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Testing the susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus to antibiotics by the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. Antibiotics diffuse out from antibiotic-containing disks and inhibit growth of S. aureus resulting in a zone of inhibition.
Testing the susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus to antibiotics by the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. Staphylococcus aureus (ˌstæfɨləˈkɒkəs ˈɔriəs literally "Golden Cluster Seed" and also known as golden staph) is the most common cause of Kirby-Bauer antibiotic testing ( KB testing or disk diffusion antibiotic sensitivity testing) is a test which uses Antibiotic -impregnated wafers to Antibiotics diffuse out from antibiotic-containing disks and inhibit growth of S. aureus resulting in a zone of inhibition.

An antibiotic (from Latin anti, "against" and Greek βιοτικός - biotikos, "fit for life") is a chemotherapeutic agent that inhibits or abolishes the growth of micro-organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, or protozoa. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Chemotherapy, in its most general sense refers to treatment of disease by chemicals that kill cells specifically those of micro-organisms or Cancer. A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Protozoa (in Greek πρῶτον proton "first" and ζῷα zoia "animals" are unicellular Eukaryotes (singular The term originally referred to any agent with biological activity against living organisms; however, "antibiotic" now refers to substances with anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, or anti-parasitical activity. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. The first widely used antibiotic compounds used in modern medicine were produced and isolated from living organisms, such as the penicillin class produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium, or streptomycin from bacteria of the genus Streptomyces. Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections Penicillium (from Latin penicillus: paintbrush) is a Genus of Ascomyceteous Fungi that includes Streptomycin is an Antibiotic drug the first of a class of drugs called Aminoglycosides to be discovered and was the first antibiotic remedy for Tuberculosis Streptomyces, the largest Genus of Actinobacteria and type genus of the family Streptomycetaceae. With advances in organic chemistry many antibiotics are now also obtained by chemical synthesis, such as the sulfa drugs. Organic chemistry is a discipline within Chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure properties composition reactions, and preparation In Chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of Chemical reactions in order to get a product, or several products There are several sulfonamide-based groups of drugs The original antibacterial sulfonamides (sometimes called simply sulfa drugs are synthetic antimicrobial agents that contain the sulfonamide Many antibiotics are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight less than 2000 Da. In Pharmacology, a small molecule is a small Organic compound that is biologically active ( Biomolecule) but is not a Polymer. The molecular mass (abbreviated m of a substance, more commonly referred to as molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, is the Mass of one The unified atomic mass unit ( u) or Dalton ( Da) or sometimes universal mass unit, is an unit of Mass used to express

Contents

Overview

Unlike previous treatments for infections, which often consisted of administering chemical compounds such as strychnine and arsenic, with high toxicity also against mammals, antibiotics from microbes had no or few side effects and high effective target activity. Strychnine (ˈstrɪkniːn (British US /-naɪn/ or /-nɪn/ (US Arsenic (ˈɑrsənɪk is a Chemical element that has the symbol As and Atomic number of 33 Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands Most anti-bacterial antibiotics do not have activity against viruses, fungi, or other microbes. A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually Anti-bacterial antibiotics can be categorized based on their target specificity: "narrow-spectrum" antibiotics target particular types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, while broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria are those Bacteria that do not retain Crystal violet dye in the Gram staining protocol Gram-positive bacteria are those that are stained dark blue or violet by Gram staining. The term broad-spectrum antibiotic refers to an Antibiotic with activity against a wide range of disease-causing Bacteria.

The environment of individual antibiotics varies with the location of the infection, the ability of the antibiotic to reach the site of infection, and the ability of the microbe to inactivate or excrete the antibiotic. Some anti-bacterial antibiotics destroy bacteria (bactericidal), whereas others prevent bacteria from multiplying (bacteriostatic).

Oral antibiotics are simply ingested, while intravenous antibiotics are used in more serious cases, such as deep-seated systemic infections. Intravenous therapy or IV therapy is the giving of Liquid substances directly into a Vein. Systemic infection is a generic term for Infection caused by Microorganisms in animals or plants where the Causal agent (the Microbe) has spread Antibiotics may also sometimes be administered topically, as with eye drops or ointments. In Medicine, a topical Medication is applied to body surfaces such as the Skin or Mucous membranes for example the Vagina Eye drops are saline -containing Drops used as a vector to administer medication in the Eye. An ointment is a viscous semisolid preparation used topically on a variety of body surfaces

In the last few years three new classes of antibiotics have been brought into clinical use. This follows a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibiotic compounds. These new antibiotics are of the following three classes: cyclic lipopeptides (daptomycin), glycylcyclines (tigecycline), and oxazolidinones (linezolid). Tigecycline is a broad-spectrum antibiotic, while the two others are used for gram-positive infections. These developments show promise as a means to counteract the growing bacterial resistance to existing antibiotics.

History

See also: Timeline of antibiotics
Penicillin
Penicillin

Although potent antibiotic compounds for treatment of human diseases caused by bacteria (such as tuberculosis, bubonic plague, or leprosy) were not isolated and identified until the twentieth century, the first known use of antibiotics was by the ancient Chinese over 2,500 years ago. This is the timeline of antimicrobial (anti-infective therapy Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common Bubonic plague is the best-known manifestation of the bacterial disease plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis (formerly known as Leprosy (from the Greek lepi (λέπι meaning scales on a fish or Hansen's disease, is a chronic disease caused by the bacterium Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era [1] Many other ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks already used molds and plants to treat infections, owing to the production of antibiotic substances by these organisms, a phenomenon known as antibiosis[2] Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca WikipediaManual_of_Style#National_varieties_of_English --> Molds (or An infection is the detrimental Colonization of a host Organism by a foreign Species. Antibiosis is a type of Biological interaction.an·ti·bi·o·sis (nt-b-ss nt-n Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895 a French Chemist and Microbiologist, is best known for remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch ( December 11 1843 – May 27 1910) was a German Physician. Bacillus anthracis is a Gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped Bacterium of the genus Bacillus. [3] The antibiotic properties of Penicillium sp. were first described in France by Ernest Duchesne in 1897. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Ernest Duchesne ( May 30, 1874 – April 12, 1912) was a French Physician who noted that certain moulds kill bacteria However, his work went by without much notice from the scientific community until Alexander Fleming's discovery of Penicillin (see below). Sir Alexander Fleming (6 August 1881 &ndash 11 March 1955 was a Scottish Biologist and Pharmacologist. Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections

Modern research on antibiotic therapy began in Germany with the development of the narrow-spectrum antibiotic Salvarsan by Paul Ehrlich in 1909, for the first time allowing an efficient treatment of the then-widespread problem of Syphilis. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Arsphenamine, also known as Salvarsan and 606, is a drug that was used to treat Syphilis and trypanosomiasis. Paul Ehrlich ( March 14, 1854 &ndash August 20, 1915) was a German Scientist who won the 1908 Nobel Syphilis is a Sexually transmitted disease caused by the spirochetal Bacterium Treponema pallidum pallidum. The drug, which was also effective against other spirochaetal infections, is no longer in use in modern medicine. Spirochaetes is a phylum of distinctive Gram-negative bacteria, which have long helically coiled cells

Antibiotics were further developed in Britain following the discovery of Penicillin in 1928 by Alexander Fleming. Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections Sir Alexander Fleming (6 August 1881 &ndash 11 March 1955 was a Scottish Biologist and Pharmacologist. More than ten years later, Ernst Chain and Howard Florey became interested in his work, and came up with the purified form of penicillin. Sir Ernst Boris Chain ( June 19, 1906 &ndash August 12, 1979) was a German -born British biochemist and a 1945 co-recipient Howard Walter Florey Baron Florey, OM, FRS, ( September 24, 1898 &ndash February 21, 1968) was an Australian The three shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine. In 1939, Rene Dubos isolated gramicidin, one of first antibiotics to be manufactured commercially used during World War II proving highly effective in the treatment of wounds and ulcers. René Jules Dubos ( February 20, 1901 &ndash February 20, 1982) was a French - American microbiologist, experimental Gramicidin is a heterogeneous mixture of six antibiotic compounds Gramicidins A, B and C, making up 80% 6%and 14% respectively all of which are [4]. Florey credited Dubos for reviving his research on penicillin[4]

"Antibiotic" was originally used to refer only to substances extracted from a fungus or other microorganism, but has come to also include the many synthetic and semi-synthetic drugs that have antibacterial effects. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually Antibiotics can help succeed in curing many illnesses.

Classes of antibiotics

At the highest level, antibiotics can be classified as either bactericidal or bacteriostatic. A bactericide or bacteriocide is a substance that kills bacteria and preferably nothing else Bacteriostatic Antibiotics limit the growth of bacteria by interfering with bacterial Protein production DNA replication or other aspects of Bactericidals kill bacteria directly where bacteriostatics prevent them from dividing. However, these classifications are based on laboratory behavior; in practice, both of these are capable of ending a bacterial infection. [5]

Antibiotics[6]
Generic Name Brand Names Common Uses Possible Side Effects Mechanism of action
Aminoglycosides
Amikacin Amikin Infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella particularly Pseudomonas aeruginosa. An aminoglycoside is a molecule composed of a sugar group and an Amino group Amikacin is an Aminoglycoside Antibiotic used to treat different types of Bacterial Infections Amikacin works by binding to the bacterial Amikacin is an Aminoglycoside Antibiotic used to treat different types of Bacterial Infections Amikacin works by binding to the bacterial Gram-negative bacteria are those Bacteria that do not retain Crystal violet dye in the Gram staining protocol Klebsiella is a Genus of non-motile, Gram-negative, Oxidase-negative Bacteria with a prominent Polysaccharide Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a Gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped Bacterium with unipolar motility. Effective against Aerobic bacteria (not obligate/facultative anaerobes). Binding to the bacterial 30S ribosomal subunit (some work by binding to the 50S subunit), inhibiting the translocation of the peptidyl-tRNA from the A-site to the P-site and also causing misreading of mRNA, leaving the bacterium unable to synthesize proteins vital to its growth. Ototoxicity is damage of the Ear ( oto) specifically the Cochlea or auditory nerve and sometimes the Vestibulum, by a Toxin Vertigo (from the Latin vertere, to turn and the suffix -igo, a condition i Nephrotoxicity (from Greek nephros "kidney" is a Poisonous effect of some substances both Toxic chemicals and Medication, on the Kidney Note Sometimes the ' 30s is used as shorthand for the 1930s, the 1830s, or other such decades in various centuries Events and Trends Ribosomes ( from ribo nucleic acid and "Greek soma ( meaning body") are complexes of RNA and Protein that Note Sometimes the ' 50s is used as shorthand for the 1950s, the 1850s, or other such decades in various centuries Events and Trends
Gentamicin Garamycin
Kanamycin Kantrex
Neomycin
Netilmicin Netromycin
Streptomycin
Tobramycin Nebcin
Paromomycin Humatin
Ansamycins
Geldanamycin Experimental, as antitumor antibiotics
Herbimycin
Carbacephem
Loracarbef Lorabid prevents bacterial cell division by inhibiting cell wall synthesis. Gentamicin is an Aminoglycoside Antibiotic, used to treat many types of bacterial infections particularly those caused by Gram-negative Gentamicin is an Aminoglycoside Antibiotic, used to treat many types of bacterial infections particularly those caused by Gram-negative Kanamycin sulfate is an Aminoglycoside Antibiotic, available in both oral and Intravenous forms and used to treat a wide variety of Infections Kanamycin sulfate is an Aminoglycoside Antibiotic, available in both oral and Intravenous forms and used to treat a wide variety of Infections Neomycin is an Aminoglycoside Antibiotic that is found in many topical medications such as creams ointments and eyedrops Netilmicin is a member of the Aminoglycoside family of Antibiotics These antibiotics have the ability to kill a wide variety of Bacteria. Streptomycin is an Antibiotic drug the first of a class of drugs called Aminoglycosides to be discovered and was the first antibiotic remedy for Tuberculosis Tobramycin sulfate is an Aminoglycoside Antibiotic used to treat various types of Bacterial infections particularly Gram-negative infections Tobramycin sulfate is an Aminoglycoside Antibiotic used to treat various types of Bacterial infections particularly Gram-negative infections Paromomycin sulfate (brand name Humatin) is a Aminoglycoside based drug that fights intestinal infections such as Cryptosporidiosis and amoeba infection Paromomycin sulfate (brand name Humatin) is a Aminoglycoside based drug that fights intestinal infections such as Cryptosporidiosis and amoeba infection Ansamycins is a family of secondary metabolites that show Antimicrobial activity against many Gram-positive and some Gram-negative bacteria and includes Geldanamycin is a Benzoquinone Ansamycin Antibiotic that binds to Hsp90 (Heat Shock Protein 90 and alters its function Antineoplastics (or "antitumor antibiotics" or "noncovalent DNA-binding drugs" or " Cytotoxic antibiotics" see also Neoplastics are Herbimycin is a Benzoquinone Ansamycin Antibiotic that binds to Hsp90 (Heat Shock Protein 90 and alters its function Carbacephem is a class of Antibiotic medication specifically modified forms of Cephalosporin. Loracarbef is a Carbacephem Antibiotic sometimes grouped together with the second-generation Cephalosporin antibiotics Loracarbef is a Carbacephem Antibiotic sometimes grouped together with the second-generation Cephalosporin antibiotics
Carbapenems
Ertapenem Invanz Bactericidal for both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms and therefore useful for empiric broad-spectrum antibacterial coverage. Carbapenems are a class of Beta-lactam antibiotics with a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity and have a structure which renders them highly resistant to Beta-lactamases Ertapenem is a Carbapenem Antibiotic marketed by Merck as Invanz. Ertapenem is a Carbapenem Antibiotic marketed by Merck as Invanz. (Note MRSA resistance to this class. )
  • Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea
  • Nausea
  • Seizures
  • Headache
  • Rash and Allergic reactions
 Inhibition of cell wall synthesis
Doripenem Finibax
Imipenem/Cilastatin Primaxin
Meropenem Merrem
Cephalosporins (First generation)
Cefadroxil Duricef
  • Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea
  • Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)
  • Allergic reactions
 Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls. Doripenem is an ultra-broad spectrum injectable Antibiotic. It is a beta-lactam and belongs to the subgroup of Carbapenems It was launched by Shionogi Imipenem is an Intravenous &beta-lactam Antibiotic developed in 1985 Cilastatin is a chemical compound which inhibits the Human Enzyme Dehydropeptidase. Imipenem/cilastatin is a broad spectrum Beta-lactam Antibiotic containing equal quantities of Imipenem and Cilastatin. Meropenem is an ultra-broad spectrum injectable Antibiotic used to treat a wide variety of infections including Meningitis and Pneumonia. The cephalosporins (ˌsɛfələˈspɔrən/ /ˌkɛfə- are a class of β-lactam antibiotics. The cephalosporins (ˌsɛfələˈspɔrən/ /ˌkɛfə- are a class of β-lactam antibiotics. Cefadroxil is a Broad-spectrum antibiotic effective in Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial infections Cefadroxil is a Broad-spectrum antibiotic effective in Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial infections β-lactam antibiotics are a broad class of Antibiotics that include Penicillin derivatives Cephalosporins Monobactams Carbapenems Not to be confused with Glycoprotein. Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a Polymer consisting of sugars and amino A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural
Cefazolin Ancef
Cefalotin or Cefalothin Keflin
Cefalexin Keflex
Cephalosporins (Second generation)
Cefaclor Ceclor
  • Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea
  • Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)
  • Allergic reactions
 Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls. Cefazolin ( INN) also known as cefazoline or cephazolin, is a first generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic. Cefazolin ( INN) also known as cefazoline or cephazolin, is a first generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic. Cefalotin ( INN) (sɛfəˈlotən/ /kɛfə- or cephalothin ( USAN) (/sɛfəˈloθən/ /kɛfə-/ is a first-generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic Cefalexin ( INN) (sɛfəˈlɛksɨn/ /kɛfə- or cephalexin ( USAN) is a first-generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic. Cefalexin ( INN) (sɛfəˈlɛksɨn/ /kɛfə- or cephalexin ( USAN) is a first-generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic. The cephalosporins (ˌsɛfələˈspɔrən/ /ˌkɛfə- are a class of β-lactam antibiotics. The cephalosporins (ˌsɛfələˈspɔrən/ /ˌkɛfə- are a class of β-lactam antibiotics. Cefaclor, also known as cefachlor or cefaclorum (brand names Ceclor, Distaclor, Keflor, Raniclor) is a second-generation Cefaclor, also known as cefachlor or cefaclorum (brand names Ceclor, Distaclor, Keflor, Raniclor) is a second-generation β-lactam antibiotics are a broad class of Antibiotics that include Penicillin derivatives Cephalosporins Monobactams Carbapenems Not to be confused with Glycoprotein. Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a Polymer consisting of sugars and amino A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural
Cefamandole Mandole
Cefoxitin Mefoxin
Cefprozil Cefzil
Cefuroxime Ceftin, Zinnat
Cephalosporins (Third generation)
Cefixime Suprax
  • Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea
  • Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)
  • Allergic reactions
 Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls. Cefamandole ( INN, also known as cephamandole) is a broad-spectrum Cephalosporin Antibiotic. Cefoxitin is a Cephamycin Antibiotic developed by Merck & Co Inc Cefoxitin is a Cephamycin Antibiotic developed by Merck & Co Inc Cefprozil, sometimes spelled cefproxil and sold under the brand name Cefzil, is a Cephalosporin type Antibiotic. Cefprozil, sometimes spelled cefproxil and sold under the brand name Cefzil, is a Cephalosporin type Antibiotic. Cefuroxime is a second-generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic that has been widely available in the USA as Ceftin since 1977 The cephalosporins (ˌsɛfələˈspɔrən/ /ˌkɛfə- are a class of β-lactam antibiotics. The cephalosporins (ˌsɛfələˈspɔrən/ /ˌkɛfə- are a class of β-lactam antibiotics. Cefixime is an oral third generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic. Cefixime is an oral third generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic. β-lactam antibiotics are a broad class of Antibiotics that include Penicillin derivatives Cephalosporins Monobactams Carbapenems Not to be confused with Glycoprotein. Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a Polymer consisting of sugars and amino A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural
Cefdinir Omnicef
Cefditoren Spectracef
Cefoperazone Cefobid
Cefotaxime Claforan
Cefpodoxime
Ceftazidime Fortaz
Ceftibuten Cedax
Ceftizoxime
Ceftriaxone Rocephin
Cephalosporins (Fourth generation)
Cefepime Maxipime
  • Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea
  • Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)
  • Allergic reactions
 Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls. Cefdinir (marketed by Abbott Laboratories under the Brand name Omnicef) is a semi-synthetic Broad-spectrum antibiotic in the third generation Cefdinir (marketed by Abbott Laboratories under the Brand name Omnicef) is a semi-synthetic Broad-spectrum antibiotic in the third generation Cefditoren is a third-generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic for oral use Cefditoren is a third-generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic for oral use Cefoperazone is a third generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic, marketed by Pfizer under the name Cefobid. Cefoperazone is a third generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic, marketed by Pfizer under the name Cefobid. Cefotaxime ( INN) (sɛfəˈtæksiːm/ /kɛfə- is a third-generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic. Cefotaxime ( INN) (sɛfəˈtæksiːm/ /kɛfə- is a third-generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic. Cefpodoxime (marketed as the Prodrug cefpodoxime proxetil by Pharmacia & Upjohn under the trade name Vantin, is an oral third generation Ceftazidime ( INN) (sɛfˈtæzɨdiːm/ /kɛf- is a third-generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic. Ceftibuten is a third-generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic. It is an orally-administered agent with 2 dosage forms capsule or oral suspension CEDAX is an antibiotic known as ceftibuten Each capsule contains 400 mg of ceftibuten Ceftriaxone ( INN) (ˌsɛftraɪˈæksoʊn/ /ˌkɛf- is a third-generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic. Ceftriaxone ( INN) (ˌsɛftraɪˈæksoʊn/ /ˌkɛf- is a third-generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic. The cephalosporins (ˌsɛfələˈspɔrən/ /ˌkɛfə- are a class of β-lactam antibiotics. The cephalosporins (ˌsɛfələˈspɔrən/ /ˌkɛfə- are a class of β-lactam antibiotics. Cefepime ( INN) (ˈsɛfəpiːm/ /ˈkɛfəpiːm is a fourth-generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic developed in 1994. Cefepime ( INN) (ˈsɛfəpiːm/ /ˈkɛfəpiːm is a fourth-generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic developed in 1994. β-lactam antibiotics are a broad class of Antibiotics that include Penicillin derivatives Cephalosporins Monobactams Carbapenems Not to be confused with Glycoprotein. Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a Polymer consisting of sugars and amino A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural
Cephalosporins (Fifth generation)
Ceftobiprole
Glycopeptides
Teicoplanin inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis
Vancomycin Vancocin
Macrolides
Azithromycin Zithromax, Sumamed, Zitrocin Streptococcal infections, syphilis, respiratory infections, mycoplasmal infections, Lyme disease
  • Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea (especially at higher doses)
  • Jaundice
 inhibition of bacterial protein biosynthesis by binding irreversibly to the subunit 50S of the bacterial ribosome, thereby inhibiting translocation of peptidyl tRNA. The cephalosporins (ˌsɛfələˈspɔrən/ /ˌkɛfə- are a class of β-lactam antibiotics. The cephalosporins (ˌsɛfələˈspɔrən/ /ˌkɛfə- are a class of β-lactam antibiotics. Ceftobiprole (brand name Zeftera) is a next generation Cephalosporin Antibiotic with activity against methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' Glycopeptide antibiotics are a class of Antibiotic drugs. The class is composed of a glycosylated cyclic or polycyclic Nonribosomal peptides Teicoplanin is an Antibiotic used in the Prophylaxis and treatment of serious infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria, including methicillin-resistant Not to be confused with Glycoprotein. Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a Polymer consisting of sugars and amino Vancomycin ( INN) (ˌvæŋkoʊˈmaɪsɪn is a Glycopeptide Antibiotic used in the Prophylaxis and treatment of infections caused by The macrolides are a group of drugs (typically Antibiotics) whose activity stems from the presence of a macrolide ring, a large macrocyclic Azithromycin is an Azalide, a subclass of Macrolide Antibiotics. Azithromycin is an Azalide, a subclass of Macrolide Antibiotics. Azithromycin is an Azalide, a subclass of Macrolide Antibiotics. Streptococcus is a Genus of spherical Gram-positive bacteria belonging to the phylum Firmicutes and the Syphilis is a Sexually transmitted disease caused by the spirochetal Bacterium Treponema pallidum pallidum. Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a very small Bacterium in the class Mollicutes. Lyme disease, or borreliosis, is an Emerging infectious disease caused by at least three Species of Bacteria belonging to the Genus Jaundice, also known as icterus (attributive adjective "icteric" is yellowish discoloration of the Skin, sclerae (whites of the eyes Enzyme inhibitors are Molecules that bind to Enzymes and decrease their activity. Protein biosynthesis (synthesis is the process in which cells build Proteins The term is sometimes used to refer only to protein translation but more Note Sometimes the ' 50s is used as shorthand for the 1950s, the 1850s, or other such decades in various centuries Events and Trends Ribosomes ( from ribo nucleic acid and "Greek soma ( meaning body") are complexes of RNA and Protein that Transfer RNA (abbreviated tRNA) is a small RNA (usually about 74-95 nucleotides that transfers a specific Amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain at
Clarithromycin Biaxin
Dirithromycin
Erythromycin Erythocin, Erythroped
Roxithromycin
Troleandomycin
Telithromycin Ketek Pneumonia Visual Disturbance, LIVER TOXICITY. Clarithromycin is a Macrolide Antibiotic used to treat Pharyngitis, Tonsillitis, acute maxillary Sinusitis, acute bacterial exacerbation Clarithromycin is a Macrolide Antibiotic used to treat Pharyngitis, Tonsillitis, acute maxillary Sinusitis, acute bacterial exacerbation Dirithromycin is a Macrolide Glycopeptide antibiotic. Dirithromycin (Dynabac is a more lipid-soluble prodrug derivative of 9S-erythromycyclamine prepared by condensation Erythromycin is a Macrolide Antibiotic that has an antimicrobial spectrum similar to or slightly wider than that of Penicillin, and is often used for people Roxithromycin is a semi-synthetic Macrolide Antibiotic. It is used to treat respiratory tract urinary and soft tissue infections Troleandomycin is a Macrolide antibiotic Side effects It is a CYP3A (a type of cytochrome P450 inhibitor Telithromycin is the first Ketolide Antibiotic to enter clinical use Telithromycin is the first Ketolide Antibiotic to enter clinical use Pneumonia is an inflammatory illness of the Lung. Frequently it is described as lung Parenchyma / alveolar inflammation and abnormal [7]
Spectinomycin Antimetabolite, Anticancer
Monobactams
Aztreonam Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls. Spectinomycin (marketed as the Hydrochloride salt spectinomycin hydrochloride under the trade name Trobicin) is an Aminocyclitol Antibiotic An antimetabolite is a chemical with a similar structure to a substance (a Metabolite) required for normal biochemical reactions yet different enough to interfere with the normal Chemotherapy, in its most general sense refers to treatment of disease by chemicals that kill cells specifically those of micro-organisms or Cancer. Monobactams are Beta-lactam antibiotics wherein the beta-lactam ring is alone and not fused to another ring (in contrast to most other beta-lactams which have at least Aztreonam (trade name Azactam) is a synthetic monocyclic Beta-lactam Antibiotic (a Monobactam) originally isolated from β-lactam antibiotics are a broad class of Antibiotics that include Penicillin derivatives Cephalosporins Monobactams Carbapenems Not to be confused with Glycoprotein. Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a Polymer consisting of sugars and amino A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural
Penicillins
Amoxicillin Novamox, Amoxil Wide range of infections; penicillin used for streptococcal infections, syphilis, and Lyme disease
  • Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhea
  • Allergy with serious anaphylactic reactions
  • Brain and kidney damage (rare)
 Same mode of action as other beta-lactam antibiotics: disrupt the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls. Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections Amoxicillin ( INN) or amoxycillin ( BAN) is a moderate-spectrum bacteriolytic β-lactam antibiotic used to treat Bacterial Infections Amoxicillin ( INN) or amoxycillin ( BAN) is a moderate-spectrum bacteriolytic β-lactam antibiotic used to treat Bacterial Infections Streptococcus is a Genus of spherical Gram-positive bacteria belonging to the phylum Firmicutes and the Syphilis is a Sexually transmitted disease caused by the spirochetal Bacterium Treponema pallidum pallidum. Lyme disease, or borreliosis, is an Emerging infectious disease caused by at least three Species of Bacteria belonging to the Genus Anaphylaxis is an acute systemic (multi-system and severe Type I Hypersensitivity allergic reaction in humans and other Mammals β-lactam antibiotics are a broad class of Antibiotics that include Penicillin derivatives Cephalosporins Monobactams Carbapenems Not to be confused with Glycoprotein. Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a Polymer consisting of sugars and amino A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural
Ampicillin
Azlocillin
Carbenicillin
Cloxacillin
Dicloxacillin
Flucloxacillin Floxapen
Mezlocillin
Meticillin
Nafcillin
Oxacillin
Penicillin
Piperacillin
Ticarcillin
Polypeptides
Bacitracin Eye, ear or bladder infections; usually applied directly to the eye or inhaled into the lungs; rarely given by injection Kidney and nerve damage (when given by injection) Inhibits isoprenyl pyrophosphate, a molecule which carries the building blocks of the peptidoglycan bacterial cell wall outside of the inner membrane [8]
Colistin Interact with the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane, changing its permeability. Ampicillin is a beta-lactam Antibiotic that has been used extensively to treat bacterial Infections since 1961 Azlocillin is an Acyl[[ampicillin]] Antibiotic with an extended spectrum of activity and greater In vitro potency than the carboxy Penicillins Carbenicillin is an Antibiotic belonging to the Carboxypenicillin subgroup of the Penicillins It has Gram-negative coverage which includes Cloxacillin is a semisynthetic Antibiotic in the same class as Penicillin. Dicloxacillin ( INN) is a narrow spectrum Beta-lactam antibiotic of the Penicillin class Flucloxacillin ( INN) or floxacillin ( USAN) is a narrow spectrum Beta-lactam antibiotic of the Penicillin class Mezlocillin is a broad-spectrum Penicillin Antibiotic. It is active against both Gram-negative and some Gram-positive Bacteria. Meticillin ( INN, BAN) or methicillin ( USAN) is a narrow spectrum Beta-lactam antibiotic of the Penicillin class Nafcillin sodium is a narrow spectrum Beta-lactam antibiotic of the Penicillin class Oxacillin sodium (trade name Bactocill) is a narrow spectrum Beta-lactam antibiotic of the Penicillin class Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections Piperacillin is an extended spectrum beta-lactam Antibiotic of the Ureidopenicillin class Ticarcillin is a Carboxypenicillin. It is almost invariably sold and used in combination with Clavulanate as Timentin. Polypeptide antibiotics are a class of Antibiotics used for eye ear or bladder infections in addition to Aminoglycosides. Bacitracin is a mixture of related cyclic polypeptides produced by Organisms of the licheniformis group of Bacillus subtilis var Isoprenyl pyrophosphate is a molecule in Bacteria. It carries the building blocks of the Peptidoglycan bacterial Cell wall outside of the inner membrane Not to be confused with Glycoprotein. Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a Polymer consisting of sugars and amino A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural Colistin (polymyxin E is a Polymyxin Antibiotic produced by certain strains of Bacillus polymyxa var The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane, plasmalemma, or "phospholipid bilayer" is a Selectively permeable Lipid bilayer
Polymyxin B
Quinolones
Ciprofloxacin Cipro, Ciproxin, Ciprobay Urinary tract infections, bacterial prostatitis, community-acquired pneumonia, bacterial diarrhea, mycoplasmal infections, gonorrhea Nausea (rare), tendinosis (rare) inhibit the bacterial DNA gyrase or the topoisomerase IV enzyme, thereby inhibiting DNA replication and transcription. Polymyxin B is an antibiotic primarily used for resistant Gram negative infections The quinolones are a family of synthetic Broad-spectrum antibiotics. Pneumonia is an inflammatory illness of the Lung. Frequently it is described as lung Parenchyma / alveolar inflammation and abnormal Gonorrhea (also gonorrhoea) caused by the bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae, is a common Sexually transmitted disease. DNA gyrase, often referred to simply as gyrase, is a type II Topoisomerase ( that introduces negative Supercoils (or relaxes positive supercoils into DNA Topoisomerases (type I, type II) are Isomerase Enzymes that act on the topology of DNA. Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known
Enoxacin
Gatifloxacin Tequin
Levofloxacin Levaquin
Lomefloxacin
Moxifloxacin Avelox
Norfloxacin Noroxin
Ofloxacin Ocuflox
Trovafloxacin Trovan
Sulfonamides
Mafenide Urinary tract infections (except sulfacetamide and mafenide); mafenide is used topically for burns Folate synthesis inhibition. Enoxacin (trade names Enroxil, Penetrex) is an oral broad-spectrum Fluoroquinolone Antibacterial agent used in the treatment of Urinary Gatifloxacin is an Antibiotic of the fourth-generation Fluoroquinolone family that like other members of that family inhibits the Bacterial Enzymes Gatifloxacin is an Antibiotic of the fourth-generation Fluoroquinolone family that like other members of that family inhibits the Bacterial Enzymes Levofloxacin is a 3rd-generation fluoroquinolone Antibiotic, marketed by Ortho-McNeil under the trade name Levaquin in the United States Levofloxacin is a 3rd-generation fluoroquinolone Antibiotic, marketed by Ortho-McNeil under the trade name Levaquin in the United States Lomefloxacin hydrochloride (Maxaquin is a Fluoroquinolone Antibiotic, used to treat Bacterial infections including Bronchitis and Urinary Moxifloxacin is a synthetic fluoroquinolone Antibiotic agent Bayer AG developed the drug (initially called BAY 12-8039) and it is marketed Moxifloxacin is a synthetic fluoroquinolone Antibiotic agent Bayer AG developed the drug (initially called BAY 12-8039) and it is marketed Norfloxacin is an oral broad-spectrum Fluoroquinolone Antibacterial agent used in the treatment of Urinary tract infections It is also sometimes used to Ofloxacin (sold under the brand name Floxin in the United States, Tarivid in Europe and some other countries is a Fluoroquinolone Antibiotic Trovafloxacin (sold as Trovan by Pfizer) is a broad spectrum Antibiotic that inhibits the uncoiling of supercoiled DNA in various Trovafloxacin (sold as Trovan by Pfizer) is a broad spectrum Antibiotic that inhibits the uncoiling of supercoiled DNA in various There are several sulfonamide-based groups of drugs The original antibacterial sulfonamides (sometimes called simply sulfa drugs are synthetic antimicrobial agents that contain the sulfonamide Mafenide ( INN; usually as mafenide Acetate, trade name Sulfamylon) is a Sulfonamide often used to treat severe burns. A urinary tract infection ( UTI) is a bacterial Infection that affects any part of the Urinary tract. Allergy is a disorder of the Immune system often also referred to as Atopy. Renal failure or kidney Folic acid (also known as Vitamin M and Folacin) and Folate (the Anionic form are forms of the water-soluble Vitamin B9 They are competitive inhibitors of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase, DHPS. Competitive inhibition is a form of enzyme inhibition where binding of the inhibitor to the Enzyme prevents binding of the substrate and vice versa Dihydropteroate synthetase is an enzyme classified under. It produces Dihydropteroate in Bacteria, but does not function in Humans. DHPS catalyses the conversion of PABA (para-aminobenzoate) to dihydropteroate, a key step in folate synthesis. 4-Aminobenzoic acid (also known as para -aminobenzoic acid or PABA) is an Organic compound with the molecular formula C7H7NO2 Dihydropteroate is a Pterin created from Para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA by the enzyme Dihydropteroate synthetase. Folic acid (also known as Vitamin M and Folacin) and Folate (the Anionic form are forms of the water-soluble Vitamin B9 Folate is necessary for the cell to synthesize nucleic acids (nucleic acids are essential building blocks of DNA and RNA), and in its absence cells will be unable to divide. A nucleic acid is a Macromolecule composed of chains of monomeric Nucleotides In Biochemistry these Molecules carry Genetic information Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Ribonucleic acid ( RNA) is a Nucleic acid that consists of a long chain of Nucleotide units
Prontosil (archaic)
Sulfacetamide
Sulfamethizole
Sulfanilimide (archaic)
Sulfasalazine
Sulfisoxazole
Trimethoprim
Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole (Co-trimoxazole) (TMP-SMX) Bactrim
Tetracyclines
Demeclocycline Syphilis, chlamydial infections, Lyme disease, mycoplasmal infections, acne rickettsial infections
  • Gastrointestinal upset
  • Sensitivity to sunlight
  • Staining of teeth (especially in children)
  • Potential toxicity to mother and fetus during pregnancy
 inhibiting the binding of aminoacyl-tRNA to the mRNA-ribosome complex. Prontosil, the first commercially available antibacterial Antibiotic (with a relatively broad effect (against Gram-positive cocci but not against Sulfacetamide is a Sulfonamide Antibiotic. It may also have Anti-inflammatory properties when used to treat Blepharitis or even Conjunctivitis Sulfamethizole is a Sulfonamide Antibiotic. There are several sulfonamide-based groups of drugs The original antibacterial sulfonamides (sometimes called simply sulfa drugs are synthetic antimicrobial agents that contain the sulfonamide Sulfasalazine (brand name Azulfidine in the US, Salazopyrin in Europe) is a Sulfa drug, a derivative of Mesalazine Trimethoprim ( INN) (traɪˈmɛθəprɪm is a bacteriostatic Antibiotic mainly used in the Prophylaxis and treatment of Urinary tract infections Trimethoprim ( INN) (traɪˈmɛθəprɪm is a bacteriostatic Antibiotic mainly used in the Prophylaxis and treatment of Urinary tract infections Sulfamethoxazole is a sulfonamide Bacteriostatic Antibiotic. It is most often used as part of a synergistic combination with Trimethoprim Co-trimoxazole (abbreviated SXT TMP-SMX TMP-SMZ or TMP-sulfa is an Sulphonamide, Antibacterial combination of Trimethoprim and Sulfamethoxazole Co-trimoxazole (abbreviated SXT TMP-SMX TMP-SMZ or TMP-sulfa is an Sulphonamide, Antibacterial combination of Trimethoprim and Sulfamethoxazole Co-trimoxazole (abbreviated SXT TMP-SMX TMP-SMZ or TMP-sulfa is an Sulphonamide, Antibacterial combination of Trimethoprim and Sulfamethoxazole Tetracyclines are a group of Broad-spectrum antibiotics whose general usefulness has been reduced with the onset of bacterial resistance Demeclocycline (marketed as Declomycin, Declostatin and Ledermycin) is a member of the Tetracycline antibiotics group used in various types of Syphilis is a Sexually transmitted disease caused by the spirochetal Bacterium Treponema pallidum pallidum. Lyme disease, or borreliosis, is an Emerging infectious disease caused by at least three Species of Bacteria belonging to the Genus Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a very small Bacterium in the class Mollicutes. Rickettsia is a Genus of motile, Gram-negative, non-sporeforming, highly Pleomorphic bacteria that can present Aminoacyl-tRNA is TRNA (also known as transfer ribonucleic acid) to which its cognated amino acid is adhered Prokaryotic translation is the process by which Messenger RNA is translated into Proteins in Prokaryotes. They do so mainly by binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit in the mRNA translation complex. Note Sometimes the ' 30s is used as shorthand for the 1930s, the 1830s, or other such decades in various centuries Events and Trends Translation is the first stage of Protein biosynthesis (part of the overall process of Gene expression) [9]
Doxycycline Vibramycin
Minocycline Minocin
Oxytetracycline Terracin
Tetracycline Sumycin
Others
Arsphenamine Salvarsan Spirochaetal infections (obsolete)
Chloramphenicol Chloromycetin
Clindamycin Cleocin acne infections, prophylaxis before surgery
Lincomycin acne infections, prophylaxis before surgery
Ethambutol Antituberculosis
Fosfomycin
Fusidic acid Fucidin
Furazolidone
Isoniazid Antituberculosis
Linezolid Zyvox
Metronidazole Flagyl Giardia
Mupirocin Bactroban
Nitrofurantoin Macrodantin, Macrobid
Platensimycin
Pyrazinamide Antituberculosis
Quinupristin/Dalfopristin Syncercid
Rifampin or Rifampicin mostly Gram-positive and mycobacteria Reddish-orange sweat, tears, and urine Binds to the β subunit of RNA polymerase to inhibit transcription
Tinidazole
Generic Name Brand Names Common Uses Possible Side Effects Mechanism of action

Production

Main article: Production of antibiotics

Since the first pioneering efforts of Florey and Chain in 1939, the importance of antibiotics to medicine has led to much research into discovering and producing them. Doxycycline ( INN) (ˌdɒksɪˈsaɪkliːn is a member of the Tetracycline antibiotics group and is commonly used to treat a variety of Infections Doxycycline Doxycycline ( INN) (ˌdɒksɪˈsaɪkliːn is a member of the Tetracycline antibiotics group and is commonly used to treat a variety of Infections Doxycycline Minocycline hydrochloride, also known as minocycline, is a member of the broad spectrum Tetracycline antibiotics, and has a broader spectrum than the other members Minocycline hydrochloride, also known as minocycline, is a member of the broad spectrum Tetracycline antibiotics, and has a broader spectrum than the other members Oxytetracycline was the second of the broad-spectrum tetracycline group of Antibiotics to be discovered This article deals with the specific antibiotic called tetracycline This article deals with the specific antibiotic called tetracycline Arsphenamine, also known as Salvarsan and 606, is a drug that was used to treat Syphilis and trypanosomiasis. Arsphenamine, also known as Salvarsan and 606, is a drug that was used to treat Syphilis and trypanosomiasis. Spirochaetes is a phylum of distinctive Gram-negative bacteria, which have long helically coiled cells Chloramphenicol is a Bacteriostatic Antimicrobial originally derived from the Bacterium Streptomyces venezuelae, isolated by Chloramphenicol is a Bacteriostatic Antimicrobial originally derived from the Bacterium Streptomyces venezuelae, isolated by Clindamycin ( rINN; klɪndəˈmaɪsɨn is a lincosamide Antibiotic. Clindamycin ( rINN; klɪndəˈmaɪsɨn is a lincosamide Antibiotic. Acne vulgaris (commonly called acne) is a Skin disease caused by changes in the Pilosebaceous units (skin structures consisting of a Hair follicle Lincomycin is a Lincosamide Antibiotic that comes from the actinomyces Streptomyces lincolnensis. Acne vulgaris (commonly called acne) is a Skin disease caused by changes in the Pilosebaceous units (skin structures consisting of a Hair follicle Ethambutol is a Bacteriostatic Antimycobacterial Drug prescribed to treat Tuberculosis ( Mycobacterium tuberculosis) Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common Fosfomycin (also known as phosphomycin and phosphonomycin is a Broad-spectrum antibiotic produced by certain Streptomyces species Fusidic acid is a Bacteriostatic Antibiotic that is often used topically in creams and eyedrops but may also be given systemically as tablets or injections Fusidic acid is a Bacteriostatic Antibiotic that is often used topically in creams and eyedrops but may also be given systemically as tablets or injections Furazolidone is an Antibiotic used to treat Diarrhoea and Enteritis caused by Bacteria or Protozoan infections Isoniazid (also called isonicotinyl hydrazine or INH) is a first-line antituberculous medication used in the prevention and treatment of Tuberculosis Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common Linezolid ( INN) (lɪˈnɛzəlɪd is a synthetic Antibiotic of the Oxazolidinone class used for the treatment of infections caused by multi-resistant Linezolid ( INN) (lɪˈnɛzəlɪd is a synthetic Antibiotic of the Oxazolidinone class used for the treatment of infections caused by multi-resistant Metronidazole ( INN) (mɛtrəˈnaɪdəzoʊl is a Nitroimidazole anti-infective medication used mainly in the treatment of infections caused by susceptible Metronidazole ( INN) (mɛtrəˈnaɪdəzoʊl is a Nitroimidazole anti-infective medication used mainly in the treatment of infections caused by susceptible Giardia lamblia (synonymous with Lamblia intestinalis and Giardia duodenalis) is a Flagellated Protozoan Mupirocin ( Bactroban or Centany) is an Antibiotic originally isolated from Pseudomonas fluorescens NCIMB 10586 Mupirocin ( Bactroban or Centany) is an Antibiotic originally isolated from Pseudomonas fluorescens NCIMB 10586 Nitrofurantoin is an Antibiotic. It is usually used in treating Urinary tract infection. Nitrofurantoin is an Antibiotic. It is usually used in treating Urinary tract infection. Nitrofurantoin is an Antibiotic. It is usually used in treating Urinary tract infection. Platensimycin is a member of a previously unknown class of Antibiotics which acts by blocking Enzymes involved in the of the condensation steps in Fatty Pyrazinamide is a Drug used to treat Tuberculosis in afflicted patients Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common Quinupristin/dalfopristin (Synercid is a combination of two Antibiotics used to treat Infections by staphylococci and by Vancomycin -resistant Rifampicin ( INN) (rɪˈfæmpəsɪn or rifampin ( USAN) is a Bactericidal Antibiotic drug of the Rifamycin group Rifampicin ( INN) (rɪˈfæmpəsɪn or rifampin ( USAN) is a Bactericidal Antibiotic drug of the Rifamycin group Gram-positive bacteria are those that are stained dark blue or violet by Gram staining. Mycobacterium is a Genus of Actinobacteria, given its own family the Mycobacteriaceae RNA polymerase ( RNAP or RNApol) is an Enzyme that produces RNA. Tinidazole is an anti-parasitic drug used against Protozoan infections The production of antibiotics has been widespread since the pioneering efforts of Florey and Chain in 1938. Howard Walter Florey Baron Florey, OM, FRS, ( September 24, 1898 &ndash February 21, 1968) was an Australian Sir Ernst Boris Chain ( June 19, 1906 &ndash August 12, 1979) was a German -born British biochemist and a 1945 co-recipient Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the The process of production usually involves screening of wide ranges of microorganisms, testing and modification. Production is carried out using fermentation, usually in strongly aerobic fermentation. Fermentation has many important uses in industry Though the word fermentation can have stricter definitions when speaking of it in industrial fermentation it more loosely

Usage

Antibiotics are only intended to be used by a doctor's prescription. Doctors always specify dosage and duration of antibiotic treatment. It is very important to follow the prescription and complete the entire course (see Antibiotic misuse).

In general, alcohol should be avoided when taking antibiotics as it causes a variety of things to happen in the body, and some of them can impair the effectiveness of antibiotics[10]; It also competes with liver enzymes, which break down the antibiotics. [11] Additionally, certain antibiotics chemically react with alcohol, leading to serious body reactions (severe vomiting, nausea, etc. ). These include (but not limited to): Metronidazole, Tinidazole, co-trimoxazole, cephamandole, ketoconazole. Such antibiotics are explicitly prohibited to be used with alcohol. [12]

Side effects

Possible side effects are varied, depending on the antibiotics used and the microbial organisms targeted. Adverse effects can range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions including photodermatitis. Photodermatitis, or sometimes called by the nonscientific term sun poisoning, is a reaction of the Skin to UV rays of the Sun, or Photoallergy One of the more common side effects is diarrhea, sometimes caused by the anaerobic bacterium Clostridium difficile, which results from the antibiotic disrupting the normal balance of the intestinal flora,[13] Such overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria may be alleviated by ingesting probiotics during a course of antibiotics. In Medicine, diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea (see spelling differences) is frequent loose or liquid Bowel movements Acute diarrhea Clostridium difficile (pronounced /klɒsˈtrɪdiəm dɪˈfɪsɪli/ also known as CDF/cdf' or 'C The gut flora are the Microorganisms that normally live in the Digestive tract and can perform a number of useful functions for their hosts Probiotics are Dietary supplements containing potentially beneficial Bacteria or Yeasts According to the currently adopted definition by FAO / . An antibiotic-induced disruption of the population of the bacteria normally present as constituents of the normal vaginal flora may also occur, and may lead to overgrowth of yeast species of the genus Candida in the vulvo-vaginal area. Candida is a Genus of Yeasts Many species of this genus are Endosymbionts [14] Other side effects can result from interaction with other drugs, such as elevated risk of tendon damage from administration of a quinolone antibiotic with a systemic corticosteroid. A tendon (or sinew) is a tough band of Fibrous connective tissue that usually connects Muscle to Bone and is capable of withstanding tension The quinolones are a family of synthetic Broad-spectrum antibiotics. Corticosteroids are a class of Steroid hormones that are produced in the Adrenal cortex.

Hypothetically, some antibiotics might interfere with the efficiency of birth control pills. However there have been no conclusive studies that proved that; on the contrary, the majority of the studies indicate that antibiotics do not interfere with contraception[15], even though there is a possibility that a small percentage of women may experience decreased effectiveness of birth control pills while taking an antibiotic. [16]

Antibiotic misuse

Common forms of antibiotic misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery to allow clearance of the infecting organism. These practices may facilitate the development of bacterial populations with antibiotic resistance. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment is another common form of antibiotic misuse. A common example is the prescription and use of antibiotics to treat viral infections such as the common cold that have no effect. Acute viral nasopharyngitis or acute coryza, usually known as the common cold, is a highly contagious viral Infectious disease of the

Animals

It is estimated that greater than 70% of the antibiotics used in U. S. are given to feed animals (e. g. chickens, pigs and cattle) in the absence of disease. [17] Antibiotic use in food animal production has been associated with the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria including Salmonella spp. , Campylobacter spp. , Escherichia coli, and Enterococcus spp. Evidence from some US and European studies suggest that these resistant bacteria cause infections in humans that do not respond to commonly prescribed antibiotics. In response to these practices and attendant problems, several organizations (e. g. The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all non-therapeutic uses. However, delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics are common, and may include resistance to these changes by industries using or selling antibiotics, as well as time spent on research to establish causal links between antibiotic use and emergence of untreatable bacterial diseases. Today, there are two federal bills (S. 742 and H. R. 2562) aimed at phasing out non-therapeutic antibiotics in US food animal production. These bills are endorsed by public health and medical organizations including the American Nurses Association (ANA), the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), and the American Public Health Association (APHA).

Humans

One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who they believed expected them, although they correctly identified only about 1 in 4 of those patients". [18] Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescribing of antibiotics. [19] Delaying antibiotics for 48 hours while observing for spontaneous resolution of respiratory tract infections may reduce antibiotic usage; however, this strategy may reduce patient satisfaction. [20]

Excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers may also be classified as misuse. Prophylaxis ( Greek "προφυλάσσω" to guard or prevent beforehand) is any medical or Public health procedure whose purpose

Antibiotic resistance

Main article: Antibiotic resistance
SEM depicting methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria.
SEM depicting methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. Antibiotic resistance is the ability of a Microorganism to withstand the effects of Antibiotics. The scanning electron microscope ( SEM) is a type of Electron microscope that images the sample surface by scanning it with a high-energy beam of Electrons

Use or misuse of antibiotics may result in the development of antibiotic resistance by the infecting organisms, similar to the development of pesticide resistance in insects. Pesticide resistance is the Adaptation of pest species targeted by a Pesticide resulting in decreased susceptibility to that chemical Evolutionary theory of genetic selection requires that as close as possible to 100% of the infecting organisms be killed off to avoid selection of resistance; if a small subset of the population survives the treatment and is allowed to multiply, the average susceptibility of this new population to the compound will be much less than that of the original population, since they have descended from those few organisms that survived the original treatment. In the context of Evolution, certain traits or Alleles of a Species may be subject to selection This survival often results from an inheritable resistance to the compound that was infrequent in the original population, but became more frequent in the descendants.

Antibiotic resistance has become a serious problem in both developed and underdeveloped nations. By 1984 half of those with active tuberculosis in the United States had a strain that resisted at least one antibiotic. Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In certain settings, such as hospitals and some childcare locations, the rate of antibiotic resistance is so high that the usual, low-cost antibiotics are virtually useless for treatment of frequently seen infections. This leads to more frequent use of newer and more expensive compounds, which in turn leads to the rise of resistance to those drugs. A struggle to develop new antibiotics ensues to prevent losing future battles against infection. To date, tuberculosis and pneumococcus are prominent examples of once easily treated infections where drug-resistance has become a problem.

Points of attack on bacteria by antibiotics
Points of attack on bacteria by antibiotics

Another example of selection is Staphylococcus aureus ('golden staph'), which could be treated successfully with penicillin in the 1940s and 1950s. Staphylococcus aureus (ˌstæfɨləˈkɒkəs ˈɔriəs literally "Golden Cluster Seed" and also known as golden staph) is the most common cause of Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections At present, nearly all strains are resistant to penicillin, and many are resistant to nafcillin, leaving only a narrow selection of drugs such as vancomycin useful for treatment. Nafcillin sodium is a narrow spectrum Beta-lactam antibiotic of the Penicillin class Vancomycin ( INN) (ˌvæŋkoʊˈmaɪsɪn is a Glycopeptide Antibiotic used in the Prophylaxis and treatment of infections caused by The situation is complicated by the fact that genes coding for antibiotic resistance can be transferred between bacteria via plasmids, making it possible for bacteria never exposed to an antibiotic to acquire resistance from those which have. A plasmid is an extra-chromosomal DNA molecule separate from the chromosomal DNA which is capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA The problem of antibiotic resistance is made more widespread when antibiotics are used to treat disorders in which they have no efficacy, such as the common cold or other viral complaints, and when they are used broadly as prophylaxis rather than treatment (as in, for example, animal feeds), because this exposes more bacteria to selection for resistance.

Resistance modifying agents

One solution to combat resistance currently being researched is the development of pharmaceutical compounds that would revert multiple antibiotic resistance. These so called resistance modifying agents may target and inhibit MDR mechanisms, rendering the bacteria susceptible to antibiotics to which they were previously resistant. These compounds targets include among others

Beyond antibiotics

The comparative ease of identifying compounds which safely cured bacterial infections was more difficult to duplicate in treatments of fungal and viral infections. Active efflux is a mechanism responsible for extrusion of toxic substances and Antibiotics outside the cell this is considered to be a vital part of Xenobiotic metabolism Clavulanic acid ( rINN) (klævjuːˌlænɨk ˈæsɨd is a Beta-lactamase inhibitor ( GlaxoSmithKline formerly Beecham) sometimes combined with Sulbactam is a Molecule which is given in combination with Beta-lactam antibiotics to inhibit Beta-lactamase, an Enzyme produced by Bacteria Antibiotic research led to great strides in the knowledge of biochemistry, establishing large differences between the cellular and molecular physiology of the bacterial cell and that of the mammalian cell. Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as This explained the observation that many compounds that are toxic to bacteria are non-toxic to human cells. In contrast, the basic biochemistries of the fungal cell and the mammalian cell are much more similar. Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands This restricts the development and use of therapeutic compounds that attack a fungal cell, while not harming mammalian cells. Similar problems exist in antibiotic treatments of viral diseases. A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable Human viral metabolic biochemistry is very closely similar to human biochemistry, and the possible targets of antiviral compounds are restricted to very few components unique to a mammalian virus.

Research into bacteriophages for use as antibiotics is presently ongoing. This article is about a biological infectious particle for other uses see Phage (disambiguation. Several types of bacteriophage appear to exist that are specific for each bacterial taxonomic group or species. Research into bacteriophages for medicinal use is just beginning, but has led to advances in microscopic imaging. [22] While bacteriophages provide a possible solution to the problem of antibiotic resistance, there is no clinical evidence yet that they can be deployed as therapeutic agents to cure disease.

Phage therapy has been used in the past on humans in the US and Europe during the 1920s and 1930s, but these treatments had mixed results. Phage therapy is the Therapeutic use of Bacteriophages to treat Pathogenic Bacterial infections With the discovery of penicillin in the 1940s, Europe and the US changed therapeutic strategies to using antibiotics. However, in the former Soviet Union phage therapies continued to be studied. In the Republic of Georgia, the Eliava Institute of Bacteriophage, Microbiology & Virology continues to research the use of phage therapy. Various companies and foundations in North America and Europe are currently researching phage therapies. However, phage are living and reproducing; concerns about genetic engineering in freely released viruses currently limit certain aspects of phage therapy.

Bacteriocins are also a growing alternative to the classic small-molecule antibiotics [23]. Bacteriocins are Proteinaceous Toxins produced by bacteria to inhibit the growth of similar or closely related bacterial strain(s Different classes of bacteriocins have different potential as therapeutic agents. Small molecule bacteriocins (microcins, for example, and lantibiotics) may be similar to the classic antibiotics; colicin-like bacteriocins are more likely to be narrow-spectrum, demanding new molecular diagnostics prior to therapy but also not raising the spectre of resistance to the same degree. Microcins are very small Bacteriocins composed of a relatively few Peptides For this reason they are distinct from their larger Protein cousins Lantibiotics are a class of Peptide Antibiotics that contain polycyclic Thioether Amino acids as well as the unsaturated amino acids A colicin is a type of Bacteriocin produced by and toxic to some strains of Escherichia coli. One drawback to the large molecule antibiotics is that they will have relative difficulty crossing membranes and travelling systemically throughout the body. For this reason, they are most often proposed for application topically or gastrointestinally[24]. Because bacteriocins are peptides, they are more readily engineered than small molecules[25]. This may permit the generation of cocktails and dynamically improved antibiotics that are modified to overcome resistance.

Probiotics are another alternative that goes beyond traditional antibiotics by employing a live culture which may establish itself as a symbiont, competing, inhibiting, or simply interfering with colonization by pathogens. Probiotics are Dietary supplements containing potentially beneficial Bacteria or Yeasts According to the currently adopted definition by FAO / It may produce antibiotics or bacteriocins, essentially providing the drug in vivo and in situ, potentially avoiding the side effects of systemic administration.

References

  1. ^ How Products Are Made: Antibiotics
  2. ^ http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/antibiosis
  3. ^ H. Landsberg (1949). "Prelude to the discovery of penicillin". Isis 40 (3): 225-227. . doi:10.1086/349043. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
  4. ^ a b Van Epps HL (2006). "René Dubos: unearthing antibiotics". J. Exp. Med. 203 (2): 259. PMID 16528813.  
  5. ^ Pelczar, M. J. , Chan, E. C. S. and Krieg, N. R. (1999) “Host-Parasite Interaction; Nonspecific Host Resistance”, In: Microbiology Conceptsand Applications, 6th ed. , McGraw-Hill Inc. , New York, U. S. A. pp. 478-479.
  6. ^ For common Uses and possible side effects reference is: Robert Berkow (ed. ) The Merck Manual of Medical Information - Home Edition. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, often called simply The Merck Manual, is the world's best-selling medical textbook Pocket (September 1999), ISBN 0-671-02727-1.
  7. ^ Splete, Heidi; Kerri Wachter (March 2006). "Liver toxicity reported with Ketek". Internal Medicine News.  
  8. ^ Mechanism of Action of Bacitracin: Complexation with Metal Ion and C55-Isoprenyl Pyrophosphate K. John Stone and Jack L. Strominger
  9. ^ Life-Extension-Drugs.com - Doxycycline
  10. ^ Exploding the urban myth: alcohol and antibiotics. Yahoo answers. Retrieved on 2008-02-17. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori
  11. ^ Antibiotics FAQ. McGill University, Canada. Retrieved on 2008-02-17. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori
  12. ^ Can I drink alcohol while taking antibiotics?. NHS Direct (UK electronic health service). Retrieved on 2008-02-17. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori
  13. ^ University of Michigan Health System: Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhea, November 26, 2006
  14. ^ Pirotta MV, Garland SM (2006). "Genital Candida species detected in samples from women in Melbourne, Australia, before and after treatment with antibiotics". J Clin Microbiol. 44: 3213-3217. PMID 16954250.  
  15. ^ Drugs Affecting Birth Control Pills. Retrieved on 2008-02-17. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori
  16. ^ Antibiotic and birth control. Yahoo answers. Retrieved on 2008-02-17. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori
  17. ^ Mellon, M et al. (2001) Hogging It!: Estimates of Antimicrobial Abuse in Livestock, 1st ed. Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists. History The Union of Concerned Scientists was founded in 1969 by faculty and students of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, located in Cambridge Massachusetts
  18. ^ Ong S, Nakase J, Moran GJ, Karras DJ, Kuehnert MJ, Talan DA (2007). "Antibiotic use for emergency department patients with upper respiratory infections: prescribing practices, patient expectations, and patient satisfaction". Annals of emergency medicine 50 (3): 213-20. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2007.03.026. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17467120.  
  19. ^ Metlay JP, Camargo CA, MacKenzie T, et al (2007). "Cluster-randomized trial to improve antibiotic use for adults with acute respiratory infections treated in emergency departments". Annals of emergency medicine 50 (3): 221-30. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2007.03.022. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17509729.  
  20. ^ Spurling G, Del Mar C, Dooley L, Foxlee R (2007). "Delayed antibiotics for respiratory infections". Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) (3): CD004417. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004417.pub3. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17636757.  
  21. ^ B. Marquez. (2005). Bacterial efflux systems and efflux pumps inhibitors. Biochimie87 1137–1147
  22. ^ Purdue University "Biologists build better software, beat path to viral knowledge", see Imaging of Epsilon 15, a virus that infects the bacterium Salmonella News report
  23. ^ Gillor O, Kirkup BC, Riley MA (2004). "Colicins and microcins: the next generation antimicrobials". Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 54: 129–46. doi:10.1016/S0065-2164(04)54005-4. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 15251279.  
  24. ^ Kirkup BC (2006). "Bacteriocins as oral and gastrointestinal antibiotics: theoretical considerations, applied research, and practical applications". Curr. Med. Chem. 13 (27): 3335–50. PMID 17168847.  
  25. ^ Gillor O, Nigro LM, Riley MA (2005). "Genetically engineered bacteriocins and their potential as the next generation of antimicrobials". Curr. Pharm. Des. 11 (8): 1067–75. PMID 15777256.  

External links

Resources

Dictionary

antibiotic

-noun

  1. (pharmacology) Any substance that can destroy or inhibit the growth of bacteria and similar microorganisms.

-adjective

  1. (pharmacology) Of or relating to antibiotics.
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