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Antipsychotics are a group of drugs commonly but not exclusively used to treat psychosis. Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic Conditions for which antipsychotic drugs might be used include schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, mania, and delusional disorder. Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn Mania (from Greek μανία and that from μαίνομαι - mainomai, "to rage to be furious" is a severe medical condition Delusional disorder is a psychiatric diagnosis denoting a psychotic Mental illness that involves holding one or more non-bizarre Delusions in the absence Over time different classes of antipsychotics have been developed. A first generation of antipsychotics, known as typical antipsychotics, were discovered in the 1950s. Typical antipsychotics (sometimes referred to as first generation antipsychotics, conventional antipsychotics, classical neuroleptics, or major tranquilizers Most of the drugs in the second generation of antipsychotics, known as atypical antipsychotics, have more recently been developed and come into use. The atypical antipsychotics (also known as second generation antipsychotics) are a group of Antipsychotic drugs used to treat psychiatric conditions Both classes of medication tend to block receptors in dopamine pathways in the brain. A number of side effects have been observed in relation to specific medications, including weight gain, agranulocytosis, tardive dyskinesia, tardive akathisia and tardive psychoses. Agranulocytosis is an acute condition involving a severe and dangerous Leukopenia particularly of neutrophils causing a Neutropenia in the circulating blood Tardive dyskinesia is a variety of dyskinesia (involuntary repetitive movements manifesting as a side effect of long-term or high-dose use of Dopamine antagonists The relative efficacy of typical versus atypical antipsychotics along various dimensions has recently been a subject of study and to a certain extent remains to be understood.

Contents

Terminology

Antipsychotics are also referred to as neuroleptic drugs. The word neuroleptic is derived from Greek: "νεύρον" (originally meaning sinew but today referring to the nerves) and "λαμβάνω" (meaning take hold of). Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly A tendon (or sinew) is a tough band of Fibrous connective tissue that usually connects Muscle to Bone and is capable of withstanding tension A nerve is an enclosed cable-like bundle of peripheral Axons (the long slender projections of Neurons. Thus, the word means taking hold of one's nerves. This term reflects the drugs' ability to make movement more difficult and sluggish, which clinicians previously believed indicated that a dose was high enough. The lower doses used currently have resulted in reduced incidence of motor side effects and sedation, and the term is less commonly used than in the past.

Antipsychotics are broadly divided into two groups, the typical or first-generation antipsychotics and the atypical or second-generation antipsychotics. Typical antipsychotics (sometimes referred to as first generation antipsychotics, conventional antipsychotics, classical neuroleptics, or major tranquilizers The atypical antipsychotics (also known as second generation antipsychotics) are a group of Antipsychotic drugs used to treat psychiatric conditions There are also dopamine partial agonists, which are often categorized as atypicals.

Typical antipsychotics are also sometimes referred to as major tranquilizers, because some of them can tranquilize and sedate. This term is increasingly disused, as the terminology implies a connection with benzodiazepines ("minor" tranquilizers) when none exists. The benzodiazepines (pronounced, often abbreviated to "benzos") are a class of Psychoactive drugs with varying Hypnotic

Usage

Common conditions with which antipsychotics might be used include schizophrenia, mania, and delusional disorder. Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn Mania (from Greek μανία and that from μαίνομαι - mainomai, "to rage to be furious" is a severe medical condition Delusional disorder is a psychiatric diagnosis denoting a psychotic Mental illness that involves holding one or more non-bizarre Delusions in the absence They might be used to counter psychosis associated with a wide range of other diagnoses. Antipsychotics may also be used in mood disorder (e. A mood disorder is the term given for a group of diagnoses in the DSM IV TR classification system where a disturbance in the person's emotional mood is hypothesised g. , bipolar disorder) even when no signs of psychosis are present. In addition, these drugs are used to treat non-psychotic disorders. For example, some antipsychotics (haloperidol, pimozide) are used off-label to treat Tourette syndrome, whereas Abilify is prescribed in some cases of Asperger's syndrome. Haloperidol is a Typical antipsychotic. It is in the Butyrophenone class of Antipsychotic medications and has pharmacological effects similar Pimozide (sold as Orap) is an Antipsychotic drug. It was discovered at Janssen Pharmaceutica in 1963. Off-label use is the practice of prescribing drugs for a purpose outside the scope of the drug's approved label most often concerning the drug's indication. Tourette syndrome (also called Tourette's syndrome, Tourette's disorder, Gilles de la Tourette syndrome, GTS or more commonly simply Tourette's Aripiprazole (ay-ree-PIP-ray-zole (sold as Abilify) was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA on November 15, 2002 for the Asperger syndrome (also called Asperger's syndrome, Asperger's disorder, Asperger's or AS) is the Autism spectrum disorder (ASD

In routine clinical practice, antipsychotics may be used as part of risk management, and to control difficult patients since the patient becomes deenergized or deenervated, will or volition is crushed, and passivity and docility are induced therefore the patient complains less and becomes more manageable, although this is controversial.

History

The original antipsychotic drugs were happened upon largely by chance and were tested empirically for their effectiveness. The first antipsychotic was chlorpromazine, which was developed as a surgical anesthetic. Chlorpromazine (as chlorpromazine Hydrochloride, abbreviated CPZ, marketed in the US as Thorazine) is a Phenothiazine Antipsychotic Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις It was first used on psychiatric patients in the belief that it would have a calming effect. However, the drug soon appeared to reduce psychosis beyond this calming effect, and now some believe that it causes a reduction of psychosis unrelated to the sedating effect of the medication. It was introduced for the treatment of psychosis during the period when lobotomy was a common treatment and was hailed as a "cure" for schizophrenia. A lobotomy ( Greek: lobos Lobe of Brain, tomos "cut/slice" is a form of Psychosurgery, also known as a leukotomy or It was then touted to provide a "chemical lobotomy," causing similar neurological effects without requiring surgery.

The newer atypical antipsychotics are, it is claimed, rationally-designed drugs in which a theoretical understanding of both the condition to be treated and the effect of certain molecules on the body is used to develop potential new drug candidates. Drug design is the approach of finding drugs by design based on their Biological targets Typically a drug target is a key Molecule involved in a particular However, continued off-label use of the newer drugs indicates that old-fashioned empirical drug discovery is still important in evaluating this class of medication.

Common antipsychotics

Chlorpromazine.
Chlorpromazine.
Haloperidol.
Haloperidol.
Quetiapine.
Quetiapine.

Commonly used antipsychotic medications are listed below by drug group. Trade names appear in parentheses.

First generation antipsychotics

Butyrophenones

Phenothiazines

Thioxanthenes

Second generation antipsychotics

Third generation antipsychotics

Other options

The most common typical antipsychotic drugs are now off-patent, meaning any pharmaceutical company is legally allowed to produce cheap generic versions of these medications. A patent is a set of Exclusive rights granted by a State to an inventor or his assignee for a fixed period of time in exchange for a disclosure of an A generic drug (generic drugs short generics is a drug which is produced and distributed without Patent protection While this makes them cheaper than the atypical drugs that are still manufactured under patent constraints, atypical drugs are preferred as a first-line treatment because they are believed to have fewer side effects and seem to have additional benefits for the 'negative symptoms' of schizophrenia, a typical condition for which they might be prescribed. Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn

Metabotropic glutamate receptor 2 agonism has been seen as a promissing strategy in the development of novel antipsychotics. Glutamate receptor metabotropic 2 GluR2, also known as GRM2, is a human Gene. An agonist is a term used to describe a type of ligand or drug that binds and alters the activity of a receptor. [3] When tested in patients, the research substance LY2140023 yielded promising results and had few side effects. The active metabolite of this prodrug targets the brain glutamate receptors mGluR2/3 rather than dopamine receptors. Metabolomics is the "systematic study of the unique chemical fingerprints that specific cellular processes leave behind" - specifically the study of their small-molecule metabolite A prodrug is a pharmacological substance ( drug) that is administered in an inactive (or significantly less active form Glutamate receptors are Transmembrane receptors located on Neuron membranes Dopamine receptors are a class of metabotropic G protein-coupled receptors that are prominent in the Vertebrate Central nervous system (CNS [4] It is currently in phase-2 clinical testing (2007). In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices

Drug action

All antipsychotic drugs tend to block D2 receptors in the dopamine pathways of the brain. Dopamine receptors are a class of metabotropic G protein-coupled receptors that are prominent in the Vertebrate Central nervous system (CNS Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain This means that dopamine released in these pathways has less effect. Excess release of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway has been linked to psychotic experiences. The mesolimbic pathway is one of the Neural pathways in the Brain that links the Ventral tegmentum in the Midbrain to the Nucleus accumbens It is the blockade of dopamine receptors in this pathway that is thought to control psychotic experiences.

Typical antipsychotics are not particularly selective and also block Dopamine receptors in the mesocortical pathway, tuberoinfundibular pathway, and the nigrostriatal pathway. The mesocortical pathway is a Neural pathway that connects the Ventral tegmentum to the Cerebral cortex, particularly the Frontal lobes It is The tuberoinfundibular pathway refers to a population of dopamine neurons in the Arcuate nucleus of the mediobasal Hypothalamus (the 'tuberal region' that project The nigrostriatal pathway is a Neural pathway that connects the Substantia nigra with the Striatum. Blocking D2 receptors in these other pathways is thought to produce some of the unwanted side effects that the typical antipsychotics can produce (see below). In Medicine, an adverse effect is a harmful and undesired effect resulting from a medication or other intervention such as Chemotherapy or Surgery. They were commonly classified on a spectrum of low potency to high potency, where potency referred to the ability of the drug to bind to dopamine receptors, and not to the effectiveness of the drug. High-potency antipsychotics such as haloperidol, in general, have doses of a few milligrams and cause less sleepiness and calming effects than low-potency antipsychotics such as chlorpromazine and thioridazine, which have dosages of several hundred milligrams. Haloperidol is a Typical antipsychotic. It is in the Butyrophenone class of Antipsychotic medications and has pharmacological effects similar Chlorpromazine (as chlorpromazine Hydrochloride, abbreviated CPZ, marketed in the US as Thorazine) is a Phenothiazine Antipsychotic Thioridazine is a Piperidine Antipsychotic drug belonging to the Phenothiazine drug group and was previously widely used in the treatment The latter have a greater degree of anticholinergic and antihistaminergic activity, which can counteract dopamine-related side effects.

Atypical antipsychotic drugs have a similar blocking effect on D2 receptors. Some also block or partially block serotonin receptors (particularly 5HT2A, C and 5HT1A receptors):ranging from risperidone, which acts overwhelmingly on serotonin receptors, to amisulpride, which has no serotonergic activity. Serotonin (ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən ( 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a Monoamine Neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic Neurons The additional effects on serotonin receptors may be why some of them can benefit the 'negative symptoms' of schizophrenia. [5]

Side effects

Antipsychotics are associated with a range of side effects. Around two-thirds of people in controlled drug trials discontinue antipsychotics, partly due to adverse effects. Extrapyramidal reactions include tardive psychosis, acute dystonias, akathisia, parkinsonism (rigidity and tremor), tardive dyskinesia, tachycardia, hypotension, impotence, lethargy, seizures, and hyperprolactinaemia. In Human anatomy, the extrapyramidal system is a Neural network located in the brain that is part of the Motor system involved in the coordination Dystonia is a neurological Movement disorder in which sustained muscle contractions cause twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal postures Akathisia, or acathisia, is a syndrome characterized by unpleasant sensations of "inner" restlessness that manifests itself with an inability to sit still or remain Parkinsonism (also known as Parkinson's syndrome, atypical Parkinson's, or secondary Parkinson's) is a neurological Syndrome characterized Tremor is an unintentional somewhat rhythmic muscle movement involving to-and-from movements (oscillations of one or more parts of the body Tardive dyskinesia is a variety of dyskinesia (involuntary repetitive movements manifesting as a side effect of long-term or high-dose use of Dopamine antagonists In Physiology and Medicine, hypotension refers to an abnormally low Blood pressure. An epileptic seizure is caused by excessive and/or hypersynchronous electrical Neuronal activity and is usually self-limiting Hyperprolactinaemia ( BrE) or hyperprolactinemia ( AmE) is the presence of abnormally-high levels of Prolactin in the blood

From a subjective perspective, antipsychotics heavily influence one's perceptions of pleasurable sensations, causing a severe reduction in feelings of desire, motivation, pensive thought, and awe. This does not coincide with the apathy and lack of motivation experienced by the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Detrimental effects on short term memory, which affect the way one figures and calculates (although this also may be purely subjective), may also be observed on high enough dosages. These are all the reasons why they are thought to affect "creativity". Also, for some schizophrenics, too much stress will cause them to "relapse". However, in general, too much stress will also put the patient into a deep drowsy state, even to the point of sleep, while on antipsychotic medications.

Also, this may be unique to the author, but antipsychotics have a detrimental effect on short term memory.

Following are details concerning some of the side effects of antipsychotics:

Some people suffer few apparent side effects from taking antipsychotic medication, whereas others may have serious adverse effects. Some side effects, such as subtle cognitive problems, may go unnoticed.

There is a possibility that the risk of tardive dyskinesia can be reduced by combining the anti-psychotics with diphenhydramine or benztropine, although this remains to be established. Pharmacological action Diphenhydramine (dye fen hye' dra meen works by blocking the effect of histamine at H1 receptor sites Central nervous system damage is also associated with irreversible tardive akathisia and/or tardive dysphrenia. In Vertebrates the central nervous system ( CNS) is the part of the Nervous system which is enclosed in the Meninges. Akathisia, or acathisia, is a syndrome characterized by unpleasant sensations of "inner" restlessness that manifests itself with an inability to sit still or remain The medical expression Tardive Dysphrenia, was proposed by the American neurologist Stanley Fahn the head of the Division of Movements Disorders of the Neurological Institute

Efficacy

There have been a large number of studies of the efficacy of typical antipsychotics, and an increasing number on the more recent atypical antipsychotics.

The American Psychiatric Association and the UK National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence recommend antipsychotics for managing acute psychotic episodes and for preventing relapse. The American Psychiatric Association (APA is the main Professional organization of Psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the [8][9] They state that response to any given antipsychotic can be variable so that trials may be necessary, and that lower doses are to be preferred where possible.

Antipsychotic polypharmacy—prescribing two or more antipsychotics at the same time for an individual—is said to be a frequent practice but not necessarily evidence-based. The term polypharmacy generally refers to the use of multiple Medications by a patient [10]

Some doubts have been raised about the long-term effectiveness of antipsychotics because two large international World Health Organization studies found individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia tend to have better long-term outcomes in developing countries (where there is lower availability and use of antipsychotics) than in developed countries. [11][12] The reasons for the differences are not clear, however, and various explanations have been suggested.

Some argue that the evidence for antipsychotics from withdrawal-relapse studies may be flawed, because they do not take into account that antipsychotics may sensitize the brain and provoke psychosis if discontinued. [13] Evidence from comparison studies indicates that at least some individuals recover from psychosis without taking antipsychotics, and may do better than those that do take antipsychotics. [14] Some argue that, overall, the evidence suggests that antipsychotics only help if they are used selectively and are gradually withdrawn as soon as possible. [15]

A dose response effect has been found in one study from 1971 between increasing neuroleptic dose and increasing number of psychotic breaks. [16]

Typical versus atypical

While the atypical, second-generation medications were marketed as offering greater efficacy in reducing psychotic symptoms while reducting side effects (and extra-pyramidal symptoms in particular) than typical medications, the results showing these effects often lack robustness. To remediate this problem, the NIMH conducted a recent multi-site, double-blind study (the CATIE project), which was published in 2005. [17] This study compared several atypical antipsychotics to an older typical antipsychotic, perphenazine, among 1493 persons with schizophrenia. Perphenazine is a Typical antipsychotic drug. Chemically it is classified as a piperazinyl Phenothiazine. Perphenazine was chosen because of its lower potency and moderate side effect profile. The study found that only olanzapine outperformed perphenazine in the researchers' principal outcome, the discontinuation rate. Olanzapine ( Zyprexa, Zyprexa Zydis, Zalasta, Zolafren, Olzapin, or in combination with Fluoxetine Symbyax) is The authors also noted the apparent superior efficacy of olanzapine to the other drugs for greater reduction in psychopathology, longer duration of successful treatment, and lower rate of hospitalizations for an exacerbation of schizophrenia. In contrast, no other atypical studied (risperidone, quetiapine, and ziprasidone) did better than the typical perphenazine on those measures. Risperidone (pronounced Ris-PER-ǐ-dōn and sold under the trade name Risperdal in the Netherlands, United States, Canada, the Quetiapine ( kwe-TYE-a-peen marketed by AstraZeneca as Seroquel and by Orion Pharma as Ketipinor, is an Atypical antipsychotic Ziprasidone (marketed as Geodon, Zeldox) was the fifth Atypical antipsychotic to gain FDA approval (February 2001 Olanzapine, however, was associated with relatively severe metabolic effects: Subjects with olanzapine showed a major weight gain problem and increases in glucose, cholesterol, and triglycerides. The average weight gain (1. 1 kg/month, or 44 pounds for the 18 months that lasted the study) casts serious doubt on the potentiality of long-term use of this drug. Perphenazine did not create more extrapyramidal side effect as measured by rating scales (a result supported by a meta-analysis by Dr. Leucht published in Lancet), although more patients discontinued perphenazine owing to extrapyramidal effects compared to the atypical agents (8 percent vs. 2 percent to 4 percent, P=0. 002).

A phase 2 part of this study roughly replicated these findings. [18] This phase consisted on a second randomization of the patients that discontinuated the taking of medication in the first phase. Olanzapine was again the only medication to stand out in the outcome measures, although the results did not always reach statistical significance, in part to the decrease of power. Perphenazine again did not create more extrapyramidal effects.

A subsequent phase was conducted. [19] This phase innovated in allowing clinicians to offer clozapine. Clozapine (sold as Clozaril, Leponex, Fazaclo, Froidir; Gen-Clozapine in Canada Clozaril, Denzapine, Clozapine indeed proved to be more effective at reducing medication drop-outs than other neuroleptic agents. Researchers also observed a trend showing clozapine with a greater reduction of symptoms. However, the potential of clozapine to cause toxic side effects, including agranulocytosis, limits the prescription to persons with schizophrenia.

See also

References

  1. ^ Swainston, Harrison T. Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia or the dopamine hypothesis of psychosis is a model attributing symptoms of Schizophrenia (like psychoses) to a Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn The medical expression Tardive Dysphrenia, was proposed by the American neurologist Stanley Fahn the head of the Division of Movements Disorders of the Neurological Institute ; Perry, C. M. (2004). "Aripiprazole: a review of its use in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. ". Drugs 64 (15): 1715-1736.  PMID 15257633
  2. ^ Zuardi, A. W; J. A. S. Crippa, J. E. C. Hallak, F. A. Moreira, F. S. Guimarães (2006). "Cannabidiol as an antipsychotic drug". Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research 39: 421-429. ISSN 0100-879X ISSN 0100-879X. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.  
  3. ^ PMID 17526600 PMID 18424625 PMID 18297054
  4. ^ BBC NEWS, Schizophrenia trials 'promising'
  5. ^ Murphy, B. P. ; Chung YC, Park TW, McGorry PD (12 2006). "Pharmacological treatment of primary negative symptoms in schizophrenia: a systematic review". Schizophrenia Research 88 (1-3): 5-25.  PMID 16930948
  6. ^ Effect of Chronic Exposure to Antipsychotic Medication on Cell Numbers in the Parietal Cortex of Macaque Monkeys, by Glenn T Konopaske, Karl-Anton Dorph-Petersen, Joseph N Pierri, Qiang Wu, Allan R Sampson and David A Lewis, Neuropsychopharmacology, 2006, 1-8.
  7. ^ The influence of psychotropic drugs on cerebral cell female neurovulnerability to antipsychotics, by Raphael M. Bonelli, Peter Hofmann, Andreas Aschoff, Gerald Niederwieser, Clemens Heuberger, Gustaf Jirikowski and Hans-Peter Kapfhammer, International Clinical Psychopharmacology 2005, 20:145-149
  8. ^ American Psychiatric Association (2004) Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients With Schizophrenia. Second Edition.
  9. ^ The Royal College of Psychiatrists & The British Psychological Society (2003). Schizophrenia. Full national clinical guideline on core interventions in primary and secondary care (PDF). London: Gaskell and the British Psychological Society.
  10. ^ Patrick V, Levin E, Schleifer S. (2005) Antipsychotic polypharmacy: is there evidence for its use? J Psychiatr Pract. 2005 Jul;11(4):248-57. PMID 16041235
  11. ^ Jablensky A, Sartorius N, Ernberg G, Anker M, Korten A, Cooper J, Day R, Bertelsen A. "Schizophrenia: manifestations, incidence and course in different cultures. A World Health Organization ten-country study". Psychol Med Monogr Suppl 20: 1-97. PMID 1565705.  
  12. ^ Hopper K, Wanderling J (2000). Revisiting the developed versus developing country distinction in course and outcome in schizophrenia: results from ISoS, the WHO collaborative followup project. International Study of Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 26 (4), 835–46. PMID 11087016
  13. ^ Moncrieff J. (2006) Does antipsychotic withdrawal provoke psychosis? Review of the literature on rapid onset psychosis (supersensitivity psychosis) and withdrawal-related relapse. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Jul;114(1):3-13. The Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica is a Scandinavian Peer reviewed Scientific journal containing Original research, Systematic PMID 16774655
  14. ^ Harrow M, Jobe TH. (2007) Factors involved in outcome and recovery in schizophrenia patients not on antipsychotic medications: a 15-year multifollow-up study. J Nerv Ment Dis. May;195(5):406-14. PMID 17502806
  15. ^ Whitaker R. (2004) The case against antipsychotic drugs: a 50-year record of doing more harm than good. Med Hypotheses. 2004;62(1):5-13. PMID 14728997
  16. ^ Prien R, Levine J, Switalski R (1971). "Discontinuation of chemotherapy for chronic schizophrenics". Hosp Community Psychiatry 22 (1): 4-7. PMID 4992967.  
  17. ^ Lieberman J et al (2005). "Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia". N Engl J Med 353 (12): 1209-23. PMID 16172203.  
  18. ^ Stroup T et al (2006). "Effectiveness of olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, and ziprasidone in patients with chronic schizophrenia following discontinuation of a previous atypical antipsychotic". Am J Psychiatry 163 (4): 611-22. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.611. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16585435.  
  19. ^ McEvoy J et al (2006). "Effectiveness of clozapine versus olanzapine, quetiapine, and risperidone in patients with chronic schizophrenia that did not respond to prior atypical antipsychotic treatment". Am J Psychiatry 163 (4): 600-10. PMID 16585434.  

External links

Dictionary

antipsychotic

-adjective

  1. (pharmacology) Preventing or counteracting psychosis.

-noun

  1. (pharmacology) Any of a group of drugs used to treat psychosis.
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