common name in English, but is known in Kazakhstan, where it is native, as alma; in fact, the region where it is thought to originate is called Almaty, or "reach of the apples". Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Almaty ( Алматы; formerly known as Alma-Ata ( Алма-Ата) also Verniy, (Верный is the largest city in Kazakhstan This tree is still found wild in the mountains of Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Xinjiang, China. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National ^[4]

Apple cut horizontally, showing seeds

For many years, there was a debate about whether M. domestica evolved from chance hybridization among various wild species. Recent DNA analysis by Barrie Juniper, Emeritus Fellow in the Department of Plant Sciences at Oxford University and others, has indicated, however, that the hybridization theory is probably false. The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the Instead, it appears that a single species still growing in the Ili Valley, on the northern slopes of the Tien Shan mountains at the border of northwest China^[3] and Kazakhstan, is the progenitor of the apples we eat today. The Tian Shan (天山 Pinyin: Tiān Shān "celestial mountains" also commonly spelled Tien Shan, is a Mountain range located in Central China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Leaves taken from trees in this area were analyzed for DNA composition, which showed them all to belong to the species M. sieversii, with some genetic sequences common to M. Malus sieversii is a wild apple native to the mountains of Central Asia in southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan domestica. ^[5] Other species that were previously thought to have made contributions to the genome of the domestic apples are Malus baccata and Malus sylvestris, but there is no hard evidence for this in older apple cultivars. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. In classical genetics the genome of a Diploid Organism including Eukarya refers to a full set of chromosomes or genes in a Gamete, thereby Malus sylvestris is a species of Malus (crabapple native to Europe from Spain, Italy and Greece to southern A cultivar is a cultivated Plant that has been selected and given a unique name because of its decorative or useful characteristics it is usually distinct from similar These and other Malus species have been used in some recent breeding programmes to develop apples suitable for growing in climates unsuitable for M. domestica, mainly for increased cold tolerance. ^[6]

History

See also: Herefordshire Pomona

The center of diversity of the genus Malus is the eastern Turkey, southwestern Russia region of Asia Minor. The Herefordshire Pomona is a 19th century catalogue of the Apples and Pears that were grown in the County of Herefordshire in Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black The apple tree was perhaps the earliest tree to be cultivated,^[7] and its fruits have been improved through selection over thousands of years. Alexander the Great is credited with finding dwarfed apples in Asia Minor in 300 BC;^[1] those he brought back to Greece might have been the progenitors of dwarfing rootstocks. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Apples were brought to North America with colonists in the 1600s,^[1] and the first apple orchard on the North American continent was said to be near Boston in 1625. Winter apples, picked in late autumn and stored just above freezing, have been an important food in Asia and Europe for millennia, as well as in Argentina and in the United States since the arrival of Europeans. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the American immigration ( emigration to the United States of America) refers to the movement of non-residents to the United States. ^[7] In the 1900s, irrigation projects in Washington state began and allowed the development of the multi-billion dollar fruit industry, of which the apple is the leading species. ^[1]

Cultural aspects

Main article: Apple (symbolism)

Germanic paganism

"Brita as Iduna" (1901) by Carl Larsson. Apples appear in many religious traditions, often as a mystical or Forbidden fruit. Carl Larsson ( May 28, 1853 &ndash January 22, 1919) was a Swedish painter and interior designer.

In Norse mythology, the goddess Iðunn is portrayed in the Prose Edda (written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson) as providing apples to the gods that give them eternal youthfulness. Norse mythology comprises the indigenous pre-Christian religion, beliefs and Legends of the Scandinavian peoples including those who settled on Iceland Iðunn (possibly meaning "ever young" or "rejuvenator" is a goddess in Norse mythology. The Prose Edda, also known as the Younger Edda, Snorri's Edda ( Snorra Edda) or simply Edda, is an Snorri Sturluson (1178 – September 23, 1241) was an Icelandic historian poet and politician Eternal youth is the concept of human physical Immortality free of Aging. English scholar H. R. Ellis Davidson links apples to religious practices in Germanic paganism, which Norse paganism developed from. Dr Hilda Roderick Ellis Davidson (born Hilda Roderick Ellis, 1 October 1914 - January 2006 was a British Antiquarian and academic writing in particular Germanic paganism refers to the religious beliefs of the Germanic peoples preceding Christianization. Norse paganism is a term used to describe the religious traditions which were common amongst the Germanic tribes living in Nordic countries prior to and She points out that buckets of apples were found in the Oseberg ship burial site in Norway and that fruit and nuts (Iðunn having been described as being transformed into a nut in Skáldskaparmál) have been found in the early graves of the Germanic peoples in England and elsewhere on the continent of Europe which may have had a symbolic meaning, and that nuts are still a recognized symbol of fertility in Southwest England. The Oseberg ship is a well-preserved Viking ship discovered in a large Burial mound at the Oseberg farm near Tønsberg in Vestfold Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional The second part of Snorri Sturluson 's Prose Edda the Skáldskaparmál or "language of poetry" (c The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Fertility is the natural capability of giving life As a measure "Fertility Rate" is the number of children born per couple person or population ^[8]

Davidson notes a connection between apples and the Vanir, a tribe of gods associated with fertility in Norse mythology, citing an instance of eleven "golden apples" being given to woo the beautiful Gerðr by Skírnir, who was acting as messenger for the major Vanir god Freyr in stanzas 19 and 20 of Skírnismál. Vanir is the name of one of the two groups of gods in Norse mythology, the other and more well known being the Æsir. Fertility is the natural capability of giving life As a measure "Fertility Rate" is the number of children born per couple person or population Gerðr is a Jötunn in Norse Mythology most well known as the wife of the Norse god Freyr. "Frey" redirects here For other uses of Frey and Freyr, see Frey (disambiguation. Skírnismál ( Sayings of Skírnir) is one of the poems of the Poetic Edda. In Skírnismál, Gerðr mentions her brother's slayer in stanza 16, which Davidson states has led to some suggestions that Gerðr may have been connected to Iðunn as they are similar in this way. Davidson also notes a further connection between fertility and apples in Norse mythology in chapter 2 of the Völsunga saga when the major goddess Frigg sends King Rerir an apple after he prays to Odin for a child, Frigg's messenger (in the guise of a crow) drops the apple in his lap as he sits atop a mound. The Völsunga saga is a Legendary saga, a late 13th century Icelandic prose rendition of the origin and decline of the Volsung clan Frigg (or Frigga) is a major goddess in Norse paganism, a subset of Germanic paganism. In Norse Mythology, Rerir is the son of Sigi. Rerir killed his father's murderers ^[8] Rerir's wife's consumption of the apple results in a six-year pregnancy and the caesarean section birth of their son - the hero Volsung. A Caesarean section (or Cesarean section in American English) also known as C-section, is a form of Childbirth in which a surgical In Norse mythology, Vǫlsung was murdered by the Geatish king Siggeir and avenged by one of his sons Sigmund and his daughter Signy ^[9]

Further, Davidson points out the "strange" phrase "apples of Hel" used in an 11th century poem by the skald Thorbiorn Brúnarson, she states this may imply that the apple was thought of by the skald as the food of the dead. See also Death in Norse paganism In Norse mythology, Hel, the location shares a name with Hel, a female figure associated with the location The skald was a member of a group of Poets whose courtly poetry (Icelandic dróttkvæði) is associated with the courts of Scandinavian and Icelandic Further, Davidson notes that the potentially Germanic goddess Nehalennia is sometimes depicted with apples and that parallels exist in early Irish stories. Nehalennia (spelled variously is a Germanic or Celtic goddess attested by Votive deposits discovered around what is now called the province of Zeeland Davidson asserts that while cultivation of the apple in Northern Europe extends back to at least the time of the Roman Empire and came to Europe from the Near East, the native varieties of apple trees growing in Northern Europe are small and bitter. Northern Europe is a term for the northern part of Europe. The United Nations defines Northern Europe as (Finland The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century The apple is the pomaceous Fruit of the apple tree Species Malus domestica in the Rose family Rosaceae. Davidson concludes that in the figure of Iðunn "we must have a dim reflection of an old symbol: that of the guardian goddess of the life-giving fruit of the other world. "^[8]

Greek mythology

Heracles with the apple of Hesperides

Apples appear in many religious traditions, often as a mystical or forbidden fruit. The world's principal Religions and spiritual traditions may be classified into a small number of major groups or world religions'. Forbidden Fruit is an album by singer/pianist/songwriter Nina Simone (1933-2003 One of the problems identifying apples in religion, mythology and folktales is that the word "apple" was used as a generic term for all (foreign) fruit, other than berries but including nuts, as late as the 17th C. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos The word mythology (from the Greek grc μυθολογία mythología, meaning "a story-telling a legendary lore" History The concept of folklore developed as part of the 19th century ideology of Romantic nationalism, leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological CE. ;^[6] For instance, in Greek mythology, the Greek hero Heracles, as a part of his Twelve Labours, was required to travel to the Garden of the Hesperides and pick the golden apples off the Tree of Life growing at its center. "Cult Hero" redirects here For the Cure sideproject called Cult Hero see I'm a Cult Hero Hero cults were one of the most In Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles ("glory of Hera " or In Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles ("glory of Hera " or In Greek mythology, the Hesperides ( Greek:) are Nymphs who tend a blissful garden in a far western corner of the world located near the Atlas mountains ^[10][11][12]

The Greek goddess of discord, Eris, became disgruntled after she was excluded from the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Eris ( Greek Ἔρις, "Strife" is the Greek Goddess of strife her name being translated into Latin as Discordia In Greek mythology, Pēleús (Πηλεύς was a hero who was already known to Homer. This article is about the Greek sea nymph Thetis should not be confused with Themis, the embodiment of the laws of nature but see the sea-goddess Tethys. ^[13] In retaliation, she tossed a golden apple inscribed Καλλιστή (Kalliste, sometimes transliterated Kallisti, 'For the most beautiful one'), into the wedding party. An apple of discord is a reference to the Golden Apple of Discord which according to Greek mythology, the goddess Eris ( Gr Three goddesses claimed the apple: Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. In the Olympian pantheon of classical Greek Mythology, Hera (ˈhɪərə or /ˈhɛrə/ Greek) or Here ( in Ionic and Homer ATHENA was an Antimatter research project that took place at the AD Ring at CERN. Paris of Troy was appointed to select the recipient. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Troy ( Greek: grc Τροία Troia, also, Ilion; Latin: Trōia, Īlium, Hittite: Wilusa or After being bribed by both Hera and Athena, Aphrodite tempted him with the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen of Sparta. This article is about the mythological figure Helen of Troy For other uses see Helen (disambiguation and Helen of Troy (disambiguation. The city of Sparta ( Doric Σπάρτα Attic Σπάρτη He awarded the apple to Aphrodite, thus indirectly causing the Trojan War. In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her

Adam and Eve
Showcasing the apple as a symbol of sin.
Albrecht Dürer, 1507^[14]

Atalanta, also of Greek mythology, raced all her suitors in an attempt to avoid marriage. Albrecht Dürer (ˈalbʀɛçt ˈdyʀɐ ( May 21, 1471 &ndash April 6, 1528) was a German painter, Printmaker Atalanta (Αταλάντη English translation: "balanced" is a character from ancient Greek mythology. She outran all but Hippomenes (a. In Greek mythology, Hippomenes (Ἰππομένης also known as Melanion, was the husband of Atalanta. k. a. Melanion, a name possibly derived from melon the Greek word for both "apple" and fruit in general),^[11] who defeated her by cunning, not speed. In Greek mythology, Hippomenes (Ἰππομένης also known as Melanion, was the husband of Atalanta. Hippomenes knew that he could not win in a fair race, so he used three golden apples (gifts of Aphrodite, the goddess of love) to distract Atalanta. It took all three apples and all of his speed, but Hippomenes was finally successful, winning the race and Atalanta's hand. ^[10]

Christianity

Though the forbidden fruit in the Book of Genesis is not identified, popular Christian tradition has held that it was an apple that Eve coaxed Adam to share with her. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Adam (אָדָם ʼĀḏām, "dust man mankind" آدم; Ge'ez: አዳ and Eve (חַוָּה Ḥawwā, "living Adam (אָדָם ʼĀḏām, "dust man mankind" آدم; Ge'ez: አዳ and Eve (חַוָּה Ḥawwā, "living This may have been the result of Renaissance painters adding elements of Greek mythology into biblical scenes. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Greek mythology is the body of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and Heroes the nature of the world and the origins and significance In this case the unnamed fruit of Eden became an apple under the influence of story of the golden apples in the Garden of Hesperides. Not to be confused with Eden Gardens.The Garden of Eden ( Hebrew "pleasure" גַּן עֵדֶן Arabic: جنات عدن, The golden apple is an element that appears in some countries' legends or Fairy tales. In Greek mythology, the Hesperides ( Greek:) are Nymphs who tend a blissful garden in a far western corner of the world located near the Atlas mountains ^[15] As a result, in the story of Adam and Eve the apple became a symbol for knowledge, immortality, temptation, the fall of man into sin, and sin itself. In Latin, the words for "apple" and for "evil" are similar in the singular (malus—apple, malum—evil) and identical in the plural (mala). Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Evil, in many cultures is used to describe acts or thoughts which are contrary to some particular religion This may also have influenced the apple becoming interpreted as the biblical "forbidden fruit". Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin The larynx in the human throat has been called Adam's apple because of a notion that it was caused by the forbidden fruit sticking in the throat of Adam. The larynx (plural larynges) colloquially known as the voicebox, is an organ in the Neck of Mammals involved in protection of the ^[15] The apple as symbol of sexual seduction has been used to imply sexuality between men, possibly in an ironic vein. ^[15] The idea of an apple being the fruit of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil with English speakers may have been helped by the fact that apple could also be a generic word for fruit in Old English,^[16] the word being used in various commentaries on Genesis. In the Book of Genesis, the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil (and occasionally translated as the Tree of Conscience,) was a Tree in the middle of the English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States

Apple cultivars

See List of apple cultivars for a listing. Over 7500 Cultivars of the Apple are known The following is a list of the more common and important cultivars with the year and place of origin (where documented and whether

Different kinds of apple cultivars in a supermarket

There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples. A cultivar is a cultivated Plant that has been selected and given a unique name because of its decorative or useful characteristics it is usually distinct from similar Different cultivars are available for temperate and subtropical climates. The subtropics are the zones of the Earth immediately north and south of the tropic zone which is bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Reputedly the world's biggest collection of apple cultivars is housed at the National Fruit Collection in England. A cultivar is a cultivated Plant that has been selected and given a unique name because of its decorative or useful characteristics it is usually distinct from similar England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland ^[2] Most of these cultivars are bred for eating fresh (dessert apples), though some are cultivated specifically for cooking (cooking apples) or producing cider. A cooking apple is an Apple that is used primarily for cooking rather than eating fresh For the non-alcoholic beverage commonly known in the US as "cider" see Apple cider. Cider apples are typically too tart and astringent to eat fresh, but they give the beverage a rich flavour that dessert apples cannot. Cider apples are a group of Apple Cultivars grown for their use in Cider production ^[17]

A display of apples in a supermarket in Yonkers, NY

Commercially popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Other desired qualities in modern commercial apple breeding are a colourful skin, absence of russeting, ease of shipping, lengthy storage ability, high yields, disease resistance, typical "Red Delicious" apple shape, long stem (to allow pesticides to penetrate the top of the fruit), and popular flavour. Russeting on Apples is a particular type of skin slightly rough usually with a greenish-brown to yellowish-brown colour The Red Delicious is an Apple that was recognized in Wellsburg Iowa in 1880 A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. ^[2] Modern apples are generally sweeter than older cultivars, as popular tastes in apples have varied over time. Most North Americans and Europeans favour sweet, subacid apples, but tart apples have a strong minority following. ^[18] Extremely sweet apples with barely any acid flavour are popular in Asia^[18] and especially India. ^[17] As an example, the U.S. state of Washington made its reputation for apple growing on Red Delicious. A US state is any one of the fifty subnational entities of the United States of America that share Sovereignty with the federal government Washington ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. ^[4] In recent years, many apple connoisseurs have come to regard the Red Delicious as inferior to cultivars such as Fuji and Gala due to its merely mild flavour and insufficiently firm texture. The Fuji apple is an Apple Cultivar developed by growers at the Tohoku Research Station (農林省園芸試験場東北支場 in Fujisaki Aomori Gala is a Cultivar of Apple with a mild and sweet flavor Appearance and flavor Gala apples are small and are usually red with a portion being ^[4]

Old cultivars are often oddly shaped, russeted, and have a variety of textures and colours. Some find them to have a better flavour than modern cultivators,^[19] but may have other problems which make them commercially unviable, such as low yield, liability to disease, or poor tolerance for storage or transport. A few old cultivars are still produced on a large scale, but many have been kept alive by home gardeners and farmers that sell directly to local markets. Many unusual and locally important cultivars with their own unique taste and appearance exist; apple conservation campaigns have sprung up around the world to preserve such local cultivars from extinction. In the United Kingdom old cultivars such as Cox's Orange Pippin and Egremont Russett are still commercially important even though by modern standards they are low yielding and disease prone. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located ^[1]

Apple production

In this hybrid of an orchard apple with a red-fruited crabapple cultivar, the pulp is of the same colour as the peel.

Apple breeding

Apple blossom from an old Ayrshire variety.

Like most perennial fruits, apples ordinarily propagate asexually by grafting. Grafting is a method of asexual Plant propagation widely used in Agriculture and Horticulture where the tissues of one Plant are encouraged to Seedling apples are different from their parents, sometimes radically. Most new apple cultivars originate as seedlings, which either arise by chance or are bred by deliberately crossing cultivars with promising characteristics. ^[20] The words 'seedling', 'pippin', and 'kernel' in the name of an apple cultivar suggest that it originated as a seedling. Apples can also form bud sports (mutations on a single branch). A bud sport is a part of a Plant or Tree, for example a Leaf, shoot or Flower, which due to a Genetic mutation clearly differs from Some bud sports turn out to be improved strains of the parent cultivar. Some differ sufficiently from the parent tree to be considered new cultivars. ^[4][21]

Breeders can produce more rigid apples through crossing. ^[22] For example, the Excelsior Experiment Station of the University of Minnesota has, since the 1930s, introduced a steady progression of important hardy apples that are widely grown, both commercially and by backyard orchardists, throughout Minnesota and Wisconsin. The University of Minnesota Twin Cities ( U of M or The U) is the oldest and largest part of the University of Minnesota system. Minnesota ( Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers Wisconsin ( or wɪˈskɑnsɨn (French Ouisconsin) is one of the fifty United States of America, located in the north central part of the United States Its most important introductions have included 'Haralson' (which is the most widely cultivated apple in Minnesota), 'Wealthy', 'Honeygold', and 'Honeycrisp'. The Haralson is a Cultivar of Apple that is medium-sized and has a round-conic shape Honeycrisp ( Malus domestica 'Honeycrisp' is an Apple Cultivar developed at the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station's Horticultural Research ^[4]

Pollination

Apple tree in flower

See also: Fruit tree pollination

Apples are self-incompatible; they must cross-pollinate to develop fruit. Apple Most Apples are self incompatible and must be cross pollinated. Pollination in angiosperms and Gymnosperms is the process that transfers pollen grains, which contain the male Gametes (sperm to where the female During the flowering each season, apple growers usually provide pollinators to carry the pollen. A pollinator is the biotic agent ( vector) that moves Pollen from the male Anthers of a Flower to the female stigma of a flower to accomplish Honeybee hives are most commonly used. This article refers collectively to all true honey bees for the "common" domesticated honey bee see European honey bee Honey bees Orchard mason bees are also used as supplemental pollinators in commercial orchards. The Megachilidae are a Cosmopolitan family of (mostly solitary Bees whose pollen-carrying structure (called a scopa) is restricted to the Bumble bee queens are sometimes present in orchards, but not usually in enough quantity to be significant pollinators. A bumblebee (or bumble bee) is any member of the Bee Genus Bombus, in the family Apidae; there are over 250 known species primarily The term queen bee is typically used to refer to an adult mated female that lives in a Honey bee colony or hive she is usually the mother of all the bees in the hive ^[4][21]

There are four to seven pollination groups in apples depending on climate:

• Group A – Early flowering, May 1 to 3 in England (Gravenstein, Red Astrachan)
• Group B – May 4 to 7 (Idared, McIntosh)
• Group C – Mid-season flowering, May 8 to 11 (Granny Smith, Cox's Orange Pippin)
• Group D – Mid/Late season flowering, May 12 to 15 (Golden Delicious, Calville Blanc d'Hiver). Description and growing conditions Gravenstein apple is considered by many to be one of the best all-around apples with a sweet tart flavor and is especially good for baking and Idared is a type of red Apple Cultivar from Moscow Idaho, United States. The McIntosh Red ( McIntosh, Mac) is an apple Cultivar with red and green skin a tart flavor and tender white flesh Granny Smith, or green apple, is a tip-bearing Apple Cultivar. Cox's Orange Pippin is a Cultivar of Apple. The first plant was raised from a pip (of unknown origin possibly from a Ribston Pippin) around 1825 at The Golden Delicious is a Cultivar of Apple with a yellow color
• Group E – Late flowering, May 16 to 18 (Braeburn, Reinette d'Orléans)
• Group F – May 19 to 23 (Suntan)
• Group H – May 24 to 28 (Court Pendu Plat)

One cultivar can be pollinated by a compatible cultivar from the same group or close (A with A or A with B but not A with C or D). The Braeburn is a Cultivar of Apple that is firm to the touch with a red/orange vertical streaky appearance on a yellow/green background ^[23]

Maturation and harvest

See also: Apple picking and Pruning fruit trees

Apple tree ready for harvest

Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock. Apple picking is a Recreational activity which occurs during Harvest time in areas with Apple farms Pruning fruit trees is a technique that is employed by gardeners to control growth remove dead or diseased wood or stimulate the formation of Flowers and fruit buds Some cultivars, if left unpruned, will grow very large, which allows them to bear much more fruit, but makes harvesting very difficult. Mature trees typically bear 40–200 kg of apples each year, though productivity can be close to zero in poor years. Apples are harvested using three-point ladders that are designed to fit amongst the branches. Dwarf trees will bear about 10–80 kg of fruit per year. ^[21]

Storage

Commercially, apples can be stored for some months in controlled-atmosphere chambers to delay ethylene-induced onset of ripening. Structure This Hydrocarbon has four Hydrogen Atoms bound to a pair of Carbon atoms that are connected by a Double bond. Ripening begins when the fruit is removed. ^[24] For home storage, most varieties of apple can be stored for approximately two weeks, when kept at the coolest part of the refrigerator (i. e. below 5°C). Some types of apple, including the Granny Smith and Fuji, have an even longer shelf life. Granny Smith, or green apple, is a tip-bearing Apple Cultivar. The Fuji apple is an Apple Cultivar developed by growers at the Tohoku Research Station (農林省園芸試験場東北支場 in Fujisaki Aomori ^[25][4]

Pests and diseases

Leaves with significant insect damage.

Main article: List of apple diseases

The trees are susceptible to a number of fungal and bacterial diseases and insect pests. This article is a list of diseases of Apples ( Malus × domestica) A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described Many commercial orchards pursue an aggressive program of chemical sprays to maintain high fruit quality, tree health, and high yields. ^[26] A trend in orchard management is the use of organic methods. These use a less aggressive and direct methods of conventional farming. Instead of spraying potent chemicals, often shown to be potentially dangerous and maleficent to the tree in the long run, organic methods include encouraging or discouraging certain cycles and pests. ^[27] http://www.doityourself.com/stry/applepests To control a specific pest, organic growers might encourage the prosperity of its natural predator instead of outright killing it, and with it the natural biochemistry around the tree. Organic apples generally have the same or greater taste than conventionally grown apples, with reduced cosmetic appearances. ^[4]

A wide range of pests and diseases can affect the plant;^[27] three of the more common diseases are mildew, aphids and Apple scab.

• Mildew: which is characterized by light grey powdery patches appearing on the leaves, shoots and flowers, normally in spring. Mildew refers to certain kinds of Mold or Fungus. In Old English, it meant honeydew (a substance secreted by Aphids on leaves formerly ^[28] The flowers will turn a creamy yellow colour and will not develop correctly. This can be treated in a manner not dissimilar from treating Botrytis; eliminating the conditions which caused the disease in the first place and burning the infected plants are among the recommended actions to take. ^[27][28]

feeding Aphids

• Aphids: There are five species of aphids commonly found on apples: apple grain aphid, rosy apple aphid, apple aphid, spirea aphid and the woolly apple aphid. The aphid species can be identified by their colour, the time of year when they are present and by differences in the cornicles, which are small paired projections from the rear of aphids. ^[28] Aphids feed on foliage using needlelike mouthparts to suck out plant juices. When present in high numbers, certain species may reduce tree growth and vigor. ^[29]
• Apple scab: Symptoms of Scab are olive-green or brown blotches on the leaves. ^[30] The blotches turn browner as time progresses. Then brown scabs on the fruit (see apple picture on the left). ^[28] The diseased leaves will fall early and the fruit will become increasingly covered in scabs - eventually the fruit skin will crack. Although there are chemicals to treat Scab, their use might not be encouraged as they are quite often systematic, which means they are absorbed by the tree, and spread throughout the fruit. ^[30]

Among the most serious disease problems are fireblight, a bacterial disease; and Gymnosporangium rust, and black spot, two fungal diseases. Fireblight is a Contagious disease affecting Apples Pears and some other members of the family Rosaceae. Gymnosporangium is a genus of Heteroecious plant-pathogenic fungi which alternately infect members of the family Cupressaceae Diplocarpon rosae is a Fungus that causes the Rose disease Black Spot ^[29]

Young apple trees are also prone to mammal pests like mice and deer, which feed on the soft bark of the trees, especially in winter.

Commerce

Apple output in 2005

At least 55 million tonnes of apples were grown worldwide in 2005, with a value of about $10 billion. China produced about two-fifths of this total. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National ^[3] United States is the second leading producer, with more than 7. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the 5% of the world production. Turkey, France, Italy and Iran are among the leading apple exporters. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. ^[20]

In the United States, more than 60% of all the apples sold commercially are grown in Washington state. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Washington ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. ^[31] Imported apples from New Zealand and other more temperate areas are competing with US production and increasing each year. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island ^[3]

Most of Australia's apple production is for domestic consumption. Imports from New Zealand have been disallowed under quarantine regulations for fire blight since 1921. ^[32]

Top Ten Apple Producers — 2005
Country	Production (Int $1000)	Footnote	Production (MT)	Footnote
People's Republic of China	7,180,500	C	25,006,500	F
United States	1,221,917	C	4,254,290
Turkey	732,411	C	2,550,000
Iran	689,328	C	2,400,000	F
Italy	630,412	C	2,194,875
France	609,768	C	2,123,000
Poland	588,801	C	2,050,000
Russia	588,801	C	2,050,000	*
Germany	459,552	C	1,600,000	F
India	422,213	C	1,470,000	F
No symbol = official figure,F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial figure, C = Calculated figure; Production in Int $1000 have been calculated based on 1999-2001 international prices Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Devision

Human consumption

See also: Cooking apple and Cider apple

Apples can be canned, juiced, and optionally fermented to produce apple juice, cider, ciderkin, vinegar, and pectin. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country A cooking apple is an Apple that is used primarily for cooking rather than eating fresh Cider apples are a group of Apple Cultivars grown for their use in Cider production Apple juice is the Fruit juice product manufactured from the pressing of Apples Production Apple juice is produced by the crushing of apples For the non-alcoholic beverage commonly known in the US as "cider" see Apple cider. Ciderkin, sometimes referred to as water-cider is a kind of weak alcoholic Cider traditionally drunk by children and made by steeping the refuse apple Pomace in Vinegar is an acidic liquid processed from the Fermentation of Ethanol in a process that yields its key ingredient Acetic acid (also called ethanoic acid Pectin (from Greek πηκτικός - pektikos, "congealed curdled" a white to light brown powder is a Heteropolysaccharide Distilled apple cider produces the spirits applejack and Calvados. Applejack is a strong Alcoholic beverage produced from apples originating from the American colonial period Calvados is an apple Brandy from the French région of Basse-Normandie or Lower Normandy Apple wine can also be made. They make a popular lunchbox fruit as well. ^[33]

Apples are an important ingredient in many winter desserts, for example apple pie, apple crumble, apple crisp and apple cake. Dessert is a course that typically comes at the end of a meal usually consisting of sweet Food but sometimes of a strongly-flavored one such as some Cheeses The An apple pie is a fruit Pie (or Tart) in which the principal filling ingredient is apples (Cooking Apples A crumble is a dish of British origin containing stewed Fruit topped with a Crumbly mixture of Fat (usually Butter) Flour Apple crisp in the United States or Apple crumble as it is known in the United Kingdom is a dessert consisting of baked apples topped with Apple cake is a popular Dessert produced with the main ingredient of Apples Such a Cake is made through the process of slicing this sweet fruit to add fragrance They are often eaten baked or stewed, and they can also be dried and eaten or re-constituted (soaked in water, alcohol or some other liquid) for later use. A stew is a combination of Solid Food Ingredients that have been Cooked in Water or other water-based liquid typically by Simmering Puréed apples are generally known as apple sauce. Apple sauce (or applesauce) is a Purée made from Apples It can use peeled or unpeeled apples and a variety of spices or additives such as Cinnamon Apples are also made into apple butter and apple jelly. Apple butter is a highly concentrated form of Apple sauce, produced by long slow cooking of Apples with Cider or water to a point where the Sugar They are also used (cooked) in meat dishes.

• In the UK, a toffee apple is a traditional confection made by coating an apple in hot toffee and allowing it to cool. Toffee is a Confection made by boiling Molasses or Sugar (creating inverted sugar) along with Butter, and occasionally Flour Similar treats in the US are candy apples (coated in a hard shell of crystallised sugar syrup), and caramel apples, coated with cooled caramel. Caramel apples or toffee apples are created by dipping or rolling Apples on-a-stick in hot Caramel, sometimes then rolling them in nuts or Caramel (pronounced /ˈkærəmɛl/ or /ˈkɑrməl/ refers to a range of confections that are Beige to dark brown in Color, derived from the
• Apples are eaten with honey at the Jewish New Year of Rosh Hashanah to symbolize a sweet new year. Rosh Hashanah (ראש השנה literally "head of the year" Biblical: ˈɾoʃ haʃːɔˈnɔh Israeli haʃaˈna Yiddish: hɑˈʃɔnə is a Jewish ^[33]
• Farms with apple orchards may open them to the public, so consumers may themselves pick the apples they will buy. ^[33]

Sliced apples turn brown with exposure to air due to the conversion of natural phenolic substances into melanin upon exposure to oxygen. Melanin is a class of compounds found in the Plant, Animal and Protista kingdoms, where it serves predominantly as a Pigment. Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the ^[34] Different cultivars differ in their propensity to brown after slicing. Sliced fruit can be treated with acidulated water to prevent this effect. Acidulated water is water where some sort of Acid is added—often Lemon juice lime juice or Vinegar —to prevent fruits or vegetables from ^[34]

Organic apples are commonly produced in the United States. ^[35] Organic production is difficult in Europe, though a few orchards have done so with commercial success,^[35] using disease-resistant cultivars and the very best cultural controls. The latest tool in the organic repertoire is a spray of a light coating of kaolin clay, which forms a physical barrier to some pests, and also helps prevent apple sun scald. Kaolinite is a Clay mineral with the chemical composition Al 2 Si 2 O 5( OH)4 ^[21][35]

Health benefits

An old proverb attests to the health benefits of the fruit: "An apple a day keeps the doctor away. A proverb (from the Latin proverbium) also called a byword or nayword, is a simple and concrete Saying popularly known and repeated " Research suggests that apples may reduce the risk of colon cancer, prostate cancer and lung cancer. Colorectal cancer, also called colon cancer or large bowel cancer, includes Cancerous growths in the colon, Rectum and Lung cancer is a Disease of uncontrolled Cell growth in tissues of the Lung. ^[36] Like many fruits, apples contain Vitamin C as well as a host of other antioxidant compounds, which may reduce the risk of cancer by preventing DNA damage. Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an Essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species a small number of other Mammalian An antioxidant is a Molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known ^[34] The fiber content, while less than in most other fruits, helps regulate bowel movements and may thus reduce the risk of colon cancer. They may also help with heart disease,^[37][38] weight loss^[38] and controlling cholesterol,^[38] as they do not have any cholesterol, have fiber, which reduces cholesterol by preventing reabsorption, and are bulky for their caloric content like most fruits and vegetables. Heart disease is an Umbrella term for a variety for different diseases affecting the Heart. Weight loss, in the context of Medicine or Health or Physical fitness, is a reduction of the total Body weight, due to a mean loss of fluid Cholesterol is a Lipid found in the Cell membranes and transported in the Blood plasma of all Animals It is an essential component of mammalian ^[38]

There is evidence that in vitro, apples possess phenolic compounds which may be cancer-protective and demonstrate antioxidant activity. In vitro ( Latin: within the glass refers to the technique of performing a given experiment in a controlled environment outside of a living Organism An antioxidant is a Molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules ^[39] The predominant phenolic phytochemicals in apples are quercetin, epicatechin, and procyanidin B2. Quercetin is a Flavonoid and to be more specific a flavonol. It is the Aglycone form of a number of other flavonoid Glycosides, such as Catechins are polyphenolic Antioxidant Plant Metabolites. They belong to the family of Flavonoids and to be more specific flavan-3-ols Proanthocyanidin (also known as procyanidin oligomeric proanthocyanidin ( OPC) pycnogenol, leukocyanidin and leucoanthocyanin ^[40]

The seeds are mildly poisonous, containing a small amount of amygdalin, a cyanogenic glycoside; usually not enough to be dangerous to humans, but it can deter birds. A seed (in some plants referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic Plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat usually with some stored Amygdalin (from Greek: grc-Latn amygdálē “almond” C20H27NO11 is a Glycoside initially isolated from the seeds A cyanide is any Chemical compound that contains the cyano group (C≡N which consists of a Carbon Atom triple-bonded to a ^[41]

References

External links

• Apple Facts from the UK's Institute of Food Research
• [1] Orchard Research Project UK
• History of Apples from Midwest Apple Improvement Association