- "Animal liberation" redirects here; for other uses, see Animal liberation (disambiguation). For the album by Moby, see Animal Rights (album). Richard Melville Hall, also known as Moby (born September 11, 1965 in Harlem, New York) is an American DJ This article is about the album Animal Rights. For the rights movement see Animal rights.
Animal rights, also known as animal liberation, is the idea that the interests of animals, such as the interest in avoiding suffering, should be afforded the same consideration as the interests of human beings. [1] Although animal rights advocates approach the issue from different philosophical positions, they argue, broadly speaking, that animals should no longer be regarded as property, or used as food, clothing, research subjects, or entertainment, but should instead be regarded as legal persons and members of the moral community. Note This Wikipedia entry deals with the legal concept legal person. [2][3]
The idea of awarding rights to animals has the support of legal scholars such as Alan Dershowitz and Laurence Tribe of Harvard Law School. Alan Morton Dershowitz (born September 1, 1938) is an American Lawyer, Jurist, and political commentator. Laurence Henry Tribe (born October 10, 1941) is a professor of Constitutional law at Harvard Law School and the Carl M Harvard Law School (also known as Harvard Law or HLS) is one of the professional Graduate schools of Harvard University. [4][2] Steven Wise, also of Harvard Law School, argues that the first serious judicial challenges to what he calls the "legal thinghood" of animals may only be a few years away. Steven M Wise (born 1952 is an American legal scholar who specializes in animal protection issues Primatology, and animal intelligence [5] Animal law courses are now taught in 97 out of 180 law schools in the United States,[6] and animal rights is routinely taught in universities as part of applied ethics or philosophy courses. Animal law is a combination of statutory and case law in which the nature – legal social or biological – of nonhuman animals is an important factor Robert Garner of the University of Leicester calls it the "new morality. The University of Leicester is a research led university based in Leicester, England, with approximately 19000 registered students - about 12000 of them full-time "[7]
Critics argue that animals are unable to enter into a social contract or make moral choices, and therefore cannot be regarded as possessors of rights, a position summed up by the philosopher Roger Scruton, who writes that only human beings have duties and that "[t]he corollary is inescapable: we alone have rights. Social contract describes a broad class of republican theories whose subjects are implied agreements by which people form Nations and maintain a Social order Roger Vernon Scruton (born 27 February 1944) is an English Conservative Philosopher. "[8] An argument that often runs parallel to this is that there is nothing inherently wrong with using animals as resources for human purposes, though there is an obligation to ensure they do not suffer unnecessarily, a view known as the animal welfare position. Animal welfare refers to the viewpoint that it is morally acceptable for humans to use nonhuman animals for food in animal research, as clothing and in entertainment [9]
Development of the idea
Moral status of animals in the ancient world
The idea that the use of animals by human beings — for food, clothing, entertainment, and as research subjects — is morally acceptable springs mainly from two sources. First, there is the idea of a divine hierarchy based on the theological concept of "dominion," from Genesis (1:20-28), where Adam is given "dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. See also Adam and Eve Adam ( Hebrew: אָדָם was according to a literal interpretation of Genesis, the first man created by " Although the concept of dominion need not entail property rights, it has, over the centuries, been interpreted to imply some form of ownership. [10][8]
Second, is the idea that animals are inferior, because they lack rationality, language, or even consciousness, and as such are worthy of less consideration than human beings, or even none. Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the [10][8] Springing from this is the idea that individual animals have no separate moral identity. A pig is simply an example of the class of pigs, and it is to the class, not to the individual, that human responsibility or stewardship applies. This leads to the argument that the use of individual animals is acceptable so long as, for example, the species is not threatened with extinction. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. In Biology and Ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a Species or group of taxa.
The 21st-century debate about these ideas can be traced back to the earliest philosophers and theologians.
17th century: Animals as automata
1641: Descartes
- Further information: Dualism (philosophy of mind) and Scientific Revolution
| “ | [Animals] eat without pleasure, cry without pain, grow without knowing it; they desire nothing, fear nothing, know nothing. — Nicolas Malebranche (1638–1715)[12] | ” |
The year 1641 was significant for the idea of animal rights. "Malebranche" redirects here For the fictional demons see Malebolge. The great influence of the century was the French philosopher, René Descartes (1596–1650), whose Meditations was published that year, and whose ideas about animals informed attitudes well into the 21st century. [11]
Writing during the "scientific revolution" versus medieval and Renaissance thinking — a revolution of which he was one of the chief architects — Descartes proposed a mechanistic theory of the universe, the aim of which was to show that the world could be mapped out without having to allude to subjective experience. The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere In Philosophy, mechanism is a Theory that all natural phenomena can be explained by physical causes Subjectivity refers to a subject's perspective particularly feelings beliefs and desires The senses deceive, he wrote in the First Meditation in 1641, and "it is prudent never to trust wholly those who have deceived us even once. Meditations on First Philosophy (subtitled In which the existence of God and the immortality of the soul are demonstrated) is a philosophical treatise written "[13]
| “ | Hold then the same view of the dog which has lost his master, which has sought him in all the thoroughfares with cries of sorrow, which comes into the house troubled and restless, goes downstairs, goes upstairs; goes from room to room, finds at last in his study the master he loves, and betokens his gladness by soft whimpers, frisks, and caresses.
There are barbarians who seize this dog, who so greatly surpasses man in fidelity and friendship, and nail him down to a table and dissect him alive, to show you the mesaraic veins! You discover in him all the same organs of feeling as in yourself. Answer me, mechanist, has Nature arranged all the springs of feeling in this animal to the end that he might not feel? — Voltaire (1694–1778)[14] |
” |
His mechanistic approach was extended to the issue of animal consciousness. François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the Mind, for Descartes, was a thing apart from the physical universe, a separate substance, linking human beings to the mind of God. MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. In Philosophy of mind, dualism is a set of views about the relationship between mind and matter which begins with the claim that mental phenomena are in some God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. The non-human, on the other hand, are nothing but complex automata, with no souls, minds, or reason. This article is about a self-operating machine For other uses of Automaton see Automaton (disambiguation or Automata (disambiguation. They can see, hear and touch, but they are not, in any sense, conscious, and are unable to suffer or even to feel pain. [11]
In the Discourse, published in 1637, Descartes wrote that the ability to reason and use language involve being able to respond in complex ways to "all the contingencies of life," something that animals clearly cannot do. Organization How to think correctly The Method of Science Morals Maxims deduced from this Method Proof of God and the Soul Physics the heart He argued from this that any sounds animals make do not constitute language, but are simply automatic responses to external stimuli. [15]
1635, 1641, 1654: First known laws protecting animals
Richard Ryder writes that the first known legislation against animal cruelty in the English-speaking world was passed in Ireland in 1635. It prohibited pulling wool off sheep, and the attaching of ploughs to horses' tails, referring to "the cruelty used to beasts," which Ryde writes is probably the earliest reference to this concept in the English language. [16]
In 1641, the year Descartes' Meditations was published, the first legal code to protect domestic animals in the U. S. was passed by the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The Massachusetts Bay Colony (sometimes called the Massachusetts Bay Company, for the institution that founded it was an English settlement on the east coast of North America [17] The colony's constitution was based on The Body of Liberties, written by the Reverend Nathaniel Ward (1578–1652), a lawyer, Puritan clergyman, and Cambridge graduate, originally from Suffolk, England. The Massachusetts Body of Liberties was the first legal code to be established by European colonists in New England. The Reverend Nathaniel Ward (1578 &mdash October 1652) a Puritan clergyman and pamphleteer in England and Massachusetts, wrote the first constitution A Puritan of 16th and 17th century England was an associate of any number of religious groups advocating for more "purity" of Worship and Doctrine, The University of Cambridge (often Cambridge University) located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the Suffolk (ˈsʌfək is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in East Anglia, England. [18] Ward listed the "rites" the Colony's general court later endorsed, including rite number 92: "No man shall exercise any Tirrany or Crueltie toward any bruite Creature which are usuallie kept for man's use. " Historian Roderick Nash writes that, at the height of Descartes influence in Europe, it is significant that the early New Englanders created a law that implied animals were not unfeeling automata. Roderick Nash is a history and environmental studies professor at the University of California Santa Barbara. [19]
The Puritans passed animal protection legislation in England too. Katheen Kete of Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut writes that animal welfare laws were passed in 1654 as part of the ordinances of the Protectorate — the government under Oliver Cromwell, which lasted 1653–1659 — during the English Civil War. Trinity College is a private liberal arts college in Hartford Connecticut. In British history, the Protectorate was the period 1653&ndash1659 during which the Commonwealth of England Scotland and Ireland was governed by a Lord Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 Old Style &ndash 3 September 1658 Old Style) was an English military and political leader best known The English Civil War (1642-1651 was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. Cromwell disliked blood sports, particularly cockfighting, cock throwing, dog fighting, as well as bull baiting and bull running, both said to tenderize the meat. A cockfight is a Blood sport between two Roosters held in a ring called a cockpit Cock throwing, also known as cock-shying or throwing at cocks, was a Blood sport widely practiced in England until the late 18th century Dog fighting is a Fight between game Dogs This Blood sport is utilized for Entertainment and may also create a revenue stream Bull-baiting is a Blood sport involving the baiting of bulls. These could frequently be seen in towns, villages, in fairgrounds, and became associated for the Puritans with idleness, drunkenness, and gambling. Kete writes that the Puritans interpreted the dominion of man over animals in the Book of Genesis to mean responsible stewardship, rather than ownership. The opposition to blood sports became part of what was seen as Puritan interference in people's lives, which became a leitmotif of resistance to them, Kete writes, and the animal protection laws were overturned during the Restoration, when Charles II was returned to the throne in 1660. A leitmotif (ˌlaɪtmoʊˈtiːf (also leitmotiv; lit "leading motif" is a recurring Musical theme, associated with a particular person place The English Restoration, or simply The Restoration began in 1660 when the English monarchy, Scottish monarchy and Irish monarchy were restored Charles II may refer to Charles the Bald (823 &ndash 877 king of the West Franks and Holy Roman Emperor Charles II of Naples (1248 [20] Bull baiting remained lawful in England for another 162 years, until it was outlawed in 1822. The Cruel Treatment of Cattle Act 1822 (3 Geo IV c 71 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom with the Long title "An Act to prevent
1693: Locke
Against Descartes, the British philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) argued, in Some Thoughts Concerning Education in 1693, that animals do have feelings, and that unnecessary cruelty toward them is morally wrong, but — echoing Thomas Aquinas — the right not to be so harmed adhered either to the animal's owner, or to the person who was being harmed by being cruel, not to the animal itself. John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. Discussing the importance of preventing children from tormenting animals, he wrote: "For the custom of tormenting and killing of beasts will, by degrees, harden their minds even towards men. "[21]
18th century: The centrality of sentience, not reason
1754: Rousseau
.jpg/150px-Jean-Jacques_Rousseau_(painted_portrait).jpg)
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) argued in Discourse on Inequality in 1754 that animals should be part of natural law, not because they are rational, but because they are sentient:
| “ | [Here] we put an end to the time-honoured disputes concerning the participation of animals in natural law: for it is clear that, being destitute of intelligence and liberty, they cannot recognize that law; as they partake, however, in some measure of our nature, in consequence of the sensibility with which they are endowed, they ought to partake of natural right; so that mankind is subjected to a kind of obligation even toward the brutes. Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men (Discours sur l'origine et les fondements de l'inégalité parmi les hommes is a book by the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau Natural law or the law of nature ( Latin: lex naturalis) is a theory that posits the existence of a law whose content is set by Nature and that Sentience is the ability to feel or perceive subjectively. It is an important concept in the philosophy of Animal rights, in buddhist philosophy and in It appears, in fact, that if I am bound to do no injury to my fellow-creatures, this is less because they are rational than because they are sentient beings: and this quality, being common both to men and beasts, ought to entitle the latter at least to the privilege of not being wantonly ill-treated by the former. [22] | ” |
1785: Kant
| “ | Animals . . . are there merely as a means to an end. That end is man. — Immanuel Kant[23] | ” |
The German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), following Augustine, Aquinas, and Locke, opposed the idea that human beings have duties toward non-humans. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg For Kant, cruelty to animals was wrong solely on the grounds that it was bad for humankind. He argued in 1785 that human beings have duties only toward other human beings, and that "cruelty to animals is contrary to man's duty to himself, because it deadens in him the feeling of sympathy for their sufferings, and thus a natural tendency that is very useful to morality in relation to other human beings is weakened. "[24]
1789: Bentham
Four years later, one of the founders of modern utilitarianism, the English philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), although deeply opposed to the concept of natural rights, argued with Rousseau that it was the ability to suffer, not the ability to reason, that should be the benchmark of how we treat other beings. Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall Utility, that is its contribution to happiness Jeremy Bentham ( IPA: or) (15 February 1748&ndash6 June 1832 was an English Jurist, Philosopher, and legal and Social reformer If rationality were the criterion, many human beings, including babies and disabled people, would also have to be treated as though they were things. [26] He wrote in 1789, just as slaves were being freed by the French, but were still held captive in the British dominions:
| “ | The day has been, I grieve to say in many places it is not yet past, in which the greater part of the species, under the denomination of slaves, have been treated by the law exactly upon the same footing, as, in England for example, the inferior races of animals are still. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Slavery in the British and French Caribbean refers to Slavery in the parts of the Caribbean dominated by France or the British Empire. The day may come when the rest of the animal creation may acquire those rights which never could have been witholden from them but by the hand of tyranny. The French have already discovered that the blackness of the skin is no reason a human being should be abandoned without redress to the caprice of a tormentor. It may one day come to be recognized that the number of the legs, the villosity of the skin, or the termination of the os sacrum are reasons equally insufficient for abandoning a sensitive being to the same fate? What else is it that should trace the insuperable line? Is it the faculty of reason or perhaps the faculty of discourse? But a full-grown horse or dog, is beyond comparison a more rational, as well as a more conversable animal, than an infant of a day or a week or even a month, old. A hair follicle is part of the Skin that grows Hair by packing old cells together The sacrum is a large triangular bone at the base of the spine and at the upper and back part of the Pelvic cavity, where it is inserted like a wedge between Speech refers to the processes associated with the production and perception of Sounds used in Spoken language. But suppose the case were otherwise, what would it avail? the question is not, Can they reason?, nor Can they talk? but, Can they suffer? [27] | ” |
1792: Thomas Taylor
Despite Rousseau and Bentham, the idea that animals did or ought to have rights remained ridiculous. When Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797), the British feminist writer, published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792, Thomas Taylor (1758—1835), a Cambridge philosopher, responded with an anonymous tract called Vindication of the Rights of Brutes, intended as a reductio ad absurdum. Mary Wollstonecraft (ˈwʊlstənkrɑːft 27 April 1759 – 10 September A Vindication of the Rights of Woman with Strictures on Political and Moral Thomas Taylor ( 15 May 1758 - 1 November 1835) was an English translator and Neoplatonist the first to translate into English Reductio ad absurdum ( Latin for "reduction to the absurd" also known as an apagogical argument, reductio ad impossibile Taylor took Wollstonecraft's arguments, and those of Thomas Paine's Rights of Man (1790), and showed that they applied equally to animals, leading to the conclusion that animals have "intrinsic and real dignity and worth," a conclusion absurd enough, in his view, to discredit Wollstonecraft's and Paine's positions entirely. Thomas Paine (January 29 1737 &ndash June 8 1809 was an English Pamphleteer, Revolutionary, radical, Inventor, and Intellectual Rights of Man (1787 by Thomas Paine, posits that popular political revolution is permissible when a government does not safeguard its people their natural rights [28]
19th century: Emergence of jus animalium
Legislation
- Further information: Cruel Treatment of Cattle Act 1822, Cruelty to Animals Act 1835, Cruelty to Animals Act 1849, and Cruelty to Animals Act 1876
| “ | What could be more innocent than bull baiting, boxing, or dancing? — George Canning, British Foreign Secretary in April 1800 in response to a bill to ban bull baiting. The Cruel Treatment of Cattle Act 1822 (3 Geo IV c 71 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom with the Long title "An Act to prevent The Cruelty to Animals Act 1835 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (citation 5 & 6 Will The Cruelty to Animals Act 1849 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (12 & 13 Vict The Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 was an Act passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom (39 & 40 Vict Bull-baiting is a Blood sport involving the baiting of bulls. George Canning (11 April 1770 &ndash 8 August 1827 was a British statesman and Politician who served as Foreign Secretary and is at present the shortest serving [29] | ” |
The 19th century saw an explosion of interest in animal protection, particularly in England. Henry Thomas Alken ( October 12, 1785 – April 7, 1851) was an English painter and Engraver. Debbie Legge and Simon Brooman of Liverpool John Moores University write that the educated classes became concerned about attitudes toward the old, the needy, children, and the insane, and that this concern was extended to non-humans. Liverpool John Moores University is a modern university in Liverpool, England. Before the 19th century, there had been prosecutions for poor treatment of animals, but only because of the damage to the animal as property. In 1793, for example, John Cornish was found not guilty of maiming a horse after pulling its tongue out, the judge ruling that he could be found guilty only if there was evidence of malice toward the owner. [30]
From 1800 onwards, there were several attempts in England to introduce animal welfare or rights legislation. The first was a bill in 1800 against bull baiting, introduced by Sir William Pulteney, and opposed by the Secretary of War, William Windham, on the grounds that it was anti-working class. Bull-baiting is a Blood sport involving the baiting of bulls. William Windham ( 3 May 1750 – 4 June 1810) was a British Whig statesman born of an ancient Norfolk family Another attempt was made in 1802 by William Wilberforce, again opposed by Windham, who said that bulls enjoyed being baited. William Wilberforce (24 August 1759 – 29 July 1833 was a British Politician, a Philanthropist In 1811, Lord Erskine introduced a bill to protect cattle and horses from malicious wounding, wanton cruelty, and beating, this one opposed by Windham because it would prejudice property rights. The Lordship of Parliament of Erskine ( Lord Erskine) was created around 1426 for Sir Robert Erskine Judge Edward Abbott Parry writes that the House of Lords found the proposal so sentimental that they drowned Erskine out with cat calls and cock crowing. Edward Abbott Parry (1863-1943 was an English Judge and Dramatist. The House of Lords is the second house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and is also commonly referred to as "the Lords" [31]
1822: Martin's Act
- Further information: Badger baiting, Bull baiting, and Cockfighting
| “ | If I had a donkey wot wouldn't go, D' ye think I'd wollop him? No, no, no! |
” |
In 1821, the Treatment of Horses bill was introduced by Colonel Richard Martin, MP for Galway in Ireland, but it was lost among laughter in the House of Commons that the next thing would be rights for asses, dogs, and cats. Colonel Richard "Humanity Dick" Martin ( 15 January 1754 &ndash 6 January 1834) was an Irish politician and Animal The UK Parliament constituency of County Galway was an historic Irish constituency comprised the whole of County Galway, except for the Borough of Galway. The House of Commons' is the Lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords [33]
Martin — nicknamed "Humanity Dick" by George IV — finally succeeded in 1822 with his Ill Treatment of Horses and Cattle Bill, or "Martin's Act", as it became known, the world's first major piece of animal protection legislation. It was given royal assent on June 22 that year as An Act to prevent the cruel and improper Treatment of Cattle, and made it an offence, punishable by fines up to five pounds or two months imprisonment, to "beat, abuse, or ill-treat any horse, mare, gelding, mule, ass, ox, cow, heifer, steer, sheep or other cattle. The granting of Royal Assent is the formal method by which a constitutional monarch completes the legislative process of Lawmaking by formally assenting to an The Cruel Treatment of Cattle Act 1822 (3 Geo IV c 71 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom with the Long title "An Act to prevent "[34] Any citizen was entitled to bring charges under the Act. [35]
Legge and Brooman argue that the success of the Bill lay in the personality of "Humanity Dick," who was able to shrug off the ridicule from the House of Commons, and whose own sense of humour managed to capture its attention. It was Martin himself who brought the first prosecution under the Act, when he had Bill Burns, a costermonger — a street seller of fruit — arrested for beating a donkey. A costermonger was a street seller of fruit and vegetables The term which derived from the words costard (a type of large ribbed apple and Monger Seeing in court that the magistrates seemed bored and didn't much care about the donkey, he sent for it, parading its injuries before a reportedly astonished court. Burns was fined, becoming the first person in the world known to have been convicted of animal cruelty. Newspapers and music halls were full of jokes about the "Trial of Bill Burns," as it became known, and how Martin had relied on the testimony of a donkey, giving Martin's Act some welcome publicity. [32][35] The trial became the subject of a painting (right), which hangs in the headquarters of the RSPCA in London. [36]
Other countries followed suit in passing legislation or making decisions that favoured animals. In 1882, the courts in New York ruled that wanton cruelty to animals was a misdemeanor at common law. A misdemeanor, or misdemeanour, in many common law legal systems is a "lesser" criminal act Common law refers to law and the corresponding legal system developed through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive [17] In France in 1850, Jacques Philippe Delmas de Grammont succeeded in having the Loi Grammont passed, outlawing cruelty against domestic animals, and leading to years of arguments about whether bulls could be classed as domestic in order to ban bullfighting. [37] The state of Washington followed in 1859, New York in 1866, California in 1868, Florida in 1889. [38] In England, a series of amendments extended the reach of the 1822 Act, which became the Cruelty to Animals Act 1835, outlawing cockfighting, baiting, and dog fighting, followed by another amendment in 1849, and again in 1876. The Cruelty to Animals Act 1835 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (citation 5 & 6 Will A cockfight is a Blood sport between two Roosters held in a ring called a cockpit Dog fighting is a Fight between game Dogs This Blood sport is utilized for Entertainment and may also create a revenue stream The Cruelty to Animals Act 1849 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (12 & 13 Vict The Cruelty to Animals Act 1876 was an Act passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom (39 & 40 Vict
1824: Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
| “ | At a meeting of the Society instituted for the purpose of preventing cruelty to animals, on the 16th day of June 1824, at Old Slaughter's Coffee House, St. Martin's Lane: T F Buxton Esqr, MP, in the Chair,
It was resolved: That a committee be appointed to superintend the Publication of Tracts, Sermons, and similar modes of influencing public opinion, to consist of the following Gentlemen: Sir Jas. Mackintosh MP, A Warre Esqr. St Martin's Lane is a street in Central London, which runs from the church of St Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton 1st Baronet ( 7 April 1786 &ndash 19 February 1845) was an English Member of Parliament, Sir James Mackintosh ( October 24, 1765 - May 30, 1832) was a Scottish jurist politician and historian MP, Wm. Wilberforce Esqr. William Wilberforce (24 August 1759 – 29 July 1833 was a British Politician, a Philanthropist MP, Basil Montagu Esqr. Basil Montagu (born 24 April, 1770 - died in 27 November, 1851) was a British Jurist, Barrister, writer and , Revd. A Broome, Revd. G Bonner, Revd G A Hatch, A E Kendal Esqr. , Lewis Gompertz Esqr. , Wm. Mudford Esqr. , Dr. Henderson. Resolved also: That a Committee be appointed to adopt measures for Inspecting the Markets and Streets of the Metropolis, the Slaughter Houses, the conduct of Coachmen, etc. - etc, consisting of the following Gentlemen: T F Buxton Esqr. MP, Richard Martin Esqr. Colonel Richard "Humanity Dick" Martin ( 15 January 1754 &ndash 6 January 1834) was an Irish politician and Animal , MP, Sir James Graham, L B Allen Esqr. Sir James Robert George Graham 2nd Baronet ( 1 June 1792 &ndash 25 October 1861) was a British Statesman. , C C Wilson Esqr. , Jno. Brogden Esqr. , Alderman Brydges, A E Kendal Esqr. , E Lodge Esqr. , J Martin Esqr. T G Meymott Esqr. A. Broome, |
” |
- Further information: Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
It soon became clear to Richard Martin that magistrates were not taking the Martin Act seriously, and that it was not being reliably enforced. This article is about the original RSPCA in England and Wales A number of MPs decided to form a society with a view to bringing prosecutions under the Act. A meeting was arranged in Old Slaughter's Coffee House in St. Martin's Lane — a London café frequented by artists and actors — by the Reverend Arthur Broome, a Balliol man originally from Devonshire, who had recently become the vicar of Bromley-by-Bow. St Martin's Lane is a street in Central London, which runs from the church of St Balliol College (ˈbeɪlɪəl founded in 1263 is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. Bromley-by-Bow, historically and officially Bromley, is a place in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. [32]
The men met on June 16, 1824, and included a number of MPs: Richard Martin, Sir James Mackintosh, Sir Thomas Buxton, William Wilberforce, and Sir James Graham, who had been an MP, and who became one again in 1826. Events 1487 - Battle of Stoke Field, the last dying breath of the Wars of the Roses. Year 1824 ( MDCCCXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Sir James Mackintosh ( October 24, 1765 - May 30, 1832) was a Scottish jurist politician and historian Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton 1st Baronet ( 7 April 1786 &ndash 19 February 1845) was an English Member of Parliament, William Wilberforce (24 August 1759 – 29 July 1833 was a British Politician, a Philanthropist Sir James Robert George Graham 2nd Baronet ( 1 June 1792 &ndash 25 October 1861) was a British Statesman. They decided to form a "Society instituted for the purpose of preventing cruelty to animals," or the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, as it became known. This article is about the original RSPCA in England and Wales It determined to send men to inspect the Smithfield Market in the City, where livestock had been sold since the 10th century, as well as slaughterhouses, and the practices of coachmen toward their horses. Smithfield (also known as West Smithfield) is an area in the north-west part of the City of London, mostly known for its centuries-old meat market and its bloody history For London as a whole see the main article London. The City of London is a geographically A slaughterhouse, also called an abattoir (from the French verb abattre, "to strike down" or freezing works ( New Zealand A coachman was a man whose business it was to drive a coach, a horse-drawn vehicle designed for the conveyance of more than one passenger — and of mail — and covered for [32]
The Society became the Royal Society in 1840, when it was granted a royal charter by Queen Victoria, herself strongly opposed to vivisection. A Royal Charter is a Charter granted by the Sovereign on the advice of the Privy council to legitimize an incorporated body such as a city company Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901 was from 20 June 1837 the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland [39][40]
An early example of direct action
Noel Molland writes that, in 1824, Catherine Smithies, an anti-slavery activist, set up an SPCA youth wing called the Bands of Mercy. It was a children's club modeled on the Temperance Society's Bands of Hope, which were intended to encourage children to campaign against drinking and gambling. See also Prohibition, Teetotalism The Temperance Movement attempted to reduce the amount of Alcohol consumed within a community or society in The Bands of Mercy were similarly meant to encourage a love of animals. [41]
Molland writes that some of its members responded with more enthusiasm than Smithies intended, and became known for engaging in direct action against hunters by sabotaging their rifles, although Kim Stallwood of the Animal Rights Network writes he has often heard these stories but has never been able to find solid evidence to support them. Direct action is political action which happens outside normal political channels via indirect actions such as electing representatives. [42]
Whether the story is true or apocryphal, the idea of the youth group was revived by Ronnie Lee in 1972, when he and Cliff Goodman set up the Band of Mercy as a militant, anti-hunting guerrilla group, which slashed hunters' vehicles' tires and smashed their windows. Ronnie Lee (born 1951 is a British Animal rights activist who in 1976 founded the Animal Liberation Front (ALF and the magazine In 1976, some of the same activists, sensing that the Band of Mercy name sounded too accommodating, founded the Animal Liberation Front. For other uses of the term 'ALF' see ALF (disambiguation. The Animal Liberation Front (ALF is a name used internationally by animal liberation activists [41]
1866: American SPCA
The first animal protection group in the United States was the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), founded by Henry Bergh in April 1866. American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ( ASPCA) is a Non-profit organization which as the name says is dedicated to preventing cruelty towards Henry Bergh ( August 29, 1811 - March 12, 1888) founded the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA in April Bergh had been appointed by President Abraham Lincoln to a diplomatic post in Russia, and had been disturbed by the treatment of animals there. Abraham Lincoln (February 12 1809 &ndash April 15 1865 the sixteenth President of the United States, successfully led his country through its greatest internal He consulted with the president of the RSPCA in London, the Earl of Harrowby, and returned to the U. Earl of Harrowby, in the County of Lincoln is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. S. to speak out against bullfights, cockfights, and the beating of horses. He created a "Declaration of the Rights of Animals," and in 1866, persuaded the New York state legislature to pass anti-cruelty legislation and to grant the ASPCA the authority to enforce it. The New York Legislature is the state legislature of the US state of New York. [43]
Other groups
The remainder of the century saw the creation of many animal protection groups. In 1875, the British feminist Frances Power Cobbe founded the Society for the Protection of Animals Liable to Vivisection, the world's first organization opposed to animal research, which became the National Anti-Vivisection Society. Frances Power Cobbe ( December 4, 1822 – April 5, 1904) was an Irish writer who is known today as a social reformer Feminist The National Anti-Vivisection Society is an anti- Vivisection group founded in 1875 and has campaigned for the abolition of experiments on animals for over 100 years In 1898, she set up the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection, with which she campaigned against the use of dogs in research, coming close to success with the 1919 Dogs (Protection) Bill, which almost became law. The British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection ( BUAV) is a British animal protection group based in London UK which campaigns for the complete abolition of all
1824: Development of the concept of animal rights
The period saw the first extended interest in the idea that non-humans might have natural rights, or ought to have legal ones. In 1824, Lewis Gompertz, one of the men who attended the first meeting of the SPCA in June that year, published Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes, in which he argued that every living creature, human and non-human, has more right to the use of its own body than anyone else has to use it, and that our duty to promote happiness applies equally to all beings. [45]
In 1879, Edward Nicholson argued in Rights of an Animal that animals have the same natural right to life and liberty that human beings do, arguing strongly against Descartes' mechanistic view, or what he called the "Neo-Cartesian snake," that they lack consciousness. [46][45] Other writers of the time who explored whether animals might have natural rights were John Lewis, Edward Evans, and J. Howard Moore. [47]
In 1894, Henry Salt, a former master at Eton who had set up the Humanitarian League to lobby for a ban on hunting the year before, created what Keith Tester of the University of Portsmouth has called an "epistemological break," in Animals' Rights: Considered in Relation to Social Progress. Henry Stephens Salt ( September 20, 1851 &ndash April 19, 1939) was an influential Democratic socialist English writer Eton College, or just Eton, is a world-famous British Independent school for boys founded in 1440 by King Henry VI. The University of Portsmouth is a British University in the historic south coast city of Portsmouth. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge [44]
Salt wrote that the object of his essay was to "set the principle of animals' rights on a consistent and intelligible footing, [and] to show that this principle underlies the various efforts of humanitarian reformers . . . ," using the definition of "right" proposed by the philosopher Herbert Spencer, namely: "Every man is free to do that which he wills, provided he infringes not the equal liberty of any other man . Herbert Spencer ( April 27, 1820 – December 8, 1903) was an English Philosopher; prominent classical liberal . . Whoever admits that each man must have a certain restricted freedom, asserts that it is right he should have this restricted freedom. . . . And hence the several particular freedoms deducible may fitly be called, as they commonly are called, his rights. "[48]
Concessions to the demands for jus animalium have been made grudgingly to date, he writes, with an eye on the interests of animals qua property, rather than as rights bearers:
| “ | Even the leading advocates of animal rights seem to have shrunk from basing their claim on the only argument which can ultimately be held to be a really sufficient one — the assertion that animals, as well as men, though, of course, to a far less extent than men, are possessed of a distinctive individuality, and, therefore, are in justice entitled to live their lives with a due measure of that "restricted freedom" to which Herbert Spencer alludes. [48] | ” |
He argued that there is no point in claiming rights for animals if we subordinate those rights to human desire, and took issue with the idea that the life of a human being might have more moral worth or purpose. "[The] notion of the life of an animal having 'no moral purpose,' belongs to a class of ideas which cannot possibly be accepted by the advanced humanitarian thought of the present day — it is a purely arbitrary assumption, at variance with our best instincts, at variance with our best science, and absolutely fatal (if the subject be clearly thought out) to any full realization of animals' rights. If we are ever going to do justice to the lower races, we must get rid of the antiquated notion of a "great gulf" fixed between them and mankind, and must recognize the common bond of humanity that unites all living beings in one universal brotherhood. "[48]
1839: Schopenhauer
The development in England of the concept of animal rights was strongly supported by the German philosopher, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860). He wrote that Europeans were "awakening more and more to a sense that beasts have rights, in proportion as the strange notion is being gradually overcome and outgrown, that the animal kingdom came into existence solely for the benefit and pleasure of man. "[50] He applauded the animal protection movement in England — "To the honor, then, of the English be it said that they are the first people who have, in downright earnest, extended the protecting arm of the law to animals. "[50] — and argued against the dominant Kantian idea that animal cruelty is wrong only insofar as it brutalizes human beings:
| “ | Thus only for practice are we to have sympathy for animals, and they are, so to speak, the pathological phantom for the purpose of practicing sympathy for human beings. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg In common with the whole of Asia not tainted by Islam (that is, Judaism), I regard such propositions as revolting and abominable . For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut . . [T]his philosophical morality . . . is only a theological one in disguise . Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective . . Thus, because Christian morality leaves animals out of account . Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings . . they are at once outlawed in philosophical morals; they are mere "things," mere means to any ends whatsoever. They can therefore be used for vivisection, hunting, coursing, bullfights, and horse racing, and can be whipped to death as they struggle along with heavy carts of stone. Shame on such a morality that is worthy of pariahs, chandalas, and mlechchhas, and that fails to recognize the eternal essence that exists in every living thing . "Chandal" redirects here For the town in Bangladesh see Chandal Bangladesh. Mleccha (from Vedic Sanskrit म्लेच्छ mleccha, meaning "non- Aryan, Barbarian " is a derogatory term for people who did . . [49] | ” |
Schopenhauer's views on animal rights stopped short of advocating vegetarianism, arguing that, so long as an animal's death was quick, men would suffer more by not eating meat than animals would suffer by being eaten. He wrote in The Basis of Morality: "It is asserted that beasts have no rights . . . that 'there are no duties to be fulfilled towards animals. ' Such a view is one of revolting coarseness, a barbarism of the West, whose source is Judaism. " A few passages later, he called the idea that animals exist for human benefit a "Jewish stence. "[51]
Late 1890s: Opposition to anthropomorphism
- Further information: Behaviorism and B. F. Skinner
Richard Ryder writes that, in his view, attitudes toward animals began to harden in the late 1890s, when scientists embraced the idea that what they saw as anthropomorphism — the attribution of human qualities to non-humans — was unscientific. Behaviorism or Behaviourism, also called the learning perspective (where any physical action is a behavior is a philosophy of Psychology based on the Burrhus Frederic Skinner ( March 20, 1904 &ndash August 18 1990) was an influential American Psychologist, author Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely Human characteristics to non-human creatures and beings natural and supernatural phenomena material states and objects Animals had to be approached as physiological entities only, as Ivan Pavlov wrote in 1927, "without any need to resort to fantastic speculations as to the existence of any possible subjective states. For other uses see Pavlov (disambiguation. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (Иван Петрович Павлов September 14, 1849 &ndash February "[52][53] This stance harkened back to the position of Descartes in the 17th century that non-humans were purely mechanical, like clocks, with no rationality and perhaps even with no consciousness.
Early 20th century: Tierschutzgesetz; industrialization of animal use
- Further information: Animal Welfare Act and Brown Dog Affair
1933: Tierschutzgesetz
- Further information: Animal protection in Nazi Germany, Animal rights and the Holocaust, Ecofascism, Nazi human experimentation, The Holocaust#Medical experiments, and Vegetarianism of Adolf Hitler
On coming to power in January 1933, the Nazis passed the most comprehensive set of animal protection laws in Europe. The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945 [54] Kathleen Kete of Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut writes that it was the first known attempt by a government to break the species barrier, the traditional binary of humans and animals. Trinity College is a private liberal arts college in Hartford Connecticut. Humans as a species lost their sacrosanct status, with Aryans at the top of the hierarchy, followed by wolves, eagles, and pigs, and Jews languishing with rats at the bottom. Aryan is an English word derived from the Sanskrit " Ārya " meaning "noble" or "honorable" Kete writes that it was the worst possible answer to the question of what our relationship with other species ought to be. [55]
On November 24, 1933, the Tierschutzgesetz, or animal protection law, was introduced, with Adolf Hitler announcing an end to animal cruelty: "Im neuen Reich darf es keine Tierquälerei mehr geben. Events 380 - Theodosius I makes his adventus, or formal Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately " ("In the new Reich, no more animal cruelty will be allowed. ") It was followed on July 3, 1934 by the Reichsjagdsgesetz, prohibiting hunting; on July 1, 1935, by the Naturschutzgesetz, a comprehensive piece of environmental legislation; on November 13, 1937, by a law regulating animal transport by car; and on September 8, 1938, by a similar one dealing with animals on trains. Events 324 - Battle of Adrianople Constantine I defeats Licinius, who flees to Byzantium. Year 1934 ( MCMXXXIV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full 1934 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Year 1935 ( MCMXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1002 - English king Ethelred orders the killing of all Danes in England, known today as the St Year 1937 ( MCMXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 70 - Roman forces under Titus sack Jerusalem. 1264 - The Statute of Kalisz Year 1938 ( MCMXXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [56] The least painful way to shoe a horse was prescribed, as was the correct way to cook a lobster to prevent them from being boiled alive. [55] Several senior Nazis, including Hitler, Rudolf Hess, Joseph Goebbels, and Heinrich Himmler, adopted some form of vegetarianism, though by most accounts not strictly, with Hitler allowing himself the occasional dish of meat. Rudolf Walter Richard Hess ( Heß in German) (26 April 1894 &ndash 17 August 1987 was a prominent figure in Nazi Germany, acting as Adolf Hitler Paul Joseph Goebbels (German pronunciation ˈɡœbəls English generally ˈɡɝbəlz (29 October 1897 1 May 1945 was a German politician and Reich Minister of Public Heinrich Luitpold Himmler ( 7 October 1900 – 23 May 1945 was a Nazi German politician and head of the Schutzstaffel (SS. Vegetarianism is the practice of a diet that excludes Meat (including game and slaughter by-products Fish (including Shellfish and other sea Himmler also mandated vegetarianism for senior SS officers. The ( German for "Protective Squadron" abbreviated SS - or ( Runic)- was a major Nazi organization under Adolf Hitler and the [57]
Shortly before the Tierschutzgesetz was introduced, vivisection was first banned, then restricted. Animal research was viewed as part of "Jewish science," and "internationalist" medicine, indicating a mechanistic mind that saw nature as something to be dominated, rather than respected. Hermann Göring first announced a ban on August 16, 1933, following Hitler's wishes, but Hitler's personal physician, Dr. Hermann Wilhelm Göring (also spelled Goering) (12 January 1893 15 October 1946 was a German Politician, Military leader and a leading member Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Morrel, reportedly persuaded him that this was not in the interests of German research,[58] and in particular defence research. The ban was therefore revised three weeks later, on September 5, 1933, when eight conditions were announced under which animal tests could be conducted, with a view to reducing pain and unnecessary experiments. Events 1590 - Alexander Farnese 's army forces Henry IV of France to raise the siege of Paris. Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [59] Primates, horses, dogs, and cats were given special protection, and licences to conduct vivisection were to be given to institutions, not to individuals. [60] The removal of the ban was justified with the announcement: "It is a law of every community that, when necessary, single individuals are sacrificed in the interests of the entire body. "[61]
Medical experiments were later conducted on Jews and Romani children in camps, particularly in Auschwitz by Dr. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The Romani people (singular Rom, plural Roma as a Noun; also known as Romanies or Roma people) are an ethnic group with origins "Auschwitz" redirects here For the town see Oświęcim Auschwitz-Birkenau () was the largest of Nazi Germany Josef Mengele, and on others regarded as inferior, including prisoners-of-war. Dr Josef Mengele ( March 16, 1911 – February 7, 1979) was a German SS officer and a Physician in the Because the human subjects were often in such poor health, researchers feared that the results of the experiments were unreliable, and so human experiments would be repeated on animals. Dr Hans Nachtheim, for example, induced epilepsy on human adults and children without their consent by injecting them with cardiazol, then repeated the experiments on rabbits to check the results. Epilepsy is a common chronic Neurological disorder that is characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. [62]
Significance of the German position
The Nazis' position was the first attempt by a government to reject the concept of speciesism, at that point still unnamed, but it produced the worst of all possible outcomes. Instead of elevating the status of non-humans, the Nazis traduced the status of human beings they regarded as enemies.
Kete writes that animal liberation, coming from the left, is seeking other answers, and that it is a mark of Peter Singer's importance that, in exploring the moral line drawn between humans and non-humans, he has raised what Kete calls the most central philosophical issue of our time. Peter Albert David Singer (born July 6, 1946 in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia) is an Australian philosopher. [63]
Post 1945: Increase in animal use
Despite the profileration of animal protection legislation, animals had no legal rights. Debbie Legge writes that existing legislation was very much tied to the idea of human interests, whether protecting human sensibilities by outlawing cruelty, or protecting property rights by making sure animals were not damaged. The over-exploitation of fishing stocks, for example, is viewed as harming the environment for people; the hunting of animals to extinction means that human beings in future will derive no enjoyment from them; poaching results in financial loss to the owner, and so on. Poaching is the illegal Hunting, Fishing or Harvesting of wild plants or animals [38]
Notwithstanding the interest in animal welfare of the previous century, the situation for animals arguably deteriorated in the 20th century, particularly after the Second World War. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including This was in part because of the increase in the numbers used in animal research — 300 in the UK in 1875, 19,084 in 1903, and 2. Animal testing or animal research is the use of non-human Animals in scientific experimentation. 8 million in 2005 (50–100 million worldwide)[64] — but mostly because of the industrialization of farming, which saw billions of animals raised and killed for food each year on a scale not possible before the war. Factory farming is the practice of raising Farm animals in confinement at high stocking density where a farm operates as a Factory &mdash a practice typical in [65]
Late 20th century: Emergence of an animal rights movement
- Further information: Animal liberation movement, Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986, Animal Welfare Act, and List of animal rights groups
1960s: Formation of the Oxford group and the first wave of writers
A small group of intellectuals, particularly at Oxford University — now known as the Oxford Group — began to view the increasing use of animals as unacceptable exploitation. For the concept see Animal rights. For other uses see Animal liberation (disambiguation. The Animals (Scientific Procedures Act 1986 (A(SPA 86 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (1986 c An Animal Welfare Act has been legislated in various countries including the US to protect the welfare of animals See also Animal rights movement Organizations Broadly-focused national and international groups Animal Aid (UK The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the [66] In 1964, Ruth Harrison published Animal Machines, a critique of factory farming, which proved influential. Psychologist Richard D. Ryder, who became a member of the Oxford Group, cites a 1965 Sunday Times article by novelist Brigid Brophy, called "The Rights of Animals," as having encouraged his own interest. Richard D Ryder (born 1940 is a British Psychologist who after performing psychology experiments on animals began to speak out against the practice and became He writes that it was the first time a major newspaper had devoted so much space to the issue. [52] Robert Garner of the University of Leicester writes that Harrison's and Brophy's articles led to an explosion of interest in the relationship between humans and non-humans, or what Garner calls the "new morality. "[67]
Brophy wrote:
| “ | The relationship of homo sapiens to the other animals is one of unremitting exploitation. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus We employ their work; we eat and wear them. We exploit them to serve our superstitions: whereas we used to sacrifice them to our gods and tear out their entrails in order to foresee the future, we now sacrifice them to science, and experiment on their entrail in the hope — or on the mere offchance — that we might thereby see a little more clearly into the present . . . To us it seems incredible that the Greek philosophers should have scanned so deeply into right and wrong and yet never noticed the immorality of slavery. Perhaps 3000 years from now it will seem equally incredible that we do not notice the immorality of our own oppression of animals. [68] | ” |
Ryder had been disturbed by incidents he had witnessed as a researcher in animal laboratories in the UK and U. S. , and in what he calls a "spontaneous eruption of thought and indignation," he wrote letters to the editor of The Daily Telegraph about the issue, which were published on April 7, May 3, and May 20, 1969.
Brophy read them, and put Ryder in touch with Oxford philosophers Stanley and Roslind Godlovitch, and John Harris, who were working on a book of moral philosophy about the treatment of animals. [52] Ryder subsequently became a contributor to their highly influential Animals, Men and Morals: An Inquiry into the Maltreatment of Non-humans (1971), as did Harrison and Brophy. [69] Rosalind Godlovitch's essay "Animal and Morals" was published in the same year.
1970: Coining the term "speciesism"
In 1970, Ryder coined the phrase "speciesism" in a privately printed pamphlet — having first thought of it in the bath — to describe the assignment of value to the interests of beings on the basis of their membership of a particular species. Speciesism involves assigning different values or rights to beings on the basis of their Species membership [70] Peter Singer used the term in Animal Liberation in 1975, and it stuck within the animal rights movement, becoming an entry in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1989. The Oxford English Dictionary ( OED) published by the Oxford University Press (OUP is a comprehensive Dictionary of the English [71]
1975: Publication of Animal Liberation
- Further information: Animal Liberation (book)
It was in a review of Animals, Men and Morals for the The New York Review of Books on April 5, 1973, that the Australian philosopher, Peter Singer, first put forward his arguments in favour of animal liberation, which have become pivotal within the movement. The New York Review of Books (or NYREV or NYRB) is a semimonthly Magazine on Literature, Culture, and current Events 456 - St Patrick returns to Ireland as a missionary bishop Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. Peter Albert David Singer (born July 6, 1946 in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia) is an Australian philosopher. [72] He based his arguments on the principle of utilitarianism, the view, broadly speaking, that an act is right insofar as it leads to the "greatest happiness of the greatest number," a phrase first used in 1776 by Jeremy Bentham in A Fragment on Government. Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall Utility, that is its contribution to happiness He drew an explicit comparison between the liberation of women and the liberation of animals,
In 1970, over lunch in Oxford with fellow student Richard Keshen, who was a vegetarian, Singer first came to believe that, by eating animals, he was engaging in the oppression of other species by his own. The feminist movement (also known as the Women's Movement or Women's Liberation) is a series of campaigns on issues such as Reproductive rights (sometimes Keshen introduced Singer to the Godlovitches, and Singer and Roslind Godlovitch spent hours together refining their views. Singer's review of the Godlovitches' book evolved into Animal Liberation, published in 1975, now widely regarded as the "bible" of the modern animal rights movement. Animal Liberation is a book by Australian philosopher Peter Singer, published in 1975 [73]
Although he regards himself as an animal rights advocate, Singer uses the term "right" as "shorthand for the kind of protection that we give to all members of our species. "[74] There is no rights theory in his work. He rejects the idea that humans or non-humans have natural or moral rights, and proposes instead the equal consideration of interests, arguing that there are no logical, moral, or biological grounds to suppose that a violation of the basic interests of a human being — for example, the interest in not suffering — is different in any morally significant way from a violation of the basic interests of a non-human. " Equal consideration of interests " is the name of a moral principle that states that one should both include all affected interests when calculating the rightness of an action Singer's position is that of the English philosopher Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900), who wrote: "The good of any one individual is of no more importance, from the point of view . Henry Sidgwick ( May 31, 1838 – August 28, 1900) was an English Utilitarian Philosopher. . . of the Universe, than the good of any other. "[75]
The publication of Animal Liberation — in 1975 in the U. S. and 1976 in the UK — triggered a groundswell of scholarly interest in animal rights. Tom Regan wrote in 2001 that philosophers had written more about animal rights in the previous 20 years than in the 2,000 years before that. Tom Regan (born November 28, 1938 in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania) is an American Philosopher who specializes in Animal rights theory [76] Robert Garner writes that Charles Magel's extensive bibliography of the literature, Keyguide to Information Sources in Animal Rights (1989), contains 10 pages of philosophical material on animals up to 1970, but 13 pages between 1970 and 1989. [77]
1976: Founding of the Animal Liberation Front
In parallel with the Oxford Group, grassroots activists were also developing ideas about animal rights. A British law student, Ronnie Lee, formed an anti-hunting activist group in Luton in 1971, later calling it the Band of Mercy after a 19th-century RSPCA youth group. Ronnie Lee (born 1951 is a British Animal rights activist who in 1976 founded the Animal Liberation Front (ALF and the magazine The Band attacked hunters' vehicles by slashing tires and breaking windows, calling their brand of activism "active compassion. " In November 1973, they engaged in their first act of arson when they set fire to a Hoechst Pharamaceuticals research laboratory near Milton Keynes. Milton Keynes ( ˌmɪltənˈkiːnz often abbreviated to MK, is a large town The Band claimed responsibility, identifying itself to the press as a "nonviolent guerilla organization dedicated to the liberation of animals from all forms of cruelty and persecution at the hands of mankind. "[78]
| “ | The people who run this country, they have shares, they have investments in pharmaceutical companies . . . who are experimenting on animals, so to think that you can write to these people, and say "we don't like what you're doing, we want you to change," and expect them to do so, it's not going to happen. — Keith Mann, ALF. Keith Mann is a British Animal rights campaigner and writer alleged by police to be "at the top of the Animal Liberation Front pyramid [79] | ” |
In August 1974, Lee and another activist were sentenced to three years in prison. They were paroled after 12 months, with Lee emerging more militant than ever. In 1976, he brought together the remaining Band of Mercy activists, with some fresh faces, 30 activists in all, in order to start a new movement. He called it the Animal Liberation Front (ALF), a name he hoped would come to "haunt" those who used animals. For other uses of the term 'ALF' see ALF (disambiguation. The Animal Liberation Front (ALF is a name used internationally by animal liberation activists [80][78]
The ALF is now active in 38 countries, operating as a leaderless resistance, with covert cells acting on a need to know basis, often learning of each other's existence only when acts of "liberation" are claimed. Leaderless resistance (or phantom cell structure is a political resistance Strategy in which small independent groups ( Covert cells challenge The term "need to know", when used by Government and other organizations (particularly those related to the Military or Espionage) describes Activists see themselves as a modern Underground Railroad, the network that helped slaves escape from the U. The Underground Railroad was an informal network of secret routes and Safe houses used by 19th century Black slaves in the United States S. to Canada, passing animals from ALF cells, who have removed them from farms and laboratories, to sympathetic veterinarians to safe houses and finally to sanctuaries. Controversially, some activists also engage in sabotage and arson, as well as threats and intimidation, acts that have lost the movement a great deal of sympathy in mainstream public opinion.
| “ | My secretary called me to say that I had to contact . . . the Metropolitan police . . . to receive a fax of a press release that I was going to be murdered if an animal rights activist (Barry Horne on hunger strike) died. For the Welsh footballer see Barry Horne (footballer Barry Horne ( March 17, 1952 &ndash November 5, 2001 A hunger strike is a method of Non-violent resistance or pressure in which participants fast as an act of political Protest, or to provoke feelings of . . . It's very difficult for [the children] to understand that Daddy goes to work every morning, and, you know, whether he's going to come back. — Clive Page, professor of pulmonary pharmacology, King’s College, London. lung is the essential Respiration organ in air-breathing Animals including most Tetrapods a few Fish and a few Snails The most primitive Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs King's College London is a British Higher education institution and co-founding constituent college of the federal University of London. [81] | ” |
The decentralized model of activism is intensely frustrating for law enforcement organizations, who find the cells and networks difficult to infiltrate, because they tend to be organized around known friends. [82] In 2005, the U. S. Department of Homeland Security indicated how seriously it takes the ALF when it included them in a list of domestic terrorist threats. Eco-terrorism, also called ecoterrorism or green terrorism, is Terrorism committed in support of ecological, environmental, or [83]
The tactics of some of the more determined ALF activists are anathema to many animal rights advocates, such as Singer, who regard the animal rights movement as something that should occupy the moral high ground, an impossible claim to sustain when others are bombing buildings and risking lives in the name of the same idea. Anathema (in Greek Ανάθεμα meaning originally something lifted up as an offering to the gods later with evolving meanings it came to mean to be formally
ALF activists respond to the criticism with the argument that, as Ingrid Newkirk of PETA puts it, "Thinkers may prepare revolutions, but bandits must carry them out. Ingrid Newkirk (born June 11, 1949) is an English-born Animal rights activist author and president and co-founder of People for the Ethical Treatment "[84]
Main philosophical approaches
Overview
- Further information: Consequentialism, Deontological ethics, and Teleological ethics
There are two main philosophical approaches to the issue of animal rights: a utilitarian approach and a rights-based one. Consequentialism refers to those moral theories which hold that the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral judgment about that action Deontological ethics or deontology (from Greek grc δέον deon, "obligation duty" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Teleological ethics (Greek telos “end” logos “science” is a theory of Morality that derives duty or moral obligation from what is good or desirable as an The former is exemplifed by Peter Singer, professor of bioethics at Princeton, and the latter by Tom Regan, professor emeritus of philosophy at North Carolina State University. Peter Albert David Singer (born July 6, 1946 in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia) is an Australian philosopher. Princeton University is a private Coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. Tom Regan (born November 28, 1938 in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania) is an American Philosopher who specializes in Animal rights theory North Carolina State University at Raleigh is a public, Coeducational extensive Research University located in Raleigh North Carolina
Their differences reflect a distinction philosophers draw between ethical theories that judge the rightness of an act by its consequences (called consequentialism, teleological ethics, or utilitarianism, which is Singer's position), and those who judge acts to be right or wrong in themselves, almost regardless of consequences (called deontological ethics, of which Regan is an adherent). Consequentialism refers to those moral theories which hold that the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral judgment about that action Teleological ethics (Greek telos “end” logos “science” is a theory of Morality that derives duty or moral obligation from what is good or desirable as an Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall Utility, that is its contribution to happiness Deontological ethics or deontology (from Greek grc δέον deon, "obligation duty" and grc -λογία -logia) is an A consequentialist might argue, for example, that lying is wrong if the lie will make someone unhappy. A deontologist would argue that lying is wrong in principle.
Within the animal rights debate, Singer does not believe there are such things as natural rights and that animals have them, although he uses the language of rights as shorthand for how we ought to treat individuals. Instead, he believes that, when we weigh the consequences of an act in order to judge whether it is right or wrong, the interests of animals, primarily their interest in avoiding suffering, ought to be given equal consideration to the similar interests of human beings. That is, where the suffering of one individual, human or non-human, is equivalent to that of any other, there is no moral reason to award more weight to either one of them.
Regan's philosophy, on the other hand, is not driven by the weighing of consequences. He believes that animals are what he calls "subjects-of-a-life," who have moral rights for that reason, and that moral rights ought not to be ignored.
Utilitarian approach: Peter Singer
- Further information: Act utilitarianism, Animal language, Animal Liberation (book), and Preference utilitarianism
Equal consideration of interests
Singer is an act utilitarian, or more specifically a preference utilitarian, meaning that he judges the rightness of an act by its consequences, and specifically by the extent to which it satisfies the preferences of those affected, maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain. Act utilitarianism is a Utilitarian theory of Ethics which states that the morally right action is the one which produces the greatest amount of happiness for the Animal language is the modeling of human language in non human animal systems Animal Liberation is a book by Australian philosopher Peter Singer, published in 1975 Preference utilitarianism is quite probably the most popular form of Utilitarianism in contemporary philosophy Act utilitarianism is a Utilitarian theory of Ethics which states that the morally right action is the one which produces the greatest amount of happiness for the Preference utilitarianism is quite probably the most popular form of Utilitarianism in contemporary philosophy (There are other forms of utilitarianism, such as rule utilitarianism, which judges the rightness of an act according to the usual consequences of whichever moral rule the act is an instance of. Rule utilitarianism is a form of Utilitarianism which states that moral actions are those which conform to the rules which lead to the greatest good or that "the rightness )
Singer's position is that there are no moral grounds for failing to give equal consideration to the interests of human and non-humans. His principle of equality does not require equal or identical treatment, but equal consideration of interests. " Equal consideration of interests " is the name of a moral principle that states that one should both include all affected interests when calculating the rightness of an action A mouse and a man both have an interest in not being kicked down the street, because both would suffer if so kicked, and there are no moral or logical grounds, Singer argues, for failing to accord their interests in not being kicked equal weight. [85] Singer quotes the English philosopher Henry Sidgwick: "The good of any one individual is of no more importance, from the point of view . Henry Sidgwick ( May 31, 1838 – August 28, 1900) was an English Utilitarian Philosopher. . . of the Universe, than the good of any other. "[75] This reflects Jeremy Bentham's position: "[E]ach to count for one, and none for more than one. "
Unlike the position of a man or a mouse, a stone would not suffer if kicked down the street, and therefore has no interest in avoiding it. Interests, Singer argues, are predicated on the ability to suffer, and nothing more, and once it is established that a being has interests, those interests must be given equal consideration. The issue of the extent to which animals can suffer is therefore key.
Animal suffering
Singer writes that commentators on all sides of the debate now accept that animals suffer and feel pain, although it was not always so. Bernard Rollin, a philosopher and professor of animal sciences, writes that Descartes' influence continued to be felt until the 1980s. Bernard E Rollin is a philosopher widely recognized for his approach to Animal rights, as well as his influence in politics Veterinarians trained in the U. S. before 1989 were taught to ignore pain, he writes, and at least one major veterinary hospital in the 1960s did not stock narcotic analgesics for animal pain control. In his interactions with scientists, he was often asked to "prove" that animals are conscious, and to provide "scientifically acceptable" evidence that they could feel pain. [86]
Singer writes that scientific publications have made it clear over the last two decades that the majority of researchers do believe animals suffer and feel pain, though it continues to be argued that their suffering may be reduced by an inability to experience the same dread of anticipation as human beings, or to remember the suffering as vividly. [87]
The problem of animal suffering, and animal consciousness in general, arises primarily because animals have no language, leading scientists to argue that it is impossible to know when an animal is suffering. Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them This situation may change as increasing numbers of chimps are taught sign language, although skeptics question whether their use of it portrays real understanding. A sign language (also signed language) is a Language which instead of acoustically conveyed Sound patterns uses visually transmitted sign patterns Singer writes that, following the argument that language is needed to communicate pain, it would often be impossible to know when human beings are in pain. All we can do is observe pain behavior, he writes, and make a calculated guess based on it. As Ludwig Wittgenstein argued, if someone is screaming, clutching a part of their body, moaning quietly, or apparently unable to function, especially when followed by an event that we believe would cause pain in ourselves, that is in large measure what it means to be in pain. [88] Singer argues that there is no reason to suppose animal pain behavior would have a different meaning.
Equality a prescription, not a fact
| “ | They talk about this thing in the head; what do they call it? ["Intellect," whispered someone nearby. ] That's it. What's that got to do with women's rights or Negroes' rights? If my cup won't hold but a pint and yours holds a quart, wouldn't you be mean not to let me have my little half-measure full? — Sojourner Truth[89] | ” |
Singer argues that equality between human beings is not based on anything factual, but is simply a prescription. Sojourner Truth (1797– November 26, 1883) was the self-given name from 1843 of Isabella Baumfree, an American abolitionist and Women's Human beings do, in fact, differ in many ways. If the equality of the sexes were based on the idea, for example, that men and women are in principle capable of being equally intelligent, but this was later found to be false, it would mean we would have to abandon the practice of equal consideration. But in fact, equality of consideration is based on a prescription, not a description. It is, Singer writes, a moral idea, not an assertion of fact. [90]
He quotes President Thomas Jefferson, the principal author in 1776 of the American Declaration of Independence: "Because Sir Isaac Newton was superior to others in understanding, he was not therefore lord of the property or persons of others. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then "[91]
Rights-based approach: Tom Regan
Tom Regan argues in The Case for Animal Rights and Empty Cages that non-human animals are what he calls "subjects-of-a-life," and such are bearers of rights. Tom Regan (born November 28, 1938 in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania) is an American Philosopher who specializes in Animal rights theory He argues that, because the moral rights of humans are based on their possession of certain cognitive abilities, and because these abilities are also possessed by at least some non-human animals, such animals must have the same moral rights as humans. Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought Although only humans act as moral agents, both marginal case humans (such as infants) and at least some non-humans must have the status of "moral patients. " A moral patient lacks the prerequisites that would enable them to decide what is right and wrong. They are unable to formulate moral principles, and as such are unable to do right or wrong, even though what they do may be beneficial or harmful. Ony moral agents are able to engage in moral action.
Animals for Regan have "inherent value" as subjects-of-a-life, and cannot be regarded as a means to an end. This is also called the "direct duty" view. His theory does not extend to all sentient animals but only to those that can be regarded as subjects-of-a-life. He argues that all normal mammals of at least one year of age would qualify in this regard.
While Singer is primarily concerned with improving the treatment of animals and accepts that, at least in some hypothetical scenarios, animals could be legitimately used for further (human or non-human) ends, Regan believes we ought to treat animals as we would persons, and he applies the strict Kantian ideal (which Kant himself applied only to human beings) that they ought never to be sacrificed as mere means to ends, and must be treated as ends in themselves. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg
Criticism
Carl Cohen
![Philosopher Carl Cohen argues that "[o]nly in a community of beings capable of self-restricting moral judgments can the concept of a right be correctly invoked."](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Prof._Dr._Carl_Cohen_(cropped).jpg/150px-Prof._Dr._Carl_Cohen_(cropped).jpg)
Critics such as Carl Cohen, professor of philosophy at the University of Michigan and the University of Michigan Medical School, oppose the granting of personhood to animals, arguing that rights holders must be able to distinguish between their own interests and what is right. Carl Cohen is Professor of Philosophy at the Residential College of the University of Michigan, in Ann Arbor Michigan, USA "The holders of rights must have the capacity to comprehend rules of duty governing all, including themselves. In applying such rules, [they] . . . must recognize possible conflicts between what is in their own interest and what is just. Only in a community of beings capable of self-restricting moral judgments can the concept of a right be correctly invoked. "[92]
Cohen rejects Singer's argument that, since a brain-damaged human being could not make moral judgments, moral judgments cannot be used as the distinguishing characteristic for determining who is awarded rights. Cohen writes that the test for moral judgment "is not a test to be administered to humans one by one,"[92] but should be applied to the capacity of members of the species in general.
Posner–Singer debate
A debate between Singer and Judge Richard Posner of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit is listed online. Richard Allen Posner (born January 11 1939 in New York City) is currently a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in Chicago The United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit is a federal court with Appellate jurisdiction over the courts in the following districts [93] In it, Posner first argues that, instead of starting his argument with the idea that consideration of pain for all animals is equal, his moral intuition tells him that humans prefer their own. Ethical intuitionism (also called moral intuitionism) is usually understood as a meta-ethical theory that embraces the following theses Moral If a dog threatened a human infant, and if it required causing more pain to the dog to get it to stop than the dog would have caused to the infant, then we, as human beings, favor the child. It would be "monstrous to spare the dog," Posner argues.
Singer challenges Posner's moral intuition by arguing that formerly unequal rights for gays, women, and those of different races were justified using the same set of intuitions. In the English language, gay is an Adjective that in modern usage refers to Homosexuality. Posner replies that equality in civil rights did not occur because of ethical arguments, but because facts mounted that there were no morally significant differences between humans based on race, sex, or sexual orientation that would support inequality. thumb| |Broken Liberty Istanbul Archaeology Museum Civil liberties are freedoms that protect the Individual from the Government. If and when similar facts are determined about the differences, or lack thereof, between humans and animals, the differences in rights will erode. But facts will drive equality, not ethical arguments that run contrary to instinct, he argues. Posner calls his approach "soft utilitarian," in contrast to Singer's "hard utilitarian. " He argues:
| “ | The "soft" utilitarian position on animal rights is a moral intuition of many, probably most, Americans. We realize that animals feel pain, and we think that to inflict pain without a reason is bad. Nothing of practical value is added by dressing up this intuition in the language of philosophy; much is lost when the intuition is made a stage in a logical argument. When kindness toward animals is levered into a duty of weighting the pains of animals and of people equally, bizarre vistas of social engineering are opened up. [93] | ” |
Roger Scruton
| “ | Considerate la vostra semenza: Fatti non foste a viver come bruti, |
” |
The British philosopher Roger Scruton argues that rights imply obligations. Roger Vernon Scruton (born 27 February 1944) is an English Conservative Philosopher. Every legal privilege, he writes, imposes a burden on the one who does not possess that privilege: that is, "your right may be my duty. " Scruton therefore regards the emergence of the animal rights movement as "the strangest cultural shift within the liberal worldview," because the idea of rights and responsibilities are, he argues, distinctive to the human condition, and it makes no sense to spread them beyond our own species. [8]
He accuses animal rights advocates of "pre-scientific," anthropomorphism, attributing traits to animals that are, he says, Beatrix Potter-like, where "only man is vile. Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely Human characteristics to non-human creatures and beings natural and supernatural phenomena material states and objects " It is in this fiction that the appeal of animal rights lies. The world of animals is non-judgmental, filled with dogs who return our affection almost no matter what we do to them, and cats who pretend to be affectionate when in fact they care only about themselves. It is, he argues, a fantasy, a world of escape. [8]
See also
- Animal chaplains
- Animal intelligence
- Animal welfare in Nazi Germany
- Anti-hunting
- Brown dog affair
- Deep ecology
- Veganism
- Vivisection
Notes
- ^ "Animal Rights. Animal chaplains provide a wide array of services to the Community, including Pet loss grief support animal Memorial services Praying for Animal cognition is the title given to a modern approach to the mental capacities of (non-human Animals. There was widespread support for animal welfare in Nazi Germany and the Nazis took several measures to ensure protection of animals Anti-hunting is a term which is (often informally used to identify or describe persons or groups generally in a Political context who stand in opposition to Hunting The Brown Dog affair was a political controversy about Vivisection that raged in Edwardian England from 1903 until 1910 Deep ecology is a recent branch of ecological Philosophy ( Ecosophy) that considers Humankind an integral part of its environment. " Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007.
- ^ a b "'Personhood' Redefined: Animal Rights Strategy Gets at the Essence of Being Human", Association of American Medical Colleges, retrieved July 12, 2006.
- ^ Taylor, Angus. Animals and Ethics: An Overview of the Philosophical Debate, Broadview Press, May 2003.
- ^ Dershowitz, Alan. Rights from Wrongs: A Secular Theory of the Origins of Rights, 2004, pp. 198–99, and "Darwin, Meet Dershowitz," The Animals' Advocate, Winter 2002, volume 21.
- ^ "Animal Rights: The Modern Animal Rights Movement". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. 2007.
- ^ "Animal law courses", Animal Legal Defense Fund. The Animal Legal Defense Fund ( ALDF) is an American Non-profit law organization that aims to protect the rights and advance the interests of animals
- ^ Garner, Robert. Animals, politics and morality. Manchester University Press, 2004, p. 4 ff.
- ^ a b c d e f Scruton, Roger. "Animal Rights", City Journal, summer 2000.
- ^ Frey, R. G. Interests and Rights: The Case against Animals. Clarendon Press, 1980 ISBN 0-19-824421-5
- ^ a b Francione, Gary. Animals, Property, and the Law. Temple University Press, 1995, pp. 36-7.
- ^ a b c Midgley, Mary. "Descartes Prisoners", The New Statesman, May 24, 1999.
- ^ Malebranche, Nicholas. in Rodis-Lewis, G. (ed. ). Oeuvres complètes. Paris: J. Vrin. 1958-70, II, p. 394, cited in Harrison, Peter. "Descartes on Animals," The Philosophical Quarterly, Vol. 42, No. 167, April 1992, pp. 219-227; also see Carter, Alan. "Animals, Pain and Morality," Journal of Applied Philosophy, Volume 22, No. 1, March 2005, pp. 17–22.
- ^ Descartes, René. Meditations on First Philosophy. Meditations on First Philosophy (subtitled In which the existence of God and the immortality of the soul are demonstrated) is a philosophical treatise written First published 1641, cited in Cottingham, John. "Descartes, René" in Honderich, Ted. (ed. ) The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 188-192.
- ^ "Bêtes, Dictionnaire Philosophique.
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- ^ The Statutes at Large. Dublin, 1786, chapter 15, pp. 168-9, cited in Ryder, Richard. Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes Towards Speciesism. Berg, 2000, p. 49.
- ^ a b Francione, Gary. Rain Without Thunder: The Ideology of the Animal Rights Movement. Temple University Press, 1996, p. 7.
- ^ Ward, Nathaniel. The Earliest New England Code of Laws, 1641. A. Lovell & Company, 1896.
- ^ Nash, Roderick. The Rights of Nature: A History of Environmental Ethics. University of Wisconsin Press, 1989, p. 19.
- ^ Kete, Kathleen. "Animals and Ideology: The Politics of Animal Protection in Europe," in Rothfels, Nigel. Representing Animals. Indiana University Press, 2002, p. 19 ff.
- ^ Locke, John. Some Thoughts Concerning Education, 1693, Ruth Weissbourd Grant and Nathan Tarcov (eds. ). Hackett Publishing, 1996, p. 91.
- ^ Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Discourse on Inequality, 1754, preface.
- ^ Kant, Immanuel. Lecture on Ethics. L. Infield (trans. ) HarperTorchbooks 1963, p. 239. Also see Ze'ev Levy, Ze'ev. "Ethical issues of animal welfare in Jewish thought", Judaism, winter 1996.
- ^ Kant, Immanuel. Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, part II (The Metaphysical Principles of the Doctrine of Virtue), paras 16 and 17. The Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals or Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten 1785) Immanuel
- ^ Bentham, Jeremy. Principles of Penal Law. Part III, 1781.
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- ^ Giese, Klemens and Kahler, Waldemar. Das Deutsche Tierschutzrecht: Bestimmungen zum Schutz der Tiere. Berlin: Duncker and Humbolt, 1939, pp. 190-220, and 261-272, cited in Sax, Boria. Animals in the Third Reich: Pets, Scapegoats, and the Holocaust, p. 114.
- ^ Proctor, Robert N. The Nazi War on Cancer. Princeton University Press, 1999, pp. 135-137, for Hitler; Sax, Boria. Animals in the Third Reich: Pets, Scapegoats, and the Holocaust. Klaus P. Fischer, 2000, p. 35, citing Arluke, Arnold and Sax, Boria. "Understanding Animal Protection and the Holocaust" in Anthrozoös, vol. V, no. 1 (1992), pp. 17-28 for Hess and Goebbels; and Sax 2000 citing Hermand, Jost. Grune Utopien in Deutschland: Zur Geschichte des Okologischen Bewusstseins, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1991, p. 114 for Himmler.
- ^ Sax, Boria. Animals in the Third Reich: Pets, Scapegoats, and the Holocaust, p. 112.
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- ^ See Walker, Stephen. Animal Thoughts. Routledge 1983; Griffin, Donald. Animal Thinking. Harvard University Press, 1984; Stamp Dawkins, Marian. Animal Suffering: The Science of Animal Welfare. Chapman and Hall, 1980, cited in Singer, Peter. Animal Liberation. Second edition, New York Review/Routledge, 1990, p. 270, footnote 11.
- ^ Wittgenstein, Ludwig. Philosophical Investigations. Philosophical Investigations ( Philosophische Untersuchungen) is along with the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, one of the two major works First published 1953; latest edition Blackwell 2001.
- ^ Tanner, Leslie. (ed. ) Voices from Women's Liberation, Signet, 1970, cited in Singer, Peter. Animal Liberation. Second edition, New York Review/Routledge, 1990, p. 6.
- ^ Singer, Peter. Animal Liberation. Second edition, New York Review/Routledge, 1990, p. 4.
- ^ Jefferson, Thomas. "Letter to Henry Gregoire, February 25, 1809, cited in Singer, Peter. Animal Liberation. Second edition, New York Review/Routledge, 1990, p. 6.
- ^ a b c Cohen, Carl. "The Case for the Use of Animals in Biomedical Research"], New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 315, issue 14, October 1986, pp. 865-870.
- ^ a b c Posner-Singer debate at Slate
Further reading
- Books
- Adams, Carol J. The Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical Theory. New York: Continuum, 1996.
- ____________. The Pornography of Meat. New York: Continuum, 2004.
- ____________. & Donovan, Josephine. (eds). Animals and Women: Feminist Theoretical Explorations. London: Duke University Press, 1995.
- ____________. The Social Construction of Edible Bodies and Humans as Predators
- Adams, Douglas. Douglas Noël Adams (11 March 1952 &ndash 11 May 2001 was an English author comic Radio dramatist Meeting a Gorilla.
- Anstötz, Christopher. Profoundly Intellectually Disabled Humans
- Auxter, Thomas. The Right Not to Be Eaten
- Barnes, Donald J. A Matter of Change
- Barry, Brian. Why Not Noah's Ark?
- Bekoff, Marc. Common Sense, Cognitive Ethology and Evolution.
- Best, Steven. Steven Best (born December 1955 is an American Animal rights activist author talk-show host and associate professor of philosophy at the University of Texas at El Paso Terrorists or Freedom Fighters? Reflections on the Liberation of Animals, Lantern Books, 2004. ISBN 159056054x
- Cantor, David. Items of Property.
- Cate, Dexter L. The Island of the Dragon
- Cavalieri, Paola. The Great Ape Project — and Beyond
- Clark, Stephen R.L. The Moral Status of Animals. Stephen Richard Lyster Clark (born October 30, 1945) is a British philosopher and international authority on Animal rights, currently professor Clarendon Press 1977; pbk 1984. ISBN 978-0192830401
- _______________. The Nature of the Beast. Oxford University Press 1982; pbk 1984.
- _______________. Animals and their Moral Standing. Routledge 1997.
- _______________. The Political Animal. (Routledge 1999)
- _______________. Biology and Christian Ethics. Cambridge University Press 2000. ISBN 978-0521567688
- Clark, Ward M. Misplaced Compassion: The Animal Rights Movement Exposed, Writer's Club Press, 2001.
- Dawkins, Richard. Clinton Richard Dawkins, FRS, FRSL (born 26 March 1941 is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist, and Popular science Gaps in the mind.
- Dunayer, Joan. "Animal Equality, Language and Liberation" 2001.
- Francione, Gary. Gary Lawrence Francione (born 1954 is an American legal scholar Introduction to Animal Rights, Your child or the dog?, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000.
- _______________. Rain Without Thunder: The Ideology of the Animal Rights Movement (2005).
- Favre, David S. Animal Law: Welfare, Interests, and Rights, Aspen Law, Stu. Stg. edition, 2008
- Franklin, Julian H. Animal Rights and Moral Philosophy, University of Columbia Press, 2005.
- Hall, Lee. Lee Hall (born in or about 1961 Chicago) is a US lawyer whose published work includes a number of articles on migration anti-terrorism legislation and detentions Capers in the Churchyard: Animal Rights Advocacy in the Age of Terror, Nectar Bat Press, 2006
- Kean, Hilda. Animal Rights: Political and Social Change in Britain since 1800, London: Reaktion Books, 1998
- Mann, Keith, (2007) From Dusk 'til Dawn: An Insider's View of the Growth of the Animal Liberation Movement, Puppy Pincher Press, ISBN 978-0-9555850-0-5
- Nibert, David. Keith Mann is a British Animal rights campaigner and writer alleged by police to be "at the top of the Animal Liberation Front pyramid Animal Rights, Human Rights: Entanglements of Oppression and Liberation, New York: Rowman and Litterfield, 2002
- Patterson, Charles. Eternal Treblinka: Our Treatment of Animals and the Holocaust. New York: Lantern, 2002. ISBN 1-930051-99-9
- Rowlands, Mark. Animal Rights. A Defense. New York, London: Macmillan, 1998
- Ryder, Richard. D. Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes towards Speciesism, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989
- Scarce, Rik. Richard D Ryder (born 1940 is a British Psychologist who after performing psychology experiments on animals began to speak out against the practice and became Eco-Warriors (2006) (ISBN 1-59874-028-8)
- Scruton, Roger. Roger Vernon Scruton (born 27 February 1944) is an English Conservative Philosopher. Animal Rights and Wrongs Claridge Press, 2000
- Singer, Peter, "Animal Liberation", New York: HarperCollins, 1975 ISBN 0-06-001157-2 (paperback)
- Spiegal, Marjorie. Peter Albert David Singer (born July 6, 1946 in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia) is an Australian philosopher. The Dreaded Comparison: Human and Animal Slavery, New York: Mirror Books, 1996.
- Steeves, H. Peter (ed. ) Animal Others: On Ethics, Ontology, and Animal Life. New York: SUNY Press, 1999.
- Sztybel, David. David Sztybel (born February 2 1967 in Toronto, Ontario) is a Canadian ethicist specializing in animal ethics "Can the Treatment of Animals Be Compared to the Holocaust?" Ethics and the Environment 11 (Spring 2006): 97-132.
- Sztybel, David. David Sztybel (born February 2 1967 in Toronto, Ontario) is a Canadian ethicist specializing in animal ethics "The Rights of Animal Persons." Animal Liberation Philosophy and Policy Journal 4 (1) (2006): 1-37.
- Weil, Zoe. The Power and Promise of Humane Education. British Columbia: New Society Publishers, 2004.
- Wolfe, Cary. Animal Rites: American Culture, the Discourse of Species, and Posthumanist Theory, Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 2003.
- Wolch, Jennifer, & Emel, Jody. Animal Geographies: Place, Politics, and Identity in the Nature-Culture Borderlands. New York: Verso, 1998.
- Animal rights in philosophy and law
- The Moral Status of Animals entry at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Lori Gruen
- The Tom Regan Animal Rights Archive
- Utilitarian Philosophers: Peter Singer. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP is a freely-accessible Online encyclopedia of Philosophy maintained by Stanford University.
- Which animals feel pain?
- Gaps in the Mind Dawkins, Richard
- Radio Discussion of Animal Rights with Activist and Philosopher Lori Gruen
- Video of Tom Regan's lecture "Animal Rights: An Introduction." at the Interdisciplinary Lectures on Animal Rights at the Ruprecht-Karls-University Heidelberg on the 24th of May 2006
- The National Association for Biomedical Research Animal Law Section
- Animal Law Project. Clinton Richard Dawkins, FRS, FRSL (born 26 March 1941 is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist, and Popular science
- Animal Law Review
- Animal Legal Defense Fund (ALDF).
- The Center on Animal Liberation Affairs (CALA)
- Brent A. Singer: An Extension of Rawls' Theory of Justice to Environmental Ethics. Environmental Ethics 10, 1988, p. 217-231
- Donald VanDeVeer: Of Beasts, Persons, and the Original Position. The Monist 62, 1979, p. 368-377
- Animal rights resources
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