In biomechanics, animal locomotion is the study of how animals move. Biomechanics is the application of mechanical principles on living organisms In Physics, motion means a constant change in the location of a body Not all animals move, but locomotive ability is widespread throughout the animal kingdom. As all animals are heterotrophs, they must obtain food from their environment. A heterotrophs, or chemoorganotrophy ( Greek heterone = (another and trophe = nutrition is an Organism that requires Some animals such as sponges are sessile, and move the fluid in which they live through their body (this is known as filter feeding). The sponges or poriferans (from Latin porus "pore" and ferre "to bear" are Animals Sessile is a term in Biology with two distinct meanings In botany and medicine In Botany, sessile means "without a stalk Filter feeders (also known as suspension feeders) are Animals that feed by straining suspended matter and food particles from water typically by passing the water However, most animals must move around to find food, a mate, and so forth. Ability to do so efficiently is therefore essential to their survival.
Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction and often gravity as well. In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός Friction is the Force resisting the relative motion of two Surfaces in contact or a surface in contact with a fluid (e Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another In terrestrial environments gravity must be overcome, though the friction of air is much less of an issue (except for crawling animals like worms, for which friction is much higher). A terrestrial planet, telluric planet or rocky planet is a Planet that is primarily composed of Silicate rocks Within our Crawling is a form of Animal locomotion generally involving slow movement along the ground such as that seen in Snakes Snails and Earthworms In aqueous environments however, friction (or drag) becomes the major challenge, with gravity being less of a concern. Although animals with natural buoyancy need not expend much energy maintaining vertical position, though some will naturally sink and must expend energy to remain afloat. In Physics, buoyancy ( BrE IPA: /ˈbɔɪənsi/ is the upward Force on an object produced by the surrounding liquid or gas in which it is Friction may also present a problem in flight, and the aerodynamically efficient body shapes of birds highlight this point. Flight is the process by which an object achieves sustained movement either through the Air (or movement beyond Earth's atmosphere, in the case of Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. Flight presents a different problem from movement in water however, as there is no way for a living organism to have lower density than air. The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different
Much of the study is an application of Newton's third law of motion: if at rest, to move forwards an animal must push something backwards. Newton's laws of motion are three Physical laws which provide relationships between the Forces acting on a body and the motion of the Terrestrial animals must push the solid ground, swimming and flying animals must push against a fluid or gas (either water or air). FLUID ( F ast L ight '''U'''ser '''I'''nterface D esigner is a graphical editor that is used to produce FLTK Source code This page is about the physical properties of gas as a state of matter Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five [1]
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Classification
Animals move through a variety of fluids, such as water, air and mud. Some may move through more than one, such seals and otters. Pinnipeds ("fin-feet" lit "winged feet" or fin-footed mammals are a widely distributed and diverse group of semi-aquatic marine Mammals comprising Otters are semi- aquatic (or in one case aquatic) fish-eating Mammals The otter subfamily Lutrinae forms part of the family In some cases locomotion is facilitated by the substrate on which they move. Forms of locomotion include:
Through a fluid medium
Swimming
In the water staying afloat is possible through buoyancy. Provided an aquatic animal's body is no denser than its aqueous environment, it should be able to stay afloat well enough. Though this means little energy need be expended maintaining vertical position, it makes movement in the horizontal plane much more difficult. The drag encountered in water is much higher than that of air, which is almost negligible at low speeds. In Fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called fluid resistance) is the force that resists the movement of a Solid object through a Fluid (a Body shape is therefore important for efficient movement, which is essential for basic functions like catching prey. A fusiform, torpedo-like body form is seen in many marine animals, though the mechanisms they employ for movement are diverse. The modern torpedo (historically called an automotive automobile locomotive or fish torpedo is a self-propelled explosive Projectile weapon launched above or below Movement of the body may be from side to side, as in sharks and many fishes, or up and down, as in marine mammals. Sharks ( Superorder Selachimorpha) are a type of Fish with a full cartilaginous Skeleton and a highly streamlined body Fish are aquatic Vertebrate animals that are typically ectothermic (previously Cold-blooded) covered with scales, and equipped with two Marine mammals are a diverse group of roughly 120 species of Mammal that are primarily Ocean -dwelling or depend on the ocean for food Other animals, such as those from the class Cephalopoda, use jet-propulsion, taking in water then squirting it back out in an explosive burst. The cephalopods ( Greek plural (kephalópoda "head-feet" are the Mollusc class Cephalopoda characterized by Others may rely predominantly on their limbs, much as humans do when swimming. Though life on land originated from the seas, terrestrial animals have returned to an aquatic lifestyle on several occasions, such as the fully aquatic cetaceans, now far removed from their terrestrial ancestors. The Order Cetacea (sɪˈteɪʃiə L cetus, whale includes Whales Dolphins and Porpoises Cetus is
Flight
Gravity is a major problem for flight through the air. A number of Animals have evolved aerial locomotion, either by powered flight or by gliding Because it is impossibly for any organism to approach the density of air, flying animals must generate enough lift to ascend and remain airborne. Lift, or more precisely "static lift" is rising air used by Soaring birds and by humans in Gliding, Hang gliding and Paragliding Wing shape is crucial in achieving this, generating a pressure gradient that results in an upward force on the animal' body. The same principle applies to airplanes, the wings of which are also airfoils. Overview Fixed-wing aircraft range from small training and recreational aircraft to Wide-body aircraft and military cargo aircraft. An airfoil (in American English) or aerofoil (in British English) is the shape of a Wing or blade (of a Propeller, rotor Unlike aircraft however, flying animals must be very light to achieve flight, the largest birds being around 20 kilograms. [2] Other structural modifications of flying animals include reduced and redistributed body weight, fusiform shape and powerful flight muscles.
Rather than fly, some animals simply reduce their rate of falling by gliding. Flight has independently evolved at least four times, in the insects, pterosaurs, birds, and bats. Convergent evolution describes the acquisition of the same biological trait in unrelated lineages Insects are the only group of Invertebrates known to have evolved flight For other meanings see Pterodactyl (disambiguation. Pterosaurs (ˈtɛrəsɔr from the Greek πτερόσαυρος pterosauros Flight is the main mode of locomotion used by most of the world's bird species Gliding has evolved on many more occasions. The advantage gliding provides to arboreal animals provides a bridge for the evolution of flight. Arboreal is a word meaning "related to or resembling trees" "Evolution of flight" redirects here See also Flying and gliding animals and Insect flight.
On a substrate
Terrestrial
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Forms of locomotion on land include walking, running, hopping or jumping, and crawling or slithering. Jumping or leaping is an ability that most Humans and many Animals share to some degree Here friction and buoyancy are not longer an issue, but a strong skeletal and muscular framework are required in most terrestrial animals for structural support. In Biology, the skeleton is a strong and often a rigid framework that supports the body of an animal holding it upright and giving it shape and strength (Also skeletal Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the Each step also requires much energy to overcome inertia, and animals can store elastic potential energy in their tendons to help overcome this. The vis insita or innate force of matter is a power of resisting by which every body as much as in it lies endeavors to preserve in its present state whether it be of rest or of moving The elastic Potential energy is defined as a work (force x distance needed to compress or expand an elastic body A tendon (or sinew) is a tough band of Fibrous connective tissue that usually connects Muscle to Bone and is capable of withstanding tension Balance is also required for movement on land. Equilibrioception or sense of balance is one of the physiological Senses It helps prevent Humans and Animals from falling over when Human infants learn to crawl first before they are able to stand on two feet, which requires good coordination as well as physical development. Crawling is a form of Animal locomotion generally involving slow movement along the ground such as that seen in Snakes Snails and Earthworms Humans are bipedal animals, standing on two feet and keeping one on the ground at all times while walking. Bipedalism is a form of Terrestrial locomotion where an organism moves by means of its two rear limbs Walking (also called ambulation) is the main form of Animal Locomotion on land, distinguished from Running and crawling When running, only one foot is on the ground at any one time at most, and both leave the ground briefly. Running is a means for an animal to move on Foot. It is defined in Sporting terms as a Gait in which at some point all feet are off the ground At higher speeds momentum helps keep the body upright, so more energy can be used in movement. In Classical mechanics, momentum ( pl momenta SI unit kg · m/s, or equivalently N · s) is the product The number of legs an animal has varies greatly, resulting in differences in locomotion. Many familiar mammals have four legs; insects have six, while spiders have eight. Spiders are Predatory Invertebrate Animals that have two body segments, eight legs no chewing mouth parts and no wings Centipedes and millipedes have many sets of legs. Some have none at all, relying on other modes of locomotion.
Animals that crawl or slither must use more energy due to the higher friction levels. Earthworms crawl by a peristalsis, the same rhythmic contractions that propel food through the digestive tract. Earthworm is the usual name for the largest members of Oligochaeta (which is either a class or subclass depending on the author in the phylum Annelida In classical In the Esophagus After food is chewed into a bolus it is swallowed to move it into the esophagus Snakes move differently, undulating from side to side or lifting and repositioning their scales. A snake is an elongate Reptile of the suborder Serpentes Like all reptiles snakes are covered in scales. In most biological nomenclature a scale ( Greek lepid, Latin squama) is a small rigid plate that grows out of an Animal
Some animals are specialized for moving on non-horizontal surfaces. One common habitat for such climbing animals is in trees, for example the gibbon is specialized for arboreal movement , traveling rapidly by brachiation. There are a diverse range of climbing animals; animals that spend much of their time moving on steep vertical or overhanging surfaces and have appropriate adaptations for such scansorial Gibbons are the small Apes in the family Hylobatidae. The family is divided into four genera based on their Diploid Chromosome Arboreal is a word meaning "related to or resembling trees" Brachiation (from "limb" or "branch" is a form of Arboreal locomotion in which Primates swing from tree limb to tree limb using only their arms Another case is animals like the snow leopard living on steep rock faces such as are found in mountains. The snow leopard ( Uncia uncia) sometimes known as the ounce, is a large cat native to the mountain ranges of Central Asia from Afghanistan Northern A mountain is a Landform that extends above the surrounding Terrain in a limited area with a peak Some light animals are able to climb up smooth sheer surfaces or hang upside down by adhesion. Adhesion is the tendency of certain dissimilar molecules to cling together due to Attractive forces. Many insects can do this, though much larger animals such as geckos can also perform similar feats. Geckos are small to average sized Lizards belonging to the family Gekkonidae which are found in warm climates throughout the world
On water
While animals like ducks can swim in water by floating, some small animals move across it without breaking through the surface. Animal locomotion on the surface layer is the study of Animal locomotion in the case of small Animals that live on the surface layer of Water, relying on This surface locomotion takes advantage of the surface tension of water. For the work of fiction see Surface Tension (short story. Surface tension is a property of the surface of a Liquid that causes it to Animals that move in such a way include the water strider. The family Gerridae contains insects commonly known as water striders, water bugs, magic bugs, pond skaters, skaters, skimmers Water striders have legs that are hydrophobic, preventing them from interfering with the structure of water. In Chemistry, hydrophobicity (from the combining form of water in Attic Greek hydro- and for fear phobos) refers to the physical property of Another form of locomotion (in which the surface layer is broken) is used by the Basilisk lizard. Basiliscus is a Genus of Lizards that includes the basilisks Taxonomy and etymology The Genus basiliscus is named for the creature
Energetics
The energetics of locomotion involves the energy expenditure by animals in moving. Bioenergetics is the subject of a field of Biochemistry that concerns Energy flow through living systems Animals that swim expend less energy per unit of body mass per meter traveled. Flying animals expend more, however running terrestrial animals actually expend more energy for the distance traveled than those that fly. Flying animals use the most energy per unit time, however. [2] This does not mean that an animal that normally moves by running would be a more efficient swimmer, however; these comparisons assume an animal is specialized for that form of motion. Another consideration here is body mass—heavier animals, though using more total energy, require less energy per unit mass to move. Although many people prefer the less-ambiguous term body mass, the term body weight is overwhelmingly used in daily English speech and in biological and medical science contexts Physiologists generally measure energy use by the amount of oxygen consumed, or the amount of carbon dioxide produced, in an animal's respiration. Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single In Animal physiology, respiration is the transport of Oxygen from the outside air to the cells within tissues and the transport of Carbon dioxide [2]
Energy consumed in locomotion is not available for other efforts, so animals have evolved to be highly efficient in movement. Having said that, some animals move through different environments, such as the mudskipper pictured above, so their movement will be below optimum for any given environment. In this case the optimum reached is a trade-off between the different forms of locomotion.
See also
References
- ^ Bejan, Adrian & Marden, James H. Feathers are one of the epidermal growths that form the distinctive outer covering or Plumage, on Birds They are considered the most complex integumentary structures A joint is the location at which two or more Bones make contact For the band see Kinesis (band. For the ergonomic keyboard see Kinesis (keyboard. A taxis (plural taxes, ˈtæksiːz is an Innate behavioural response by an Organism to a directional stimulus. (2006), “Constructing Animal Locomotion from New Thermodynamics Theory”, American Scientist 94 (4): pp. 342-349
- ^ a b c Campbell, Neil A. ; Reece, Jane B. (2005). Biology. Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-7146-X.
Further reading
- McNeill Alexander, Robert. (2003) Principles of Animal Locomotion. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J. ISBN 0691086788
External links
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