Annexation (Latin ad, to, and nexus, joining) is the legal incorporation of some territory into another geo-political entity (either adjacent or non-contiguous). Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Usually, it is implied that the territory and population being annexed is the smaller, more peripheral, and weaker of the two merging entities. It can also imply a certain measure of coercion, expansionism or unilateralism on the part of the stronger of the merging entities. In general expansionism consists of expansionist policies While some have linked the term to promoting Economic growth (in contrast to no growth / Sustainable policies Unilateralism ("one+side -ism " is any doctrine or agenda that supports one-sided action Because of this, more positive terms like political union or reunification are sometimes preferred. A political union is a type of state which is composed of or created out of smaller States Unlike a Personal union, the individual states share a common government
Annexation differs from cession and amalgamation, because unlike cession where territory is given or sold through treaty, or amalgamation where both sides are asked if they agree with the merge, annexation is an unilateral act where territory is seized and held by one state and made legitimate by the recognition of the international community. Most broadly cession (to cede) is the assignment of Property to another entity Joining two or more political units such as municipalities, counties, or cities into one entity is referred to as amalgamation when the process occurs The international community is a vague term used in International relations to refer to all the countries of the world or to a group of them [1]
During World War II the use of annexation deprived whole populations of the safeguards provided by international laws governing military occupations. Changes were introduced to international law through the Fourth Geneva Convention that makes it much more difficult for a state to bypass international law through the use of annexation. The Fourth Geneva Convention (or GCIV) relates to the protection of Civilians during times of War " in the hands " of an enemy and under [2]
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Annexation and international law after 1948
The Fourth Geneva Convention (GCIV) of 1949, emphasised an important international law. The Fourth Geneva Convention (or GCIV) relates to the protection of Civilians during times of War " in the hands " of an enemy and under [2] The United Nations Charter (June 26, 1945) had prohibited war of aggression (See articles 1. The United Nations Charter is the Treaty that forms and establishes the International organization called the United Nations. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian is killed during the retreat from the Sassanid Empire. Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar 1, 2. 3, 2. 4) and GCIV Article 47, the first paragraph in Section III: Occupied territories, restricted the territorial gains which could be made through war by stating:
Protected persons who are in occupied territory shall not be deprived, in any case or in any manner whatsoever, of the benefits of the present Convention by any change introduced, as the result of the occupation of a territory, into the institutions or government of the said territory, nor by any agreement concluded between the authorities of the occupied territories and the Occupying Power, nor by any annexation by the latter of the whole or part of the occupied territory.
Article 49 prohibits mass movement of people out of or into occupied territory:[3]
Individual or mass forcible transfers, as well as deportations of protected persons from occupied territory to the territory of the Occupying Power or to that of any other country, occupied or not, are prohibited, regardless of their motive. . . . The Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies.
Protocol I (1977): "Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts" has additional articles which cover military occupation, but many countries including the United States are not signatory to this additional protocol. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts ( Protocol 1) Introduction The Geneva Conventions consist of four Treaties formulated in Geneva, Switzerland, that set the standards for International law for humanitarian The United States of America —commonly referred to as the
Examples of annexation after 1948
Ogaden
In 1954, former British Ogaden (a Somali Region) was annexed by Abyssinia. Ogaden (pronounced and often spelled Ogadēn ]] is the international name of the Somali Regional State in Ethiopia. Somali ( Gobolka Soomaalida) is the eastern-most of the nine ethnic divisions ( kililoch) of Ethiopia. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Somali nationalists have waged wars of liberation since 1954. Currently, the Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF) leads this nationalist effort and is engaged in a fierce military confrontation with Ethiopia. The Ogaden National Liberation Front ( ONLF) (ኦጋደን፡ ብሔራዊ፡፡ነጽነት፡ግንባር( Somali: Jabhadda Wadaniga Xoreynta Ogaadeenya
Rockall
On 18 September 1955 at precisely 10:16 am, in what would be the final territorial expansion of the British Empire, Rockall was officially annexed by the United Kingdom when Lieutenant-Commander Desmond Scott RN, Sergeant Brian Peel RM, Corporal AA Fraser RM, and James Fisher (a civilian naturalist and former Royal Marine), were deposited on the island by a Royal Navy helicopter from HMS Vidal (coincidentally named after the man who first charted the island). Events 96 - Nerva is proclaimed Roman Emperor after Domitian is assassinated Year 1955 ( MCMLV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar) The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. Rockall is a small uninhabited rocky Islet in the north Atlantic Ocean, and one of the sea areas named in the Shipping Forecast broadcast on BBC The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Lieutenant Commander ( Lieutenant-Commander in the Royal Navy) is a Commissioned officer rank in many navies Superior The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) Sergeant is a rank used in some form by most militaries police forces and other uniformed organizations around the world The Royal Marines ( RM) are the marine corps and amphibious Infantry of the United Kingdom and along with the Royal Navy Corporal is a rank in use in some form by most militaries and also by some police forces or other uniformed organizations Natural history is the Scientific research of Plants or Animals leaning more towards the Observational than Experimental methods The Fleet Air Arm is the branch of the Royal Navy responsible for the operation of the aircraft on board their ships The team cemented in a brass plaque on Hall's Ledge and hoisted the Union Flag to stake the UK's claim. The Union Flag, also known as the Union Jack, is the national flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
Tibet
Tibetan nationalists have argued that Tibet was occupied and annexed by People's Republic of China in the 1950s. Definitions of Tibet See also Definitions of Tibet Name In English The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES This position is disputed by the PRC government and Chinese nationalists who argue that China has exercised sovereignty over Tibet since at least the 18th century, and that this sovereignty had been internationally recognized since at least the 20th century. Hence they would argue that the action in 1959 was an internationally acceptable example of a central government reasserting control over an internal region.
Goa
In 1961 the former Portuguese colony of Goa was annexed by India. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Goa is a small state on the western coast of India. Goa was the first part of India that was colonized by Europeans and also the last to be liberated India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country
East Timor
Following an Indonesian invasion in 1975, East Timor was annexed by Indonesia and was known as Timor Timur. East Timor, also known as Timor-Leste (officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste) is a country in Southeast Asia. It was regarded by Indonesia as the country's 27th province, but this was never recognised by the United Nations or Portugal. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The people of East Timor resisted Indonesian forces in a prolonged guerilla campaign. (See: Indonesian rule in East Timor). East Timor is a small country in Southeast Asia It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor the nearby islands of Atauro and Jaco Following a referendum held in 1999, under a UN sponsored agreement between Indonesia and Portugal, in which its people rejected the offer of autonomy within Indonesia, East Timor achieved independence in 2002 and is now officially known as Timor-Leste. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. East Timor, also known as Timor-Leste (officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste) is a country in Southeast Asia.
West Papua
Western Sahara
In 1975, and following the Madrid Accords between Morocco, Mauritania and Spain, the latter withdrew from the territory and ceded the administration to Morocco and Mauritania. The Madrid Accords, also called Madrid Agreement or Madrid Pact, was a Treaty between Spain, Morocco, and Mauritania Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Mauritania (موريتانيا Mūrītāniyā officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. This was challenged by an independentist movement, the Polisario Front that waged a guerilla war against both Morocco and Mauritania. The Polisario, Polisario Front, or Frente Polisario, from the Spanish abbreviation of Frente Po pular de Li beración de Sa Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc In 1979, and after a military putsch, Mauritania withdrew from the territory which left it controlled by Morocco. A United Nations peace process was initiated in 1991, but it has been stalled, and as of mid-2007, the UN is holding direct negotiations between Morocco and the Polisario front to reach a solution to the conflict. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security
Jerusalem
In the aftermath of the 1967 Six Day War, in which Israel had captured East Jerusalem as well as Judea and Samaria (commonly referred to as the West Bank by the outside world), Gaza and the Golan Heights, Israel declared East and West Jerusalem one united city, incorporating the eastern part to form one municipality. Background Suez Crisis aftermath The Suez Crisis of 1956 represented a military defeat but a political victory for Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the This article refers to a District of Israel called Judea and Samaria The West Bank (الضفة الغربية, הגדה המערבית Hagadah Hamaaravit) also referred to in Israel as " Judea and Samaria Gaza (غزة, עַזָּה ʕazzā is the largest city in the Gaza Strip and the Palestinian territories. Borders of Israel The Golan Heights ( الجولان al-Jawlān, הגולן ha-Golan) is a strategic Plateau and mountainous In 1980 Israel passed the Jerusalem Law, which redeclared the unity of Jerusalem as Israel's capital, but did not declare its borders. The Jerusalem Law is a common name of Basic Law Jerusalem Capital of Israel passed by the Knesset on July 30, 1980 (17th In other words, Israel annexed East Jerusalem,[4][5][6] although some challenge the legitimacy of this action. [7]
Golan
In 1981, Israel extended its "laws, jurisdiction and administration" to the Golan Heights (including the Shebaa Farms/Har Dov), which it captured from Syria in the 1967 Six Day War. Borders of Israel The Golan Heights ( الجولان al-Jawlān, הגולן ha-Golan) is a strategic Plateau and mountainous Golan Heights The Shebaa Farms (مزارع شبعا; חוות שבעא Havot Sheba‘a or הר דוב Har Dov) is a small area of land with disputed Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Background Suez Crisis aftermath The Suez Crisis of 1956 represented a military defeat but a political victory for Egypt This not entirely clear "annexation" declaration was declared "null and void and without international legal effect" by United Nations Security Council Resolution 497. United Nations Security Council Resolution 497 ( December 17, 1981) adopted unanimously calls on the State of Israel to rescind its de As of today, the only state to accept the validity of this annexation is Micronesia. The Federated States of Micronesia is an Island nation located in the Pacific Ocean, north of Papua New Guinea.
Kuwait
After being allied with Iraq during the Iran – Iraq War (largely due to desiring Iraqi protection from Iran), Kuwait was invaded and annexed by Iraq (under Saddam Hussein) in August 1990. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The State of Kuwait ( دولة الكويت IPA [dawlatt̪ alkuwajt̪]) is a sovereign Arab Emirate on the coast of the Persian Gulf, enclosed Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti ( Arabic: ar صدام حسين عبد المجيد التكريتي --> April 28 1937 &ndash December 30 Hussein's primary justifications included a charge that Kuwaiti territory was in fact an Iraqi province, and that annexation was retaliation for "economic warfare" Kuwait had waged through slant drilling into Iraq's oil supplies. Directional drilling (or slant drilling) is the practice of drilling non-vertical wells It can be broken down into three main groups Oilfield Directional The monarchy was deposed after annexation, and an Iraqi governor installed.
United States President George H. W. Bush ultimately condemned Iraq's actions, and moved to drive out Iraqi forces. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the George Herbert Walker Bush (born June 12 1924 served as the forty-first President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 Authorized by the UN Security Council, an American-led coalition of 34 nations fought the Gulf War to reinstate the Kuwaiti Emir. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Emir ( Arabic: ar أمير;, female أميرة; emira;) ( Farsi and Urdu: امیر) Iraq's invasion (and annexation) was deemed illegal and Kuwait remains an independent nation today.
Subnational Annexation
Within countries that are subdivided noncontiguously, annexation can also take place whereby a lower-tier subdivision can annex territory under the jurisdiction of a higher-tier subdivision. Country subdivision refers to the division of a Country 's territory for the sake of its administration, description or other such purpose An example of this is in the United states, where incorporated cities and towns often expand their boundaries by annexing unincorporated land adjacent to them. A municipality is an administrative entity composed of a clearly defined territory and its population and commonly denotes a City, Town, or Village, or In Law, an unincorporated area is a region of land that is not a part of any Municipality. Municipalities can also annex or be annexed by other municipalities, though this is less common. There are exceptions to this in the United States, as laws governing the ability and the extent cities can expand in this fashion are defined by the individual states' constitutions. A US state is any one of the fifty subnational entities of the United States of America that share Sovereignty with the federal government Every state in the United States possesses its own constitution
See also
- Expansionism
- Status quo ante bellum
- Lebensraum
- Irredentism
- Revanchism
- Reunification
- Canadian Annexationist Movement
References
- ^ Annexation, Encyclopaedia Britannica
- ^ a b Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. In general expansionism consists of expansionist policies While some have linked the term to promoting Economic growth (in contrast to no growth / Sustainable policies The term status quo ante bellum comes from Latin meaning literally as things were before the war. ( German for " habitat " or literally "living space" served as a major motivation for Nazi Germany 's territorial aggression Irredentism is any position advocating Annexation of territories administered by another State on the grounds of common Ethnicity or prior historical possession Revanchism (from French revanche " Revenge " is a term used since the 1870s to describe a political manifestation of the will to reverse territorial the early years of the United States, some distinguished American political figures were in favor of invading and annexing Canada, and even pre-approved Canada's admission to The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc Geneva, 12 August 1949. Commentary on Part III : Status and treatment of protected persons #Section III : Occupied territories Art. 47 by the ICRC
- ^ Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. "ICRC" redirects here For other uses see ICRC (disambiguation. Geneva, 12 August 1949. Commentary on Part III : Status and treatment of protected persons #Section III : Occupied territories Art. 49 by the ICRC
- ^ Sela, Avraham. "ICRC" redirects here For other uses see ICRC (disambiguation. Avraham Sela is an Israeli authority on the Politics of the Middle East and International relations. "Jerusalem. " The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. Ed. Avraham Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002. pp. 391-498.
- ^ Frank, Mitch. Understanding the Holy Land: Answering Questions about the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. New York: Viking, 2005. p. 74.
- ^ "A/35/508-S/14207 of 8 October 1980." UNISPAL - United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine. The United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine (UNISPAL is an online collection of texts of current and historical United Nations decisions and publications 8 Octomber 1980. 8 June 2008.
- ^ http://www.mepc.org/journal_vol5/9701_lustick.asp Ian S. Lustick, 'Has Israel Annexed East Jerusalem?,' Middle East Policy Council Journal Volume V, January 1997, Number 1
Further reading
- Adam Roberts. Transformative military occupation: applying the laws of war and human rights, 100 The American Journal of International Law. vol 100 pp. 580-622 (2006)
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