Antivenin (or antivenom or antivenene) is a biological product used in the treatment of venomous bites or stings. This article is about the class of Biotoxins For other uses see Venom (disambiguation and Venomous (disambiguation. The name comes from the French word venin meaning venom, and historically the word antivenin was predominant around the world. This article is about the class of Biotoxins For other uses see Venom (disambiguation and Venomous (disambiguation. For the English language the World Health Organization decided in 1981 that the preferred terminology in the English language would be "venom" and "antivenom" rather than "venin/antivenin" or "venen/antivenene". ^[1] However, it is still called antivenin or antivenene by many organizations today.

Antivenin is created by injecting a small amount of the targeted venom into an animal such as a horse, sheep, goat, or rabbit; the subject animal will suffer an immune response to the venom, producing antibodies against the venom's active molecule which can then be harvested from the animal's blood and used to treat envenomation in others. The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. The domestic goat ( Capra aegagrus hircus) is a subspecies of goat Domesticated from the Wild goat of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe Rabbits are small Mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor Antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins, abbreviated Ig) are Gamma globulin Proteins that are found in Blood or other Bodily Internationally, Snake Venom Antitoxin must carefully meet the standards of Pharmacopoeia and the World Health Organization (WHO). Pharmacopoeia (literally the art of the drug compounder in its modern technical sense is a book containing directions for the identification of samples and the preparation of compound [1]

Contents 1 Therapeutic use 2 Natural and acquired immunity 3 Availability of antivenins 3.1 Spiders 3.2 Acarids 3.3 Insects 3.4 Scorpions 3.5 Marine animals 3.6 Snakes 4 Antivenin sources 5 Footnotes 6 External links

Therapeutic use

The principle of antivenin is based on that of vaccines, developed by Louis Pasteur, however instead of inducing immunity in the patient directly, it is induced in a host animal and the hyperimmunized serum is transfused into the patient. A vaccine is a biological preparation which is used to establish or improve immunity to a particular disease Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895 a French Chemist and Microbiologist, is best known for remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and Blood transfusion is the process of transferring Blood or blood-based products from one person into the Circulatory system of another

Antivenins can be classified into monovalent (when they are effective against a given species' venom) or polyvalent (when they are effective against a range of species, or several different species at the same time). The first antivenin for snakes (called an anti-ophidic serum) was developed by Albert Calmette, a French scientist of the Pasteur Institute working at its Indochine branch in 1895, against the Indian Cobra (Naja naja). Léon Charles Albert Calmette ( July 12, 1863 &ndash October 29, 1933) was a French The Pasteur Institute (Institut Pasteur is a French Non-profit private foundation dedicated to the study of Biology, Micro-organisms Diseases "Naja fasciata" redirects here That Taxon as described by Bocage in 1895 refers to the Black-necked Spitting Cobra ( N Vital Brazil, a Brazilian scientist developed in 1901 the first monovalent and polyvalent antivenins for Central and South American Crotalus, Bothrops and Elaps genera, as well as for certain species of venomous spiders, scorpions, and frogs. For a place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, see Vital Brazil Brazil. Year 1901 ( MCMI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Common names: rattlesnakes rattlers Crotalus is a Genus of venomous pitvipers found only in the Common names: lanceheads American lanceheads American lance-headed vipers The Elapidae, or elapids are a Family of venomous snakes found in tropical and subtropical regions around the world including the Indian Ocean and Spiders are Predatory Invertebrate Animals that have two body segments, eight legs no chewing mouth parts and no wings Scorpions are eight-legged Carnivorous Arthropods They are members of the order Scorpiones within the class Arachnida. This article is about the block cipher algorithm For the ultrafast laser pulse measurement technique see Frequency-resolved optical gating. They were all developed in a Brazilian institution, the Instituto Butantan, located in São Paulo, Brazil. Instituto Butantan is a Brazilian biomedical research center affiliated to the São Paulo State Secretary of Health. São Paulo ( is the largest city in Brazil, with its metropolitan area ranking among the largest urban areas in the world |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld

Antivenins for therapeutic use are often preserved as freeze-dried ampoules, but some are available only in liquid form and must be kept refrigerated. Freeze drying (also known as lyophilization or cryodesiccation) is a Dehydration process typically used to preserve a perishable material ampoule (also ampule) is a small glass sealed Vial which is used to contain or preserve a fluid (They are not immediately inactivated by heat, so a minor gap in the cold chain is not disastrous. A cold chain is a Temperature -controlled Supply chain. An unbroken cold chain is an uninterrupted series of storage and distribution activities which maintain a given ) The majority of antivenins (including all snake antivenins) are administered intravenously, however stonefish and redback spider antivenins are given intramuscularly. There are two species of stonefish Synanceja verrucosa and Syanaceja horrida also known as the the reef stone or dornorn. The Redback spider ( Latrodectus hasselti) is a potentially dangerous Spider native to Australia. Intramuscular injection is the injection of a substance directly into a Muscle. The intramuscular route has been questioned in some situations as not uniformly effective. ^[2]

Antivenins bind to and neutralize the venom, halting further damage, but do not reverse damage already done. Thus, they should be administered as soon as possible after the venom has been injected, but are of some benefit as long as venom is present in the body. Since the advent of antivenins, some bites which were previously inevitably fatal have become only rarely fatal provided that the antivenin is administered soon enough.

Antivenins are purified by several processes but will still contain other serum proteins that can act as antigens. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl An antigen (from antibody-generating) or immunogen is a substance that prompts the generation of Antibodies and can cause an immune response Some individuals may react to the antivenin with an immediate hypersensitivity reaction (anaphylaxis) or a delayed hypersensitivity (serum sickness) reaction and antivenin should, therefore, be used with caution. Anaphylaxis is an acute systemic (multi-system and severe Type I Hypersensitivity allergic reaction in humans and other Mammals Serum sickness is a Reaction to proteins in Antiserum derived from an Animal source Despite this caution, antivenin is typically the sole effective treatment for a life-threatening condition, and once the precautions for managing these reactions are in place, an anaphylactoid reaction is not grounds to refuse to give antivenin if otherwise indicated. Although it is a popular myth that a person allergic to horses "cannot" be given antivenin, the side effects are manageable, and antivenin should be given as rapidly as the side effects can be managed. ^[3]

Sheep are generally used in preference over horses now, however, as the potential for adverse immunological responses in humans from sheep-derived antibodies is generally somewhat less than that from horse-derived antibodies. The use of horses to raise antibodies - in Australia at least, where much antivenin research has been undertaken (by Sutherland and others for example) - has been attributed to the research base originally having been comprised of a large number of veterinary officers. These vets had, in many cases, returned from taking part in the Boer and First World Wars and were generally experienced with horses (eg: cavalry). Two Boer Wars were fought between the British Empire and the two independent Boer republics the Orange Free State and the South African Republic World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The large animal vets were similarly oriented given the use of horses as a prime source of motive power and transport, especially in the rural setting. The overall experience with horses naturally made them the preferred subject in which to raise antibodies. It was not until later that the immuno-reactivity of certain horse serum proteins was assessed to be sufficiently problematic that alternatives in which to raise antibodies were investigated.

Natural and acquired immunity

Although individuals can vary in their physiopathological response and sensitivity to animal venoms, there is no natural immunity to them in humans. Some ophiophagic animals are immune to the venoms produced by some species of venomous snakes, by the presence of antihemorrhagic and antineurotoxic factors in their blood. Ophiophagy ( Greek "snake eating" is a specialized form of Feeding or alimentary Behavior of animals which hunt and eat These animals include King snakes, opossums and hedgehogs. Didelphimorphia is the order of common opossums of the Western Hemisphere. A hedgehog is any of the small spiny Mammals of the Subfamily Erinaceinae and the order Erinaceomorpha.

It is quite possible to immunize a person directly with small and graded doses of venom rather than an animal. According to Greek history, King Mithridates did this in order to protect himself against attempts of poisoning, therefore this procedure is often called mithridatization. The History of Greece traditionally encompasses the study of the Greek people, the areas they ruled historically and the territory now composing the modern state of See Mithridates for people and concepts with the same name Mithridates VI (Μιθριδάτης 132&ndash63 BC also known as Mithridates In the context of Biology, poisons are substances that can cause damage, Illness, or Death to Organisms usually by Mithridatism is the practice of protecting oneself against a Poison by gradually self-administering non-lethal amounts However, unlike a vaccination against disease which must only produce a latent immunity that can be roused in case of infection, to neutralize a sudden and large dose of venom requires maintaining a high level of circulating antibody (a hyperimmunized state), through repeated venom injections (typically every 21 days). Vaccination is the administration of Antigenic material (the Vaccine) to produce immunity to a disease Immunity is a material term that describes a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid Infection, Disease, or other unwanted biological invasion An infection is the detrimental Colonization of a host Organism by a foreign Species. The long-term health effects of this process have not been studied. For some large snakes, the total amount of antibody it is possible to maintain in one human being is not enough to neutralize one envenomation. Further, cytotoxic venom components can cause pain and minor scarring at the immunization site. Cytotoxicity is the quality of being toxic to cells Examples of toxic agents are a Chemical substance, an Immune cell or some types of Venom Finally, the resistance is specific to the particular venom used; maintaining resistance to a variety of venoms requires multiple monthly venom injections. Thus, there is no practical purpose or favorable cost/benefit ratio for this, except for people like zoo handlers, researchers, and circus artists who deal closely with venomous animals. A zoological garden, shortened to zoo, is an institution in which living animals are exhibited in captivity Mithridatization has been tried with success in Australia and Brazil and total immunity has been achieved even to multiple bites of extremely venomous cobras and pit vipers. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Starting in 1950, Bill Haast successfully immunized himself to the venoms of Cape, Indian and King cobras. William E "Bill" Haast (born 1910 is the director of the Miami Serpentarium Laboratories a facility near Punta Gorda, Florida, which produces snake venom The Cape Cobra ( Naja nivea) is a moderately sized Cobra inhabiting the arid regions of Southern Africa. "Naja fasciata" redirects here That Taxon as described by Bocage in 1895 refers to the Black-necked Spitting Cobra ( N The King Cobra ( Ophiophagus hannah) is the world's longest venomous Snake, with a length that can be as large as 5

Because neurotoxic venoms must travel farther in the body to do harm and are produced in smaller quantities, it is easier to develop resistance to them than directly cytotoxic venoms (such as those of most vipers) that are injected in large quantity and do damage immediately upon injection. Neurotoxicity occurs when the exposure to natural or artificial toxic substances which are called Neurotoxins alters the normal activity of the Nervous system in The Viperidae are a family of Venomous snakes commonly referred to as vipers, although the term viperids is more specific and distinguishes them from

Availability of antivenins

Antivenins have been developed for the venoms associated with the following animals:^[4]

Spiders

Antivenin	Species	Country
Funnel web spider antivenom	Sydney funnel-web spider	Australia
Soro antiaracnidico	Brazilian wandering spider	Brazil
Soro antiloxoscelico	Recluse spider	Brazil
Suero antiloxoscelico	Chilean recluse	Peru
Aracmyn	All species of Loxosceles and Latrodectus	Mexico
Redback spider antivenom	Redback spider	Australia
Black widow antivenin	Black widow spider	USA
SAIMR Spider antivenom	Button spider	South Africa
Anti Latrodectus antivenom	Black widow spider	Argentina

Acarids

Antivenin	Species	Country
Tick antivenom	Paralysis tick	Australia

Insects

Antivenin	Species	Country
Soro antilonomico	Lonomia oblique caterpillar	Brazil

Scorpions

Antivenin	Species	Country
Alacramyn	Centruroides limpidus, C. Australian funnel-web spiders are very venomous Spiders of the family Hexathelidae. The Brazilian wandering spiders ( Phoneutria spp) armed spiders ("aranhas armadeiras" as they are known in Portuguese) or The recluse spiders (genus Loxosceles) also known as fiddle-back or violin spiders, are a venomous genus of spiders known for The Chilean recluse spider is a venomous Spider, Loxosceles laeta, of the family Sicariidae (formerly of the family Loxoscelidae The recluse spiders (genus Loxosceles) also known as fiddle-back or violin spiders, are a venomous genus of spiders known for The widow spiders are members of the genus Latrodectus, in the family Theridiidae. The Redback spider ( Latrodectus hasselti) is a potentially dangerous Spider native to Australia. The black widow spider is a group of Spiders which includes the southern black widow ( Latrodectus mactans) the northern black widow The term button spider is a term used in southern Africa to refer to local members of the Spider genus Latrodectus, a subset of the family Theridiidae The black widow spider is a group of Spiders which includes the southern black widow ( Latrodectus mactans) the northern black widow The paralysis tick, Ixodes holocyclus, is one of about 75 species of Australian Tick fauna and is considered the most medically important The genus Lonomia is a moderate-sized group of fairly cryptic saturniid moths from South America, famous not for the adults but for their amazingly noxius, C. suffusus	Mexico
Suero Antialacran	Centruroides limpidus, C. noxius, C. suffusus	Mexico
Tunisian polyvalent antivenom	All Iranian scorpions	Tunisia
Anti-Scorpion Venom Serum I. P. (AScVS)	Indian red scorpion	India
Anti-scorpionique	Androctonus spp. , Buthus spp.	Algeria
Scorpion antivenom	Black scorpion, Buthus occitanus	Morocco
Soro antiescorpionico	Tityus spp.	Brazil
SAIMR scorpion antivenom	Parabuthus spp.	South Africa
Purified polyvalent Anti-Scorpion Serum(equine)	Leiurus spp. & Androctons scorpions	Egypt

Marine animals

Antivenin	Species	Country
CSL box jellyfish antivenom	Box jellyfish	Australia
CSL stonefish antivenom	Stonefish	Australia

Snakes

• Polyvalent snake antivenom: Saw-scaled Viper Echis carinatus, Russell's Viper Daboia russelli, Spectacled Cobra Naja naja, Common Krait Bungarus caeruleus. Box jellyfish are invertebrates belonging to the class Cubozoa, named for their Cube -shaped medusae. There are two species of stonefish Synanceja verrucosa and Syanaceja horrida also known as the the reef stone or dornorn. Common names: saw-scaled viper Indian saw-scaled viper little Indian viper more. Common names: Russell's viper chain viper Indian Russell's viper ( more) "Naja fasciata" redirects here That Taxon as described by Bocage in 1895 refers to the Black-necked Spitting Cobra ( N The Common Krait ( Bungarus caeruleus) is a type of Krait that is found in the Jungles of the Indian Sub-continent. India.
• Death adder antivenom: Death adder, Australia
• Taipan antivenom: Taipan, Australia
• Black snake antivenom: Pseudechis spp. Australia. The taipans are a Genus of large fast highly venomous Australasian Snakes One species the inland taipan (also known as the The genus Pseudechis contains the group of elapids commonly referred to as the Black Snakes These snakes are found in every Australian state
• Tiger snake antivenom: Australian copperheads, Tiger snakes, Pseudechis spp. Austrelaps is a Genus of venomous elapid snakes native to the relatively fertile temperate southern and eastern part of the Australian Tiger snakes are a type of venomous serpent found in southern regions of Australia, including its coastal islands and Tasmania. The genus Pseudechis contains the group of elapids commonly referred to as the Black Snakes These snakes are found in every Australian state , Rough scaled snake. Australia
• Brown snake antivenom: Brown snakes. Pseudonaja is a Genus of venomous Elapid Snakes native to Australia. Australia
• Polyvalent snake antivenom: Many Australian snakes. Australia
• Sea snake antivenom: Sea snakes, Australia
• Vipera tab: Vipera spp. For sea snakes in mythology and cryptozoology see Sea serpent. Common names: Palaearctic vipers Eurasian vipers Vipera is a Genus of venomous vipers It USA
• Polyvalent crotalid antivenin (CroFab - Crotalidae Polyvalent Immune Fab (Ovine)): North American pit vipers (all Rattlesnakes, Copperheads, and cottonmouths), USA
• Soro antibotropicocrotalico: Pit vipers and Rattlesnakes, Brazil
• Antielapidico: Coral snakes, Brazil
• Soro anti-elapidico: Coral snakes, Brazil
• SAIMR polyvalent antivenom: Mambas, Cobras, Rinkhalses, Puff adders (Unsuitable small adders: B. Rattlesnakes are a group of venomous Snakes, genera Crotalus and Sistrurus. Common names: pit vipers pitvipers The Crotalinae, or crotalines are a subfamily of venomous vipers found Rattlesnakes are a group of venomous Snakes, genera Crotalus and Sistrurus. The coral snakes are a large group of Elapid Snakes that can be divided into two distinct groups New World coral snakes and Old World The coral snakes are a large group of Elapid Snakes that can be divided into two distinct groups New World coral snakes and Old World MAMBA stands for Mobile Artillery Monitoring Battlefield Asset, a Counter-battery radar operated by the Royal Artillery. Naja is a Genus of venomous Elapid Snakes They are the most recognized and most widespread group of snakes commonly known as The Rinkhals also called the Ringhals or Spitting cobra ( Hemachatus haemachatus) is a venomous elapid Species Common names: puff adders African adders African vipers Bitis is a Genus of venomous vipers found in worthingtoni, B. atropos, B. caudalis, B. cornuta, B. heraldica, B. inornata, B. peringueyi, B. schneideri, B. xeropaga), South Africa^[5]
• SAIMR echis antivenom: Saw-scaled vipers, South Africa
• SAIMR Boomslang antivenom: Boomslang, South Africa
• Panamerican serum: anticoral polyvalent serum: Coral snakes, Costa Rica
• Anticoral: Coral snakes, Costa Rica
• Anti-mipartitus antivenom: Coral snakes, Costa Rica
• Anticoral monovalent: Coral snakes, Costa Rica
• Antimicrurus: Coral snakes, Argentina
• Coralmyn: Coral snakes, Mexico
• Anti micruricoscorales: Coral snakes, Colombia

Antivenin sources

The following groups assist in locating antivenins:

• USA, Miami, Florida: The Miami-Dade Fire Rescue Antivenom Bank: Emergency: 1-786-336-6600 available 24 hours. Common names: berg adder Cape mountain adder mountain adder Bitis atropos is a venomous viper Species Common names: horned adder horned puff adder horned viper Bitis caudalis is a venomous viper Species Common names: many-horned adder hornsman western hornsman adder western many-horned adder Common names: Angolan adder Bitis heraldica is a venomous viper Species found only in Angola Common names: plain mountain adder hornless adder Cape puff adder Common names: Peringuey's adder Peringuey's desert adder sidewinding adder more. Common names: Namaqua dwarf adder spotted dwarf adder Description With an average length of 18-25 cm and a maximum reported length of 28 Common names: desert mountain adder Luderitz dwarf viper Bitis xeropaga is a venomous viper Species Common names: saw-scaled vipers carpet vipers Echis is a Genus of venomous vipers found in the dry regions A boomslang ( Dispholidus typus) is a relatively small venomous Colubrid Snake native to Sub-Saharan Africa. The coral snakes are a large group of Elapid Snakes that can be divided into two distinct groups New World coral snakes and Old World The coral snakes are a large group of Elapid Snakes that can be divided into two distinct groups New World coral snakes and Old World The coral snakes are a large group of Elapid Snakes that can be divided into two distinct groups New World coral snakes and Old World The coral snakes are a large group of Elapid Snakes that can be divided into two distinct groups New World coral snakes and Old World The coral snakes are a large group of Elapid Snakes that can be divided into two distinct groups New World coral snakes and Old World The coral snakes are a large group of Elapid Snakes that can be divided into two distinct groups New World coral snakes and Old World The coral snakes are a large group of Elapid Snakes that can be divided into two distinct groups New World coral snakes and Old World A list of available antivenins is available at [2]. More information about the bank is available at [3]
• USA, The Antivenom Index is a joint project of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums and the American Association of Poison Control Centers: They maintain a website to help locate rare antivenins. The Association of Zoos and Aquariums ( AZA; previously American Zoo and Aquarium Association, and originally American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums [4]
• USA, Colorado: Poisindex central office in Denver, Colorado, USA (1-800-332-3073). The State of Colorado ( or chiefly by nonresidents) is a state located in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States of America. The City and County of Denver (pronounced /ˈdɛnvɚ/ is the Capital and the most populous city of Colorado, in the United States
• Australia: CSL Limited, Parkville, Victoria. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. CSL Limited is an Australian-based manufacturer of medical products Parkville is an Inner city suburb north of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
• Asia: Haffkine Biopharmaceutical Corporation, Parel, Mumbai, India. Parel is central part of Mumbai. It is also the name of a Railway station on the Mumbai suburban railway. Mumbai ( Marathi:,, IPA: formerly Bombay, is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra and the financial India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country
• Africa: South African Institute for Medical Research, Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa. Johannesburg ( Pronounced /jō-hān'ĭs-bûrg'/ is the largest city in South Africa. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa
• Brazil: Instituto Butantan, São Paulo

Footnotes

External links

• Snakebite. eMedicine.
• New antivenom could save more snakebite victims

© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic