Anno Domini ^[1] (Medieval Latin: In the year of (the/Our) Lord),^[2][3] abbreviated as AD or A. Medieval Latin was the form of Latin used in the Middle Ages, primarily as a medium of scholarly exchange and as the Liturgical language of the medieval D. , is a designation used to number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The Julian calendar, a reform of the Roman calendar, was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC and came into force in 45 BC (709 Ab urbe condita The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used Calendar in the world today More fully, years may be also specified as Anno Domini Nostri Iesu (Jesu) Christi ("In the Year of Our Lord Jesus Christ").

The calendar era which it numbers is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus. A calendar era is the year numbering system used by a Calendar. In Christianity the Annunciation ( grc Ευαγγελισμός της Θεοτόκου, Evangelismós tēs Theotókou in Greek) is the revelation For depictions in painting and sculpture see Nativity of Jesus in art. Before Christ, abbreviated as BC or B. Christ is the English term for the Greek ( Khristós) meaning "the anointed " C. , is used in the English language to denote years before the start of this epoch. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States

Though the Anno Domini dating system was devised in 525, it was not until the 8th century that the system began to be adopted in Western Europe. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, even popes continued to date documents according to regnal years, and usage of AD only gradually became more common in Europe from the 11th to the 14th centuries. A regnal year is a year of the reign of a sovereign. From Latin regnum meaning kingdom rule ^[4] In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to adopt the Anno Domini system. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' ^[4]

Year numbering using the Anno Domini system (or its related Common Era (CE) designation) is the most widespread numbering system in the world today. For decades, it has been the unofficial global standard, recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations and the Universal Postal Union. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The Universal Postal Union ( UPU, French: Union postale universelle) is an International organization that coordinates postal policies among member Its preeminence is due to the European colonisation of the Americas and the subsequent global spread of Western civilization with the introduction of European standards in the fields of science and administration. Its association with the Gregorian calendar was another factor which promoted the spread of the numbering system. The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used Calendar in the world today

Traditionally, English copied Latin usage by placing the abbreviation before the year number for AD, but after the year number for BC; for example: 64 BC, but AD 2008. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. However, placing the AD after the year number (as in 2008 AD) is now also common. The abbreviation is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium, as in 4th century AD or 2nd millennium AD, despite the inappropriate literal combination in this case ("in the 4th century in the year of Our Lord"). A century (from the Latin centum, meaning one hundred is One hundred consecutive Years Centuries are numbered ordinally (e A millennium (pl millennia) is a period of Time equal to one thousand Years (from Latin la mille, thousand and la annum

Because B. C. is an abbreviation for Before Christ, some people incorrectly conclude that A. D. must mean After Death, i. e. , after the death of Jesus. If that were true, the thirty-three or so years of his life would be no era. ^[5]

Contents 1 History 1.1 Accuracy 1.2 Popularization 2 Synonyms 2.1 Common Era 2.2 Anno Salutis 3 Numbering of years 4 Notes and references 5 External links

History

Further information: Calendar era

During the first six centuries of what would come to be known as the Christian era, European countries used various systems to count years. A calendar era is the year numbering system used by a Calendar. Systems in use included consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating. This is a list of Roman consuls Key Abbreviations Imp = Imperator suff A regnal year is a year of the reign of a sovereign. From Latin regnum meaning kingdom rule la Anno Mundi (Latin "in the year of the World " abbreviated as AM or A

Although the last non-imperial consul, Basilius, was appointed in 541 by Emperor Justinian I, later emperors through Constans II (641–668) were appointed consuls on the first January 1 after their accession. On January 1, 541, Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius was appointed consul in Constantinople during the Byzantine Empire. Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus ( Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; known in English as Justinian I or Constans II ( Greek: Κώνστας Β' Kōnstas II) also called "Constantine the Bearded" ( Kōnstantinos Pogonatos) ( November 7 New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC All of these emperors, except Justinian, used imperial postconsular years for all of the years of their reign alongside their regnal years. ^[6] Long unused, this practice was not formally abolished until Novell xciv of the law code of Leo VI did so in 888. This article is about the Byzantine Emperor There is also an article on Pope Leo VI Leo VI "the Wise" or "the Philosopher"

The Anno Domini system was devised by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus (born in Scythia Minor) in Rome in 525. Dionysius Exiguus ( Dennis the Little or Dennis the Short, meaning humble (c Scythia Minor, "Lesser Scythia" (Μικρά Σκυθία Mikrá Skythia) was in ancient times the region surrounded by the Danube at the north and In his Easter table Dionysius equates the year AD 532 with the regnal year 284 of Emperor Diocletian. Dionysius Exiguus' Easter table was constructed in the year 525 by Dionysius Exiguus for the years 532–626 The anno Diocletiani era or the Diocletian era or the Era of Martyrs is a method of numbering years used by Alexandrian Christians during the Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate In Argumentum I attached to this table he equates the year AD 525 with the consulate of Probus Junior. ^[7] He thus implies that Jesus' Incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the specific year during which his birth or conception occurred.

"However, nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate his epoch to any other dating system, whether consulate, Olympiad, year of the world, or regnal year of Augustus; much less does he explain or justify the underlying date. "^[8]

Blackburn & Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity or Incarnation.

Among the sources of confusion are:^[9]

• In modern times Incarnation is synonymous with conception, but some ancient writers, such as Bede, considered Incarnation to be synonymous with the Nativity
• The civil, or consular year began on January 1 but the Diocletian year began on August 29
• There were inaccuracies in the list of consuls
• There were confused summations of emperors' regnal years

Two centuries later, the Anglo-Saxon historian Bede the Venerable used another Latin term, "ante uero incarnationis dominicae tempus" ("the time before the Lord's true incarnation"), equivalent to the English "before Christ", to identify years before the first year of this era. In Christianity the Annunciation ( grc Ευαγγελισμός της Θεοτόκου, Evangelismós tēs Theotókou in Greek) is the revelation New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Events 708 - Copper coins are minted in Japan for the first time (Traditional Japanese date: August 10, 708) For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south Bede (ˈbiːd (also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or (from Latin Beda (beda (c Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States ^[10]

Another calculation had been developed by the Alexandrian monk Annianus around the year AD 400, placing the Annunciation on March 25, AD 9 (Julian)—eight to ten years after the date that Dionysius was to imply. Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια Annianus of Alexandria or Annianos was a monk who flourished in Alexandria during the Bishopric of Theophilus of Alexandria around the beginning In Christianity the Annunciation ( grc Ευαγγελισμός της Θεοτόκου, Evangelismós tēs Theotókou in Greek) is the revelation Events 1199 - Richard I is wounded by a crossbow bolt while fighting France which leads to his death on April 6. Although this Incarnation was popular during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire, years numbered from it, an Era of Incarnation, was only used, and is still only used, in Ethiopia, accounting for the eight- or seven-year discrepancy between the Gregorian and the Ethiopian calendars. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page The Ethiopian calendar ( Amharic: የኢትዮጵያ ዘመን አቆጣጠር ye'Ītyōṗṗyā zemen āḳoṭaṭer) also called the Ge'ez calendar, Byzantine chroniclers like Maximus the Confessor, George Syncellus and Theophanes dated their years from Annianus' Creation of the World. Saint Maximus the Confessor (also known as Maximus the Theologian and Maximus de Constantinople) (c George Syncellus (died after 810 was a Byzantine chronicler and ecclesiastic Saint Theophanes Confessor (c 758/760 &ndash March 12, 817/818 was a Byzantine aristocratic Ascetic monk and Chronicler He is venerated Creation according to Genesis refers to the Hebrew narrative of the creation of the heavens and the earth as told in chapters 1 and 2 of Genesis This era, called Anno Mundi, "year of the world" (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, began its first year on 25 March 5492 BC. la Anno Mundi (Latin "in the year of the World " abbreviated as AM or A Events 1199 - Richard I is wounded by a crossbow bolt while fighting France which leads to his death on April 6. During the 6th millennium BC, Agriculture spreads from the Balkans to Italy and Eastern Europe and from Mesopotamia to Egypt. Later Byzantine chroniclers used Anno Mundi years from September 1 5509 BC, the Byzantine Era. Events 462 - Possible start of first Byzantine indiction cycle. During the 6th millennium BC, Agriculture spreads from the Balkans to Italy and Eastern Europe and from Mesopotamia to Egypt. The Byzantine calendar was the Calendar officially used by the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire from 988 by Basil II until it was conquered No single Anno Mundi epoch was dominant throughout the Christian world.

Accuracy

According to Doggett, "Although scholars generally believe that Christ was born some years before A. D. 1, the historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating". ^[11] According to the Gospel of St. Matthew (2:1,16) King Herod the Great was alive when Jesus was born, and ordered the Massacre of the Innocents in response to his birth. The Gospel of Matthew (Gk Κατά Ματθαίον Ευαγγέλιον is one of the four Canonical gospels in the New Testament and is a Synoptic gospel Herod (הוֹרְדוֹס Horodos, Greek: Herōdes) also known as Herod I or Herod the Great (73 BC – 4 BC in Jericho Introduction The chronology of Jesus is linked to a number of Jewish festivals For the painting by Peter Paul Rubens see " Massacre of the Innocents (Rubens " Blackburn & Holford-Strevens fix King Herod's death shortly before Passover in 4 BC,^[12] and say that those who accept the story of the Massacre of the Innocents sometimes associate the star that led the Biblical Magi with the planetary conjunction of September 15 7 BC or Halley's comet of 12 BC; even historians who do not accept the Massacre accept the birth under Herod as a tradition older than the written gospels. For the painting by Peter Paul Rubens see " Massacre of the Innocents (Rubens " "Three Kings" or "Three Wise Men" redirects here Conjunction is a term used in Positional astronomy and Astrology. Events 668 - Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II is assassinated in his bath at Syracuse Italy. Halley's Comet, officially designated 1P/Halley and also referred to as Comet Halley after Edmond Halley, is a Comet that can be seen every ^[13]

The Gospel of St. Luke (1:5) states that St. John the Baptist was at least conceived, if not born, under King Herod, and that Jesus was conceived while St. The Gospel of Luke (Gk Κατά Λουκάν Ευαγγέλιον) is a synoptic Gospel, and is the third and longest of the four canonical Gospels of the Saint John the Baptist ( heb. Jochanan ben Sacharja, arab. يحيى Yaḥyā or يوحنا Yūḥanna, aram. John's mother St. Elizabeth was in the sixth month of her pregnancy (1:26). St. Luke's Gospel also states that Jesus was born during the reign of the Emperor Augustus and while Cyrenius (or Quirinius) was the governor of Syria (2:1–2). Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Publius Sulpicius Quirinius ( Greek Κυρήνιος - Kyrenios or Cyrenius, c Publius Sulpicius Quirinius ( Greek Κυρήνιος - Kyrenios or Cyrenius, c Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Blackburn and Holford-Strevens^[12] indicate Cyrenius/Quirinius' governorship of Syria began in AD 6, which is incompatible with conception in 4 BC, and say that "St. Luke raises greater difficulty. . . . Most critics therefore discard Luke". ^[13] Some scholars rely on St. John's Gospel to place Christ's birth in c. The Gospel of John (literally According to John; Greek, Κατὰ Ἰωάννην Kata Iōannēn) is the fourth Gospel in the canon 18 BC. ^[13]

Popularization

The first historian or chronicler to use Anno Domini as his primary dating mechanism was Victor of Tonnenna, an African chronicler of the 6th century. Victor of Tunnuna (d ca 570) was Bishop of the North African town of Tunnuna and a Chronicler from Late Antiquity. A few generations later, the Anglo-Saxon historian Bede the Venerable, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius, also used Anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, finished in 731. For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south Bede (ˈbiːd (also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or (from Latin Beda (beda (c In this same history, he was the first to use the Latin equivalent of before Christ and established the standard for historians of no year zero, even though he used zero in his computus. There is no year zero in the widely used Gregorian calendar, nor in its predecessor the Julian calendar. Computus ( Latin for Computation) is the Calculation of the date of Easter in the Christian calendar. Both Dionysius and Bede regarded Anno Domini as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus, but "the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late 9th century, when in some places the Incarnation epoch was identified with Christ's conception, i. e. , the Annunciation on March 25" (Annunciation style). In Christianity the Annunciation ( grc Ευαγγελισμός της Θεοτόκου, Evangelismós tēs Theotókou in Greek) is the revelation Events 1199 - Richard I is wounded by a crossbow bolt while fighting France which leads to his death on April 6. ^[14]

On the continent of Europe, Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by Alcuin. The Carolingian Renaissance was a period of intellectual and cultural revival occurring in the late eighth and ninth centuries with the peak of the activities Alcuin of York (Alcuinus or Ealhwine, nicknamed Albinus or Flaccus (c This endorsement by Emperor Charlemagne and his successors popularizing the usage of the epoch and spreading it throughout the Carolingian Empire ultimately lies at the core of the system's prevalence until present times. Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his The Franks were originally led by dukes (military leaders and reguli (petty kings Carolingian Empire is a historiographical term sometimes used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty.

Outside the Carolingian Empire, Spain continued to date by the Era of the Caesars, or Spanish Era, which began counting from 38 BC, well into the Middle Ages,. The Spanish era refers to the dating system used in Hispania until the 14th century when the Anno Domini system was adopted The Spanish era refers to the dating system used in Hispania until the 14th century when the Anno Domini system was adopted The Era of Martyrs, which numbered years from the accession of Diocletian in 284, who launched the last yet most severe persecution of Christians, was used by the Church of Alexandria, and is still used officially by the Coptic church. The anno Diocletiani era or the Diocletian era or the Era of Martyrs is a method of numbering years used by Alexandrian Christians during the Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate History of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria Apostolic foundation Egypt is identified in the Bible as the place of refuge that the It also used to be used by the Ethiopian church. Another system was to date from the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, which as early as Hippolytus and Tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in the occasional medieval manuscript. Crucifixion (from Latin crucifixio, noun of process crucifixio, from perfect passive participle crucifixus, fixed to a cross from For places named after the saint see Saint-Hippolyte Saint Hippolytus of Rome (c Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Anglicised as Tertullian, (ca Most Syriac manuscripts written at the end of the 19th century still gave the date in the end-note using the "year of the Greeks" (Anno Graecorum = Seleucid era). The Seleucid era was a system of numbering Years in use by the Seleucid Empire and other countries among the ancient Hellenistic civilizations The era

Even though Anno Domini was in widespread use by the 9th century, Before Christ (or its equivalent) did not become widespread until the late 15th century. ^[15]

Synonyms

Common Era

Main article: Common Era

Anno Domini is sometimes referred to as the Common Era, Christian Era or Current Era (abbreviated as C. E. or CE). CE is often preferred by those who desire a term unrelated to religious conceptions of time. For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that "B. C. E. /C. E. . . . do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B. C. /A. D. " The People's Republic of China, founded in 1949, adopted Western years, calling that era gōngyuán (公元) which literally means Common Era. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES

Anno Salutis

Anno Salutis (Latin: "in the year of salvation") was the term sometimes used in place of Anno Domini until the 18th century. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. In all other respects it operated on the same epoch, reference date, which is the Incarnation of Jesus. The Incarnation is the belief in Christianity that Jesus Christ is the God of Israel in the flesh Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) It was used by fervent Christians to spread the message that the birth of Jesus saved mankind from eternal damnation. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth It was often used in a more elaborate form such as Anno Nostrae Salutis (meaning: "in the year of our salvation"), Anno Salutis Humanae (meaning: "in the year of the salvation of men"), or Anno Reparatae Salutis (meaning: "in the year of accomplished salvation").

Numbering of years

Common usage omits year zero. This creates a problem with some scientific calculations. Accordingly, in astronomical year numbering, a zero year is added before AD 1, and the 'AD' and 'BC' designation is dropped. Astronomical year numbering is based on AD ( Anno Domini)/CE ( Common Era) year numbering but follows normal Decimal Integer numbering more strictly In keeping with 'standard decimal numbering', a minus sign '−' is added for years before year zero: so counting down from year 2 would give 2, 1, 0, −1, −2, and so on. This results in a one-year shift between the two systems (eg −1 equals 2 BC). ^[16]

Notes and references

Notes:

References:

External links

• The Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. "General Chronology"

• Calendar Converter

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