Angolan Civil War
Part of the Cold War and the South African Border War
Date 1975 – August 2002 Location Angola Result MPLA victory
Belligerents
MPLA Republic of Cuba AAF Mozambique[1] Soviet Union	UNITA FNLA South Africa Republic of Zaire United States
Commanders
Agostinho Neto José Eduardo dos Santos	Jonas Savimbi Holden Roberto
Casualties and losses
Over 500,000 militants[2] and hundreds of thousands of civilians

The Angolan Civil War began in Angola after the end of the war for independence from Portugal in 1975. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The South African Border War, also known as the Namibian War of Independence, refers to the conflict that took place from 1966 to 1989 in South-West Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (República de Angola Pronounced ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɨ ɐ̃ˈgɔlɐ Repubilika ya Ngola is a country in south-central The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola - Party of Labour (Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola - Partido do Trabalho is an Angolan political party The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la The Angolan Armed Forces ( FAA) is headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defense Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ( União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola) is the second-largest Political party in Angola. The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola is a militant organization that fought for Angolan independence from Portugal The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa The Republic of Zaire (pronunciation; République du Zaïre was the name of the present Democratic Republic of the Congo between October 27, 1971 The United States of America —commonly referred to as the António Agostinho Neto (September 17 1922 &ndash September 10 1979 served as the first President of Angola (1975&ndash1979 leading the Popular Movement for the Liberation José Eduardo dos Santos (born August 28, 1942) is the current President of Angola, having served in that position since 1979 Jonas Malheiro Savimbi ( August 3, 1934 &ndash February 22, 2002) led UNITA, an anti-Communist rebel group that fought against Holden Álvaro Roberto ( January 12, 1923 &ndash August 2, 2007) founded and led the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (República de Angola Pronounced ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɨ ɐ̃ˈgɔlɐ Repubilika ya Ngola is a country in south-central The Angolan War of Independence (1961&ndash1974 Civil disobedience (1948-1959 See also 1950s in Angola The Portuguese Colonial Act passed on June Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The war featured conflict between two primary Angolan factions, the Communist MPLA and the anti-Communist UNITA. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola - Party of Labour (Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola - Partido do Trabalho is an Angolan political party Anti-communism refers to opposition to Communism. Historically the word "communism" has been used to refer to several types of communal social organization and The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ( União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola) is the second-largest Political party in Angola. Yet a third movement, the FLEC, an association of separatist militant groups, fought for the independence of Cabinda. The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda FLEC is a Separatist Guerrilla and political movement in

Formally brought to an end in 2002, an estimated 500,000 people were killed in the 27-year war. ^[2] The Angolan Civil War was one of the largest, longest and most prominent armed conflicts of the Cold War. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the Both the Soviet Union and the U. S. considered it critical to the global balance of power and to the outcome of the Cold War.

In addition to the war's two primary factions (the MPLA and UNITA), several other factions also were engaged in the conflict. The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola's (MPLA) base is among the Kimbundu people and the multiracial intelligentsia of Luanda. The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola - Party of Labour (Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola - Partido do Trabalho is an Angolan political party Kimbundu is one of the most widely spoken languages in Angola, especially in the north-west of the country notably in the Luanda province For the coffee shop company often called Intelligentsia for short see Intelligentsia Coffee & Tea. For the mystic of the Han Dynasty see Luan Da. Luanda (formerly called Loanda) is the The MPLA, supported by the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc, fought against the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), an organization based in the Bakongo region of the north and allied with the United States, the People's Republic of China and the Mobutu government in Zaïre. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola is a militant organization that fought for Angolan independence from Portugal The Bakongo or the Kongo people (meaning "hunter" also sometimes referred to as Congolese, live along the Atlantic coast of Africa Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga ( October 14, 1930 September 7, 1997) known commonly as Mobutu, or Mobutu The Republic of Zaire (pronunciation; République du Zaïre was the name of the present Democratic Republic of the Congo between October 27, 1971 The United States, apartheid South Africa, and several other African nations also supported Jonas Savimbi's National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), whose ethnic and regional base lies in the Ovimbundu heartland of central Angola. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Jonas Malheiro Savimbi ( August 3, 1934 &ndash February 22, 2002) led UNITA, an anti-Communist rebel group that fought against The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ( União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola) is the second-largest Political party in Angola. The Ovimbundu are an ethnic group consisting of traders farmers and herders who live on the Bié Plateau of central Angola. ^[3][4]

Contents 1 Roots of the conflict 2 1970s 2.1 Independence 2.2 Clark Amendment 2.3 Vietnam 2.4 Shaba invasions 2.5 Nitistas 2.6 Rise of dos Santos 3 1980s 3.1 A war intensifies 3.2 Cuito Cuanavale and New York City 3.3 Ceasefire 4 1990s 4.1 Black, Manafort, Stone and Kelly 4.2 Bicesse Accords 4.3 Lusaka Protocol 4.4 Arms monitoring 4.5 Diamonds 4.6 Cabinda separatism 5 2000s 5.1 Death of Savimbi 5.2 Legacy 6 Cultural influence 7 See also 8 Further reading 9 References 10 External links

Roots of the conflict

Main article: Cabinda (province)

See also: Slavery in Angola

The territory of Cabinda is north of Angola proper, separated by a strip of territory 60 km (37. Slavery in Angola existed since early times Several peoples and tribes from current-day Angola, like the Imbangala and the Mbundu, were active Slave 3 mi) long in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (République démocratique du Congo often referred to as DR Congo, DRC or RDC, and formerly known or referred to ^[5] A coup d'état in Portugal in 1926 led to military rule under the Estado Novo (New State). The 28th May 1926 coup d'état, sometimes called 28th May Revolution or during the period of Estado Novo Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The new government annexed Cabinda from Belgian Congo in 1927 and the Constitution of 1933 designated Angola and Cabinda as overseas provinces. The Belgian Congo ( Dutch: Belgisch Kongo French: Congo Belge German: Belgisch Kongo was the formal title of present-day Democratic Republic The first Portuguese Constitution was drafted in 1822 Several Revolutions led to the constitutions of 1826, 1838 ( Liberal Wars) 1911 ( ^[6][7] The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) formed in 1963 during the broader war for independence from Portugal. The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda FLEC is a Separatist Guerrilla and political movement in Contrary to the organization's name, Cabinda is an exclave, not an enclave. FLEC later split into the Armed Forces of Cabinda (FLEC-FAC) and Renewal (FLEC-Renovada). The Forças Armadas de Cabinda (FAC or Armed Forces of Cabinda is the armed wing of the political Cabindan nationalist group the Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda Several other, smaller FLEC factions later broke away from these movements, but FLEC-R remained the most prominent because of its size and its tactics. FLEC-R members cut off the ears and noses of government officials and their supporters, similar to the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone in the 1990s. The Revolutionary United Front ( RUF) was a rebel army that fought a failed ten-year insurrection in Sierra Leone, starting in 1991 and ending in 2002 Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. ^[8] Despite Cabinda's relatively small size, foreign powers and the nationalist movements coveted the territory for its vast reserves of petroleum, the principal export of Angola then and now. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit ^[9]

In the war for independence, the primary ethnic division of assimilados versus indigenos peoples masked the inter-ethnic conflict between the various native tribes, a division that emerged in the early 1970s. The Union of Peoples of Angola, the predecessor to the FNLA, only controlled 15% of Angola's territory during the independence war, excluding MPLA-controlled Cabinda. The People's Republic of China openly backed UNITA upon independence despite the mutual support from its adversary South Africa and UNITA's pro-Western tilt. The PRC's support for Savimbi came in 1965, a year after he left the FNLA. China saw Roberto and the FNLA as the stooge of the West and the MPLA as the Soviet Union's proxy. Holden Álvaro Roberto ( January 12, 1923 &ndash August 2, 2007) founded and led the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA With the Sino-Soviet split, South Africa presented the least odious of allies to the PRC. The Sino-Soviet split was a gradual divergence of diplomatic ties between the People's Republic of China (PRC and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR ^[10][11]

1970s

Main article: 1970s in Angola

Main article: Cuba in Angola

Independence

Agostinho Neto, the leader of the MPLA, declared the independence of the People's Republic of Angola on November 11, 1975, in accordance with the Alvor Accords. The 1970s in Angola, a time of political and military turbulence saw the end of Angola 's War of Independence (1961-1975 and the outbreak of civil war António Agostinho Neto (September 17 1922 &ndash September 10 1979 served as the first President of Angola (1975&ndash1979 leading the Popular Movement for the Liberation Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Alvor Agreement, signed on January 15, 1975, granted Angola independence from Portugal on November 11, ending the war for ^[12] UNITA and the FNLA also declared Angolan independence as the Social Democratic Republic of Angola based in Huambo and the Democratic Republic of Angola based in Ambriz. For Huambo the location in Amazonas, Peru, see Huambo District Huambo is the capital of Huambo province in Ambriz is a city and municipality in Bengo Province, Angola. The population of Ambriz is majority Bakongo, with some Portuguese descedents FLEC, armed and backed by the French government, declared the independence of the Republic of Cabinda from Paris. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city ^[13] The FNLA and UNITA forged an alliance on November 23, proclaiming their own coalition government based in Huambo^[14] with Holden Roberto and Jonas Savimbi as co-presidents and José Ndelé and Johnny Pinnock Eduardo as co-Prime Ministers. Events 800 - Charlemagne arrives at Rome to investigate the alleged crimes of For Huambo the location in Amazonas, Peru, see Huambo District Huambo is the capital of Huambo province in Holden Álvaro Roberto ( January 12, 1923 &ndash August 2, 2007) founded and led the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA ^[15]

The South African government told Savimbi and Roberto in early November that the South African Defence Force (SADF) would soon end operations in Angola despite the failure of the coalition to capture Luanda and therefore secure international recognition at independence. The South African Defence Force (SADF were the South African Armed forces from 1957 until 1994 Operation Savannah was the name given to the South African Defence Force 's 1975 – 1976 covert intervention in the Angolan War of Independence Savimbi, desperate to avoid the withdrawal of the largest, friendly, military force in Angola, asked General Constand Viljoen to arrange a meeting for him with South African Prime Minister John Vorster, Savimbi's ally since October 1974. General Constand Viljoen SSA SD SOE SM (born on October 28 1933) is a former South African military commander and politician The Prime Minister of South Africa was the Head of government in South Africa between 1910 and 1984 Balthazar Johannes Vorster (13 December 1915 - 10 September 1983 better known as John Vorster ("FOUR-stir" served as the Prime Minister of South Africa On the night of November 10, the day before independence, Savimbi secretly flew to Pretoria, South Africa and the meeting took place. Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw Pretoria is a city located in the northern part of Gauteng Province, South Africa. In a reversal of policy, Vorster not only agreed to keep troops through November but promised to withdraw the SADF troops only after the OAU meeting on December 9. Events 536 - Byzantine General Belisarius enters Rome while the Ostrogothic garrison peacefully leaves the city ^[16][17] The Soviets, well aware of South African activity in southern Angola, flew Cuban soldiers into Luanda the week before independence. While Cuban officers led the mission and provided the bulk of the troop force, 60 Soviet officers in the Congo joined the Cubans on November 12. The Republic of the Congo (République du Congo Kongo: Repubilika ya Kongo; Lingala: Republiki ya Kongó) also known as Congo-Brazzaville Events 764 - Tibetan troops occupy Chang'an, the capital of the Chinese Tang Dynasty, for fifteen days The Soviet leadership expressly forbid the Cubans from intervening in Angola's civil war, focusing the mission on containing South Africa. ^[18]

In 1975 and 1976 most foreign forces, with the exception of Cuba, withdrew. The last elements of the Portuguese military withdrew in 1975^[19] and the South African military withdrew in February 1976. ^[20] On the other hand, Cuba's troop force in Angola increased from 5,500 in December 1975 to 11,000 in February 1976. ^[21]

Clark Amendment

Main articles: Operation IA Feature and Clark Amendment

President Gerald Ford approved covert aid to UNITA and the FNLA through Operation IA Feature on July 18, 1975, despite strong opposition from officials in the State Department and the CIA. Operation IA Feature, a covert Central Intelligence Agency operation authorized U The Clark Amendment was an amendment to the US Arms Export Control Act of 1976 named for its sponsor Senator Dick Clark (D-Iowa The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr (July 14 1913 December 26 2006 was the thirty-eighth President of the United States, serving from 1974 to 1977 and the fortieth Vice President Operation IA Feature, a covert Central Intelligence Agency operation authorized U Events 390 BC - Roman - Gaulish Wars Battle of the Allia - a Roman army is defeated by raiding Gauls, Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Ford told William Colby, the Director of Central Intelligence, to establish the operation, providing an initial US$6 million. William Egan Colby ( January 4, 1920 – April 27, 1996) spent a career in Intelligence for the United States culminating in holding The Office of United States Director of Central Intelligence (DCI was established by U The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been He granted an additional $8 million on July 27 and another $25 million in August. Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. ^[22][23]

Two days before the program's approval, Nathaniel Davis, the Assistant Secretary of State, told Henry Kissinger, the Secretary of State, that he believed maintaining the secrecy of IA Feature would be impossible. Nathaniel Davis (born 12 April 1925) served as the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs in the Ford Administration in the 1970s Henry Alfred Kissinger (born Heinz Alfred Kissinger on May 27, 1923) is a German -born American bureaucrat diplomat and 1973 Secretary of State is a commonly used title for a Government Official. Davis correctly predicted the Soviet Union would respond by increasing involvement in the Angolan conflict, leading to more violence and negative publicity for the United States. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 When Ford approved the program, Davis resigned. ^[24] John Stockwell, the CIA's station chief in Angola, echoed Davis' criticism saying the success required the expansion of the program, but its size already exceeded what could be hidden from the public eye. John R Stockwell is a former CIA officer who became a critic of United States government policies after serving in the Agency for thirteen years serving Davis' deputy, former U. S. ambassador to Chile Edward Mulcahy, also opposed direct involvement. Edward Mulcahy served as the United States Ambassador to Chile and deputy to Assistant Secretary of State Nathaniel Davis. Mulcahy presented three options for U. S. policy towards Angola on May 13, 1975. Events 1497 - Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola. Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Mulcahy believed the Ford administration could use diplomacy to campaign against foreign aid to the Communist MPLA, refuse to take sides in factional fighting, or increase support for the FNLA and UNITA. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola - Party of Labour (Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola - Partido do Trabalho is an Angolan political party He warned however that supporting UNITA would not sit well with Mobutu Sese Seko, the ruler of Zaire. Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga ( October 14, 1930 September 7, 1997) known commonly as Mobutu, or Mobutu The Republic of Zaire (pronunciation; République du Zaïre was the name of the present Democratic Republic of the Congo between October 27, 1971 ^[25][22]

Dick Clark, a Democratic Senator from Iowa, discovered the operation during a fact-finding mission in Africa, but Seymour Hersch, a reporter for The New York Times, revealed IA Feature to the public on December 13, 1975. For the US counterterrorism official see Richard A Clarke Richard Clarence (Dick Clark (born September 14, 1928 The Democratic Party is one of two major Political parties in the United States, the other being the Republican Party. The State of Iowa ( is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States of America. Seymour (Sy Myron Hersh (born April 8, 1937) is an American Pulitzer Prize winning investigative Journalist and Author Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^[26] Clark proposed an amendment to the Arms Export Control Act, barring aid to private groups engaged in military or paramilitary operations in Angola. The Clark Amendment was an amendment to the US Arms Export Control Act of 1976 named for its sponsor Senator Dick Clark (D-Iowa The Arms Export Control Act gives the President of the United States the authority to control the import and export of defense articles and defense services A paramilitary is a force whose function and organization are similar to those of a professional military force but which are not regarded as having the same status The Senate passed the bill, voting 54–22 on December 19, 1975 and the House passed the bill, voting 323–99 on January 27, 1976. The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives Events 324 - Licinius abdicates his position as Roman Emperor. Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The United States House of Representatives is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress; the other is the Senate. Events 98 - Trajan becomes Roman Emperor after the death of Nerva. Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^[23] Ford signed the bill into law on February 9, 1976. Events 474 - Zeno crowned as co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^[27] Even after the Clark Amendment became law, then-Director of Central Intelligence, George H. W. Bush, refused to concede that all U. The Office of United States Director of Central Intelligence (DCI was established by U George Herbert Walker Bush (born June 12 1924 served as the forty-first President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 S. aid to Angola had ceased. ^[28][29] According to foreign affairs analyst Jane Hunter, Israel stepped in as a proxy arms supplier for the United States after the Clark Amendment took effect. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. A proxy war is the war that results when two powers use third parties as substitutes for fighting each other directly ^[30][2]

The U. S. government vetoed Angolan entry into the United Nations on June 23, 1976. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Events 1180 - First Battle of Uji, starting the Genpei War in Japan 1305 - The Flemish Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^[31] Zambia forbid UNITA from launching attacks from its territory on December 28, 1976^[32] after Angola became a member of the United Nations. Events 1065 - Westminster Abbey is Consecrated. 1308 - The reign of Emperor Hanazono, Emperor of Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^[33]

Vietnam

Main article: Vietnam War

The Vietnam War tempered foreign involvement in Angola's civil war as neither the Soviet Union nor the United States wanted to be drawn into an internal conflict of highly debatable importance in terms of winning the Cold War. The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, or the Vietnam Conflict, occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, or the Vietnam Conflict, occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the CBS Newscaster Walter Cronkite spread this message in his broadcasts to "try to play our small part in preventing that mistake this time. CBS News is the news division of American Television and Radio network CBS. Walter Leland Cronkite Jr (born November 4 1916) is a retired American broadcast journalist, best known as Anchorman for the "^[34] The Politburo engaged in heated debate over the extent to which the Soviet Union would support a continued offensive by the MPLA in February 1976. The Politburo ( in Russian: Политбюро, full Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, abbreviated Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko and Premier Alexey Kosygin led a faction favoring less support for the MPLA and greater emphasis on preserving détente with the West. Andrei Andreyevich Gromyko (Андре́й Андре́евич Громы́ко Андрэй Андрэевіч Грамыка July 2 1989 was a Soviet politician Premier of the Soviet Union is the commonly used English term for the offices of Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR (Председатель Alexey Nikolayevich Kosygin (Алексе́й Никола́евич Косы́гин Aleksej Nikolajevič Kosygin; February 20 1904 - December Détente is a French term meaning a relaxing or easing the term has been used in international politics since the early 1970s The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings Leonid Brezhnev, the then head of the Soviet Union, won out against the dissident faction and the Soviet alliance with the MPLA continued even as Neto publicly reaffirmed its policy of non-alignment at the 15th anniversary of the First Revolt. ^[35]

Angolan government and Cuban troops had control over all southern cities by 1977, but roads in the south faced repeated UNITA attacks. Savimbi expressed his willingness for rapprochement with the MPLA and the formation of a unity, socialist government, but he insisted on Cuban withdrawal first. "The real enemy is Cuban colonialism," Savimbi told reporters, warning, "The Cubans have taken over the country, but sooner or later they will suffer their own Vietnam in Angola. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially " Government and Cuban troops used flame throwers, bulldozers, and planes with napalm to destroy villages in a 1. 6-mile (2. 6 km) wide area along the Angola-Namibia border. Only women and children passed through this area, "Castro Corridor," because government troops had shot all males ten years of age or older to prevent them from joining the UNITA. The napalm killed cattle to feed government troops and to retaliate against UNITA sympathizers. Angolans fled from their homeland; 10,000 going south to Namibia and 16,000 east to Zambia where they lived in refugee camps. ^[33] Foreign Secretary Lord Carrington of the United Kingdom expressed similar concerns over British involvement in Rhodesia's Bush War during the Lancaster House negotiations in 1980. Peter Alexander Rupert Carington 6th Baron Carrington and Baron Carington of Upton The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Rhodesia was the name adopted when the formerly British colony of Southern Rhodesia declared itself independent ( Unilateral Declaration of Independence The Rhodesian Bush War, also known as the Second Chimurenga or the Zimbabwe Liberation Struggle, was a war which lasted from July 1964 to 1979 and The Lancaster House Agreement ended biracial rule in Zimbabwe Rhodesia following negotiations between representatives of the Patriotic Front (PF consisting of ZAPU ^[36]

Shaba invasions

Main articles: Shaba I and Shaba II

About 1,500 members of the Front for the National Liberation of the Congo (FNLC) invaded Shaba, Zaire from eastern Angola on March 7, 1977. Shaba I was a conflict between the neighbouring states of Zaire and Angola in 1977 and was a consequence of Zaire's support for the FLNA and UNITA Shaba II was an invasion of the Shaba separatist movement FNLC (6500 Katangese gendarmes into the Zairian province of Shaba on 17 May 1978 The Front for the National Liberation of the Congo ( FNLC) is a rebel group that fought against the government of Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire in the 1970s Katanga is a southern province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Republic of Zaire (pronunciation; République du Zaïre was the name of the present Democratic Republic of the Congo between October 27, 1971 Events 161 - Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius dies and is succeeded by co-Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Also 1977 (album by Ash. Year 1977 ( MCMLXXVII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays The FNLC wanted to overthrow Mobutu and the Angolan government, suffering from Mobutu's support for the FNLA and UNITA, did not try to stop the invasion. The FNLC failed to capture Kolwezi, Zaire's economic heartland, but took Kasaji and Mutshatsha. Kolwezi is a city in the south of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, west of Likasi in the province of Katanga. Zairian troops were defeated without difficulty and the FNLC continued to advance. Mobutu appealed to William Eteki of Cameroon, Chairman of the Organization of African Unity, for assistance on April 2. William Eteki Mboumouna (Born 1933) served as the Secretary-General of the Organization of African Unity from 1974 to 1978 The Republic of Cameroon is a unitary republic of central and western Africa. The Organisation of African Unity ( OAU) or Organisation de l'Unité Africaine ( OUA) was established on 25 May 1963. Events 68 - Galba, Governor of Hispania, names himself legatus senatus populique Romani, breaking the line of Eight days later, the French government responded to Mobutu's plea and airlifted 1,500 Moroccan troops into Kinshasa. Kinshasa (formerly French: Léopoldville, formerly Dutch: Leopoldstad, German: Leopoldstadt) is the Capital This troop force worked in conjunction with the Zairian army and the FNLA^[37] of Angola with air cover from Egyptian pilots flying French Mirage fighter aircraft to beat back the FNLC. The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola is a militant organization that fought for Angolan independence from Portugal This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Mirage is the name of a series of different military jets produced by the French aircraft manufacturer Dassault Aviation. The counter-invasion force pushed the last of the militants, along with refugees, into Angola and Zambia in April. ^{[38][39][40][41]}

Mobutu accused the Angolan government, as well as the Cuban and Soviet governments, of complicity in the war. ^[42] While Neto did support the FNLC, the Angolan government's support came in response to Mobutu's continued support for Angola's anti-Communists. ^[43] The Carter Administration, unconvinced of Cuban involvement, responded by offering a meager $15 million-worth of non-military aid. James Earl "Jimmy" Carter Jr (born October 1 1924 was the thirty-ninth President of the United States, serving from 1977 to 1981 and the recipient of the 2002 American timidity during the war prompted a shift in Zaire's foreign policy from the U. Mobutu Sese Seko's foreign policy emphasized his alliance with the United States and the Western world while ostensibly maintaining a non-aligned position in international S. to France, which became Zaire's largest supplier of arms after the intervention. ^[44] Neto and Mobutu signed a border agreement on July 22, 1977. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Godfrey of Bouillon is elected the first Defender of the Holy Sepulchre of The Kingdom of Also 1977 (album by Ash. Year 1977 ( MCMLXXVII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays ^[45]

John Stockwell, the Central Intelligence Agency's station chief in Angola, resigned after the invasion, explaining in an article for The Washington Post article Why I'm Leaving the CIA, published on April 10, 1977 that he had warned Secretary of State Henry Kissinger that continued American support for anti-government rebels in Angola could provoke a war with Zaire. John R Stockwell is a former CIA officer who became a critic of United States government policies after serving in the Agency for thirteen years serving near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all The Washington Post is the largest and most circulated Newspaper in Washington D Events 879 - Louis III becomes King of the Western Franks. 1407 - the lama Also 1977 (album by Ash. Year 1977 ( MCMLXXVII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays Henry Alfred Kissinger (born Heinz Alfred Kissinger on May 27, 1923) is a German -born American bureaucrat diplomat and 1973 He also said covert Soviet involvement in Angola came after, and in response to, U. S. involvement. ^[46]

The FNLC invaded Shaba again on May 11, 1978, capturing Kolwezi in two days. Events 330 - Byzantium is renamed ''Nova Roma'' during a dedication ceremony but is more popularly referred to as Constantinople Year 1978 ( MCMLXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays the 1978 Gregorian calendar) While the Carter Administration had accepted Cuba's insistence on its non-involvement in Shaba I, and therefore did not stand with Mobutu, the U. S. government now accused Castro of complicity. ^[47] This time, when Mobutu appealed for foreign assistance, the U. S. government worked with the French and Belgian militaries to beat back the invasion, the first military cooperation between France and the United States since the Vietnam War. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, or the Vietnam Conflict, occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia ^[48][49] The French Foreign Legion took back Kolwezi after a seven-day battle and airlifted 2,250 European citizens to Belgium, but not before the FNLC massacred 80 Europeans and 200 Africans. In one instance the FNLC killed 34 European civilians who had hidden in a room. The FNLC retreated to Zambia, vowing to return to Angola. The Zairian army then forcibly evicted civilians along Shaba's 65-mile (105 km) long border with Angola. Mobutu, wanting to prevent any chance of another invasion, ordered his troops to shoot on sight. ^[50]

U. S. mediated negotiations between the Angolan and Zairian governments led to a peace accord in 1979 and an end to support for insurgencies in each others' respective countries. The Southern Africa Non-aggression Pact required signatory states to ensure that no individual or organization attacked a signatory state from signatory soil Zaire temporarily cutoff support to FLEC, the FNLA, and UNITA and Angola forbid further activity by the FNLC. The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda FLEC is a Separatist Guerrilla and political movement in The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola is a militant organization that fought for Angolan independence from Portugal The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ( União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola) is the second-largest Political party in Angola. ^[48]

Nitistas

Neto's Interior Minister, Nito Alves, had successfully put down Daniel Chipenda's Eastern Revolt and the Active Revolt during Angola's War of Independence. Nito Alves (1945 – 1977 served as the Interior Minister of Angola from independence November 11, 1975 until President Agostinho Neto abolished Daniel Chipenda (died on February 28, 1996) fought in the Angolan War of Independence, serving as the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola The Eastern Revolt ( Portuguese: Revolta do Leste; RDL) is an Angolan nationalist organization that fought in the war for independence Factionalism within the MPLA became a major challenge to Neto's power by late 1975 and he gave Alves the task of once again clamping down on dissent. Alves shut down the Cabral and Henda Committees while expanding his influence within the MPLA through his control of the nation's newspapers and state-run television. Alves visited the Soviet Union in October 1976. When he returned, Neto began taking steps to neutralize the threat he saw in the Nitistas, followers of Alves. Neto called a plenum meeting of the Central Committee of the MPLA. Neto formally designated the party Marxist-Leninist, abolished the Interior Ministry and DOM, the official branch of the MPLA used by the Nitistas, and established a Commission of Enquiry. Marxism-Leninism is a Communist ideological stream that emerged as the mainstream tendency amongst the Communist parties in the 1920s as it was adopted Neto used the commission, officially created to examine and report factionalism, to target the Nitistas, and ordered the commission to issue a report of its findings in March 1977. Alves and Chief of Staff José Van-Dunem, his political ally, began planning a coup d'état against dos Santos. ^[51]

Alves represented the MPLA at the 25th Soviet Communist Party Congress in February 1977 and may have then obtained support for the coup from the Soviet Union. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Alves and Van-Dunem planned to arrest Neto on May 21 before he arrived at a meeting of the Central Committee and before the commission released its report. Events 878 - Syracuse Italy is captured by the Muslim sultan of Sicily. The MPLA changed the location of the meeting shortly before its scheduled start, throwing the plotters' plans into disarray, but Alves attended the meeting and faced the commission anyway. The commission released its report, accusing him of factionalism. Alves fought back, denouncing Neto for not aligning Angola with the Soviet Union. After twelve hours of debate, the party voted 26 to 6 to dismiss Alves and Van-Dunem from their positions. ^[51]

Ten armored cars with the FAPLA's 8th Brigade broke into São Paulo prison at 4 a. m. on May 27, killing the prison warden and freeing more than 150 supporters, including 11 who had been arrested only a few days before. Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed The brigade took control of the radio station in Luanda at 7 a. For the mystic of the Han Dynasty see Luan Da. Luanda (formerly called Loanda) is the m. and announced their coup, calling themselves the MPLA Action Committee. The brigade asked citizens to show their support for the coup by demonstrating in front of the presidential palace. The Nitistas captured Bula and Dangereaux, generals loyal to Neto, but Neto had moved his base of operations from the palace to the Ministry of Defence in fear of such an uprising. Cuban troops retook the palace at Neto's request and marched to the radio station. After an hour of fighting, the Cubans succeeded and proceeded to the barracks of the 8th brigade, recaptured by 1:30 p. m. While the Cuban force captured the palace and radio station, the Nitistas kidnapped seven leaders within the government and the military, shooting and killing six. ^[52]

The government arrested tens of thousands of suspected Nitistas from May to November and tried them in secret courts overseen by Defense Minister Iko Carreira. Secret police (sometimes political police) are a Police agency which operates in Secrecy to maintain National security against internal General Henrique "Iko" Teles Carreira (1933-2000 served as the first Defense Minister of Angola from 1975 to 1980 during the civil war. Those who were found guilty, including Van-Dunem, Jacobo "Immortal Monster" Caetano, the head of the 8th Brigade, and political commissar Eduardo Evaristo, were then shot and buried in secret graves. The coup attempt had a lasting effect on Angola's foreign relations. Alves had opposed Neto's foreign policy of non-alignment, evolutionary socialism, and multiracialism, favoring stronger relations with the Soviet Union, which he wanted to grant military bases in Angola. The Non-Aligned Movement ( NAM) is an International organization of states considering themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc Socialist Reformism is the belief that gradual democratic changes in a Society can ultimately change a society's fundamental economic relations and political structures The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 While Cuban soldiers actively helped Neto put down the coup, Alves and Neto both believed the Soviet Union supported Neto's ouster. The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Raúl Castro sent an additional four thousand troops to prevent further dissension within the MPLA's ranks and met with Neto in August in a display of solidarity. Raúl Modesto Castro Ruz (born June 3 1931 is the President of the Cuban Council of State and the Head of state of Cuba. In contrast, Neto's distrust in the Soviet leadership increased and relations with the USSR worsened. ^[52] In December, the MPLA held is first party Congress and changed its name to the MPLA-PT. The Nitista coup took a toll on the MPLA's membership. In 1975, the MPLA reached 200,000 members. After the first party congress, that number decreased to 30,000. ^{[53][54][51][55][56]}

Rise of dos Santos

The Soviets, trying to increase their influence in Luanda, began sending busts of Vladimir Lenin, a plane full of brochures with Brezhnev's speech at the February 1976 Party Congress, and two planes full of pamphlets denouncing Mao, to Angola. For the mystic of the Han Dynasty see Luan Da. Luanda (formerly called Loanda) is the The 25th congress of the Communist party of the USSR met in Moscow from February 24 to March 5 1976 Mao Zedong ( 26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese Military and political leader who led They sent so many busts that they ran out in the summer of 1976 and requested more from the CPSU Propaganda Department. Despite the best efforts of the Soviet propaganda machine and persistent lobbying by G. A. Zverev, the Soviet chargé d'affaires, Neto stood his ground, refusing to grant the permanent military bases the Soviets so desperately wanted in Angola. Arseni Grigoryevich Zverev (1900 - 1969 Russian Soviet administrator; Soviet finance minister 1938-1948 1948-1960 In diplomacy chargé d’affaires ( French for “charged with (in charge of matters” is the title of two classes of diplomatic agents who head a diplomatic Neto allies like Defense Minister Iko Carreira and MPLA General Secretary Lúcio Lara also irked the Soviet leadership through their policies and personalities. Lúcio Lara served as the General Secretary of the MPLA during the Angolan Civil War. With Alves out of the picture, the Soviet Union promoted Prime Minister Lopo do Nascimento, another 'internationalist', against Neto, a 'careerist,' for the MPLA's leadership. Lopo Fortunato Ferreira do Nascimento (born 10 June 1942) is an Angolan politician ^[57] Neto moved swiftly to crush his adversary. The MPLA-PT's Central Committee met from December 6 to 9. The Committee concluded the meeting by firing Nascimento as both Prime Minister and as Secretary of the Politburo, the Director of National Television, and the Director of Jornal de Angola. Politburo, short for Political Bureau, Russian Politicheskoye Buro, is the executive organization for a number of Political parties, most notably Commander C. R. Dilolua resigned as Second Deputy Prime Minister and a member of the Politburo. ^[58] Later that month the Committee abolished the positions of Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister. Paving the way for dos Santos, Neto increased the ethnic composition of the MPLA-PT's political bureau as he replaced the hardline Old Guard with new blood. ^[59] On July 5, 1979, Neto issued a decree requiring all citizens to serve in the military for three years upon turning the age of 18. Events 1295 - Scotland and France form an alliance the beginnings of the Auld Alliance, against England. Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) The government gave a report to the UN estimating $293 million in property damage from South African attacks between 1976 and 1979, asking for compensation on August 3, 1979. Events 8 - Roman Empire General Tiberius defeats Dalmatians on the river Bathinus. Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Cabinda, a Cabindan separatist rebel group, attacked a Cuban base near Tshiowa on August 11. The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Cabinda ( Movimento Popular de Libertação de Cabinda; MPLC) is a militant separatist group fighting for the independence Events 2492 BC - Traditional date of the defeat of Bel by Hayk, progenitor and founder of the Armenian nation ^[60]

President Neto died from inoperable cancer in Moscow on September 10, 1979. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Events 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul meet in the Council of Agde. Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) Lara and Pascual Luvualo flew to Moscow and the MPLA declared 45 days of mourning. The government held his funeral at the Palace of the People on September 17. Events 1176 - The Battle of Myriokephalon is fought 1462 - The Battle of Świecino (or Battle of Żarnowiec Many foreign dignitaries, including Organization of African Unity President William R. Tolbert, Jr. of Liberia, attended. William Richard Tolbert Jr ( May 13, 1913 April 12, 1980) was president of Liberia from 1971 to 1980 Liberia, officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the west coast of Africa, bordered by Sierra Leone, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire The Central Committee of the MPLA unanimously voted in favor of José Eduardo dos Santos as President. José Eduardo dos Santos (born August 28, 1942) is the current President of Angola, having served in that position since 1979 He was sworn in on September 21. Events 1217 - The Estonian tribal leader Lembitu of Lehola was killed in a battle against Teutonic Knights. Under dos Santos' leadership, Angolan troops crossed the border into Namibia for the first time on October 31, going into Kavango. Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa on the Atlantic coast Events 445 BC – Ezra reads the Book of the Law to the Israelites in Jerusalem (see Nehemiah 91 NLTse The 'Kavango' people reside on the Namibian side of the Namibian- Angolan border The next day, the governments of Angola, Zambia, and Zaire signed a non-aggression pact. Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (República de Angola Pronounced ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɨ ɐ̃ˈgɔlɐ Repubilika ya Ngola is a country in south-central The Republic of Zambia (ˈzæmbɪə is a Landlocked country in Southern Africa. The Republic of Zaire (pronunciation; République du Zaïre was the name of the present Democratic Republic of the Congo between October 27, 1971 See also Non-aggression Pact (band A non-aggression pact is an international Treaty between two or more states agreeing to avoid war ^[60]

1980s

Main article: 1980s in Angola

In the 1980s, fighting spread outward from southeastern Angola, where most of the fighting had taken place in the 1970s, as the National Congolese Army (ANC) and SWAPO increased their activity. In the 1980s in Angola, fighting spread outward from the southeast where most of the fighting had taken place in the 1970s, as the National Congolese Army (ANC and SWAPO The South West Africa People's Organization ( SWAPO) is a Political party and former Liberation movement in Namibia. The South African government responded by sending troops back into Angola, intervening in the war from 1981 to 1987,^[20] prompting the Soviet Union to deliver massive amounts of military aid from 1981 to 1986. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The USSR gave the Angolan government more than US$2 billion in aid in 1984. ^[61] In 1981, newly elected United States President Ronald Reagan's U. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by S. assistant secretary of state for African affairs, Chester Crocker, developed a linkage policy, tying Namibian independence to Cuban withdrawal and peace in Angola. Chester Arthur Crocker (born October 29, 1941) is an American foreign policy specialist who served as Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs from 1981 to Linkage was a Policy pursued by the United States of America championed by Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger, during the 1970s period of Cold War Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa on the Atlantic coast ^[62][63]

The South African military attacked insurgents in Cunene Province on May 12, 1980. Events 1191 - Richard I of England marries Berengaria of Navarre. Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) The Angolan Ministry of Defense accused the South African government of wounding and killing civilians. Nine days later, the SADF attacked again, this time in Cuando-Cubango, and the MPLA threatened to respond militarily. The SADF launched a full-scale invasion of Angola through Cunene and Cuando-Cubango on June 7, destroying SWAPO's operational command headquarters on June 13, in what Prime Minister Botha described as a "shock attack". Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins Events 1525 - Martin Luther marries Katharina von Bora, against the Celibacy rule decreed by the Roman Catholic Church for Pieter Willem Botha (12 January 1916 – 31 October 2006 commonly known as "P The Angolan government arrested 120 Angolans who were planning to set off explosives in Luanda, on June 24, foiling a plot purportedly orchestrated by the South African government. Events 972 - Battle of Cedynia, the first documented victory of Polish forces takes place Three days later, the United Nations Security Council convened at the behest of Angola's ambassador to the UN, E. de Figuerido, and condemned South Africa's incursions into Angola. President Mobutu of Zaire also sided with the MPLA. The Angolan government recorded 529 instances in which South African forces violated Angola's territorial sovereignty between January and June 1980. ^[64]

Cuba increased its troop force in Angola from 35,000 in 1982 to 40,000 in 1985. South African forces tried to capture Lubango, capital of Huíla province, in Operation Askari in December 1983. Lubango is the capital city of the Angolan province of Huíla. Operation Askari was a Military operation by the South African Defence Force (SADF during the South African Border War and Angolan Civil War ^[62]

On June 2, 1985, American conservative activists held the Democratic International, a symbolic meeting of anti-Communist militants, at UNITA's headquarters in Jamba. Events 455 - The Vandals enter Rome, and plunder the city for two weeks Year 1985 ( MCMLXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays 1985 Gregorian calendar) The Democratic International, also known as the Jamboree in Jamba, was a 1985 meeting of anti-Communist militants held at the headquarters of UNITA in The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ( União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola) is the second-largest Political party in Angola. Jamba is a town in Angola, located in the southeastern province of Cuando Cubango, just north of the Namibian border along the Caprivi Strip ^[65] Primarily funded by Rite Aid founder Lewis Lehrman and organized by anti-Communist activists Jack Abramoff and Jack Wheeler, participants included Savimbi, Adolfo Calero, leader of the Nicaraguan Contras, Pa Kao Her, Hmong Laotian rebel leader, U. Rite Aid ( is an American Retailer and Pharmacy chain, operating over 5000 stores in 31 states and the District of Columbia. Lewis E "Lew" Lehrman (Born August 15, 1938 in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania) actively supports the ongoing study of American history Jack Abramoff (born February 28 1959 is a former Lobbyist, and a businessman who was a central figure in a series of high-profile political scandals. Adolfo Calero Portocarrero (born December 22, 1931) was a Nicaraguan businessman and leader of the Nicaraguan Democratic Force, which was Nicaragua (ˌnɪkəˈrɑgwə officially the Republic of Nicaragua () is a representative democratic republic and the largest nation in Central America The Contras is a label given to the various rebel groups opposing Nicaragua 's FSLN (Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional Sandinista Junta of National Pa Kao Her ( Paj Kaub Hawj) was the leader of the Hmong Chao Fa movement in Laos after the communist Lao People's Revolutionary Party took power Lao or Laotian (BGN/PCGN phasa lao IPA: pʰaːsaː laːw is a Tonal Language of the Tai-Kadai language family S. Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, South African security forces, Abdurrahim Wardak, Afghan Mujahideen leader, Jack Wheeler, American conservative policy advocate, and many others. Lieutenant Colonel ( Lieutenant-Colonel in English from the French grade 's spelling is a rank of Commissioned officer in the armies Oliver Laurence North (born October 7 1943 in San Antonio Texas) is an American best known for his involvement in the Iran-Contra Affair. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Abdul Rahim Wardak is the Defence Minister of Afghanistan. He was appointed by President Hamid Karzai on December 23, 2004. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, A Mujahid (Arabic ar مجاهد, literally "struggler" is a Muslim involved in a Jihad, id est fighting in a war or ^[66] While the Reagan administration, although unwilling to publicly support the meeting, privately expressed approval. The United States Presidency of Ronald Reagan, also known as the Reagan Administration, was a Republican administration headed by The governments of Israel and South Africa supported the idea, but both respective countries were deemed inadvisable for hosting the conference. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa ^[66]

The participants released a communiqué stating,

"We, free peoples fighting for our national independence and human rights, assembled at Jamba, declare our solidarity with all freedom movements in the world and state our commitment to cooperate to liberate our nations from the Soviet Imperialists. "

The United States House of Representatives voted 236 to 185 to repeal the Clark Amendment on July 11, 1985. The United States House of Representatives is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress; the other is the Senate. Events 911 - Signing of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between Charles the Simple and Rollo of Normandy. Year 1985 ( MCMLXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays 1985 Gregorian calendar) ^[67] The Angolan government began attacking UNITA later that month from Luena towards Cazombo along the Benguela Railway, taking Cazombo on September 18. Events 96 - Nerva is proclaimed Roman Emperor after Domitian is assassinated The government tried unsuccessfully to take UNITA's supply depot in Mavinga from [[[Menongue]]. Mavinga is a town and municipality in the Cuando Cubango province of Angola. While the attack failed, very different interpretations of the attack emerged. UNITA claimed Portuguese-speaking Soviet officers led government troops while the government said UNITA relied on South African paratroopers to defeat the government. The South African government admitted to fighting in the area, but said its troops fought SWAPO militants. The South West Africa People's Organization ( SWAPO) is a Political party and former Liberation movement in Namibia. ^[68]

A war intensifies

By 1986, Angola began to assume a more central role in the Cold War, with both the Soviet Union, Cuba and other East bloc nations enhancing support for the MPLA government, and American conservatives beginning to elevate their support for Savimbi's UNITA. Savimbi developed close relations with influential American conservatives, who saw Savimbi as a key ally in the U. S. effort to oppose and rollback Soviet-backed, non-democratic governments around the world. The conflict quickly escalated, with both Washington and Moscow seeing it as a critical strategic conflict in the Cold War. Washington DC ( formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of

The Soviet Union gave an additional $1 billion in aid to the Angolan government and Cuba sent an additional 2,000 troops to the 35,000-strong force in Angola to protect Chevron oil platforms in 1986. ^[68] Savimbi had called Chevron's presence in Angola, already protected by Cuban troops, a "target" for UNITA in an interview with Foreign Policy magazine on January 31. Foreign Policy is a bimonthly American Magazine founded in 1970 by Samuel P Events 1504 - France cedes Naples to Aragon. 1606 - Gunpowder Plot: Guy Fawkes ^[69]

In Washington, Savimbi forged close relationships with influential conservatives, including Michael Johns (the Heritage Foundation's foreign policy analyst and a key Savimbi advocate), Grover Norquist (President of Americans for Tax Reform and a Savimbi economic advisor), and others, who played critical roles in elevating escalated U. Michael Johns (born September 8, 1964 in Allentown Pennsylvania) is an American Health care executive former Federal government The Heritage Foundation is an American conservative Think tank. Grover Glenn Norquist (born October 19, 1956) is president of anti- Tax Lobbying group Americans for Tax Reform. Americans for Tax Reform is an Interest group seeking to reduce the overall level of Taxation in the United States, at the federal state and local level S. covert aide to Savimbi's UNITA and visited with Savimbi in his Jamba, Angola headquarters to provide the Angolan rebel leader with military, political and other guidance in his war against the Angolan government. Jamba is a town in Angola, located in the southeastern province of Cuando Cubango, just north of the Namibian border along the Caprivi Strip With enhanced U. S. support, the war quickly escalated, both in terms of the intensity of the conflict and also in its perception as a key conflict in the overall Cold War. ^[70][71]

In addition to escalating its military support for UNITA, the Reagan administration and its conservative allies also worked to expand recognition of Savimbi as a key U. S. ally in an important Cold War struggle. In January 1986, Reagan invited Savimbi to meet with him at the White House. See also Executive Office of the President of the United States The White House, formerly known as the Executive Mansion, is the Official residence Following the meeting, Reagan spoke of UNITA winning a victory that "electrifies the world" at the White House in January 1986. See also Executive Office of the President of the United States The White House, formerly known as the Executive Mansion, is the Official residence Two months later, Reagan announced the delivery of Stinger surface-to-air missiles as part of the $25 million in aid UNITA received from the U. The FIM-92 Stinger is a personal portable Infrared homing Surface-to-air missile developed in the United States and used by all the U S. government. ^[72][62] Jeremias Chitunda, UNITA's representative to the U. Jeremias Kalandula Chitunda (1942- November 2, 1992) served as the Vice President of UNITA until his assassination in Luanda, on November 2 1992 S. , became the Vice President of UNITA in August 1986 at the sixth party congress. ^[73] Fidel Castro made Crocker's proposal, the withdrawal of foreign troops from Angola and Namibia, a prerequisite to Cuban withdrawal from Angola on September 10. Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born August 13 1926 is a Cuban revolutionary leader who was prime minister of Cuba from December 1959 to December 1976 and then president until Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa on the Atlantic coast Events 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul meet in the Council of Agde.

UNITA forces attacked Camabatela in Cuanza Norte province on February 8, 1987. Events 421 - Constantius III becomes co- Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Year 1987 ( MCMLXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link displays 1987 Gregorian calendar) ANGOP alleged UNITA massacred civilians in Damba in Uíge Province later that month, on February 26. Events 747 BC - Epoch (origin of Ptolemy 's Nabonassar Era 364 - Valentinian I is proclaimed The South African government agreed to Crocker's terms in principle on March 8. Events 1618 - Johannes Kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion. Savimbi proposed a truce regarding the Benguela railway on March 26, saying MPLA trains could pass through as long as an international inspection group monitored trains to prevent their use for counter-insurgency activity. The Benguela railway is operated by the Caminho de Ferro de Benguela ( CFB) that connects the Atlantic port of Lobito Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor. The government did not respond. In April 1987 Fidel Castro sent Cuba's Fiftieth Brigade to southern Angola, increasing the number of Cuban troops from 12,000 to 15,000. Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born August 13 1926 is a Cuban revolutionary leader who was prime minister of Cuba from December 1959 to December 1976 and then president until ^[74] The Angolan and American governments began negotiating in June 1987. ^[75][76]

Cuito Cuanavale and New York City

Main articles: Battle of Cuito Cuanavale and New York Accords

UNITA and South African forces attacked the MPLA's base at Cuito Cuanavale in Cuando Cubango province from January 13 to March 23, 1988, in the second largest battle in the history of Africa,^[77] after the Battle of El Alamein,^[78] the largest in sub-Saharan Africa since World War II. The battle of Cuito Cuanavale was one of the most important episodes of both the civil war in Angola ( 1975 to 2002) and the South African The New York Accords granted independence to Namibia and ended the direct involvement of foreign troops in the Angolan Civil War. Cuito Cuanavale is a small but geographically strategic town in the Cuando Cubango province of Angola. Events 532 - Nika riots in Constantinople. 888 - Odo Count of Paris becomes King of the Franks Events 1174 - Jocelin, Abbot of Melrose, is elected Bishop of Glasgow. Year 1988 ( MCMLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar) The history of Africa begins with the first emergence of Homo sapiens in East Africa, continuing into its modern present as a patchwork of The Second Battle of El Alamein marked a major turning point in the Western Desert Campaign of World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including ^[79] Cuito Cuanavale's importance came not from its size or its wealth but its location. South African Defense Forces maintained an overwatch on the city using new, G5 artillery pieces. The G5 is a South African towed Howitzer of 155 mm calibre manufactured by Denel. Both sides claimed victory in the ensuing Battle of Cuito Cuanavale. ^{[80][81][82][62]}

The Cuban government joined negotiations on January 28, 1988, and all three parties held a round of negotiations on March 9. Events 1077 - Walk to Canossa: The Excommunication of Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor is lifted Year 1988 ( MCMLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar) Events 590 - Bahram Chobin is crowned as king Barham VI of Persia. The South African government joined negotiations on May 3 and the parties met in June and August in New York and Geneva. Events 1491 - Kongo monarch Nkuwu Nzinga is baptised by Portuguese missionaries adopting the baptismal name of João New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous Geneva (Genève is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and is the most populous city of Romandy (the French -speaking All parties agreed to a ceasefire on August 8. Events 1220 - Sweden is defeated by Estonian tribes in the Battle of Lihula. Representatives from the governments of Angola, Cuba, and South Africa signed the New York Accords, granting independence to Namibia and ending the direct involvement of foreign troops in the civil war, in New York City on December 22, 1988. Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa on the Atlantic coast The City of New York Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies Year 1988 ( MCMLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar) ^[76][62] The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 626 later that day, creating the United Nations Angola Verification Mission, a UN peacekeeping force. The United Nations Angola Verification Mission I is a Peacekeeping mission that existed from January 1989 to June 1991 in Angola during the civil war. UNAVEM troops began arriving in Angola in January 1989. ^[83]

Despite ongoing negotiations for a peace settlement, Castro was determined to end Cuba's intervention in Angola with his forces on the offensive. ^[84] In June 1998, he therefore committed his "personal" 50th division to the conflict to attack the strategically important Calueque Dam. Calueque is a village next to a dam and pumping station on the Cunene River in the Cunene Province of southern Angola. On June 27, 1988, Cuban MIGs and a ground force of 600 infantry and 35 tanks attacked SADF positions near the Calueque dam, 11km north of the Namibian border. Events 1358 - Republic of Dubrovnik is founded 1709 - Peter the Great defeats Charles XII of Sweden Year 1988 ( MCMLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar) WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout A tank is a tracked, Armoured fighting vehicle designed for Front-line combat which combines Operational mobility and tactical Calueque is a village next to a dam and pumping station on the Cunene River in the Cunene Province of southern Angola. ^[84] The CIA reported that “Cuba’s successful use of air power and the apparent weakness of Pretoria’s air defences” highlighted the fact that Havana had achieved air superiority in southern Angola and northern Namibia. Only a few hours after the Cuban’s air strike, the SADF destroyed a nearby bridge over the Cunene River. They did so, the CIA surmised, “to deny Cuban and Angolan ground forces easy passage to the Namibia border and to reduce the number of positions they must defend. ”^[85]

Ceasefire

Main article: Gbadolite

As the Angolan Civil War began to take on a diplomatic component, in addition to a military one, two key Savimbi allies, The Conservative Caucus' Howard Phillips and the Heritage Foundation's Michael Johns visited Savimbi in Angola, where they sought to persuade Savimbi to come to the United States in the spring of 1989 to help the Conservative Caucus, the Heritage Foundation and other conservatives in making the case for continued U. Gbadolite or Gbado-Lite (ɡ͡badolite is the capital of the Nord-Ubangi Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Conservative Caucus, or TCC, is an American public policy organization and lobbying group emphasizing grassroots citizen activism and headquartered in Vienna, Howard Phillips (born February 6 1941 has served as the Chairman of The Conservative Caucus, a Conservative public policy advocacy group since 1974 S. aid to UNITA. ^[86]

President Mobutu invited 18 African leaders, Savimbi, and dos Santos to his palace in Gbadolite in June 1989 for negotiations. Gbadolite or Gbado-Lite (ɡ͡badolite is the capital of the Nord-Ubangi Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Savimbi and dos Santos met for the first time and agreed to the Gbadolite Declaration, a ceasefire, on June 22, paving the way for a future peace agreement. Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. ^[87][88] President Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia said a few days after the declaration that Savimbi had agreed to leave Angola and go into exile, a claim Mobutu, Savimbi, and the U. Kenneth David Kaunda, commonly known as KK (born April 28, 1924) served as the first President of Zambia, from 1964 to 1991 The Republic of Zambia (ˈzæmbɪə is a Landlocked country in Southern Africa. S. government disputed. ^[88] Dos Santos agreed with Kaunda's interpretation of the negotiations, saying Savimbi had agreed to temporarily leave the country. ^[89]

On August 23, dos Santos complained that the U. Events 79 - Mount Vesuvius begins stirring on the feast day of Vulcan the Roman god of fire S. and South African governments continued to fund UNITA, warning such activity endangered the already fragile ceasefire. The next day Savimbi announced UNITA would no longer abide by the ceasefire, citing Kaunda's insistence that Savimbi leave the country and UNITA disband. The government responded to Savimbi's statement by moving troops from Cuito Cuanavale, under government control, to UNITA-occupied Mavinga. The ceasefire broke down with dos Santos and the U. S. government blaming each other for the resumption in armed conflict. ^[90]

1990s

Main articles: Angolagate, United Nations Angola Verification Mission II, and First Congo War

Political changes abroad and military victories at home allowed the government to transition from a nominally communist state to a nominally democratic one. Angolagate, also known as the Mitterrand-Pasqua affair, is an international political scandal over the secret sale and shipment of arms from Eastern Europe to the The United Nations Angola Verification Mission II ( UNAVEM II) established May 1991 and lasting until February 1995, was the second United Nations The First Congo War (November 1996 to May 1997 ended when Zairean President Mobutu Sésé Seko was overthrown by rebel forces backed by foreign powers such as Namibia's declaration of independence, internationally recognized on April 1, eliminated the southwestern front of combat as South African forces withdrew to the east. Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa on the Atlantic coast Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne ^[91] The MPLA abolished the one-party system in June and rejected Marxist-Leninism at the MPLA's third Congress in December, formally changing the party's name from the MPLA-PT to the MPLA. A single-party state, one-party system or single-party system is a type of Party system Government in which a single Political party Marxism-Leninism is a Communist ideological stream that emerged as the mainstream tendency amongst the Communist parties in the 1920s as it was adopted ^[87] The National Assembly passed law 12/91 in May 1991, coinciding with the withdrawal of the last Cuban troops, defining Angola as a "democratic state based on the rule of law" with a multi-party system. The National Assembly (Portuguese Assembleia Nacional is the legislative branch of the government of Angola. The rule of law, in its most basic form is the principle that no one is above the law A multi-party system is a system in which three or more political parties have the capacity to gain control of government separately or in coalition ^[92] Observers met such changes with skepticism. American journalist Karl Maier wrote, "In the New Angola ideology is being replaced by the bottom line, as security and selling expertise in weaponry have become a very profitable business. With its wealth in oil and diamonds, Angola is like a big swollen carcass and the vultures are swirling overhead. Savimbi's former allies are switching sides, lured by the aroma of hard currency. "^[93]

Black, Manafort, Stone and Kelly

Main article: Black, Manafort, Stone and Kelly

Government troops wounded Savimbi in battles in January and February 1990, but not enough to restrict his mobility^[94] He went to Washington, D.C. in December and met with President George H. W. Bush again,^[87] the fourth of five trips he made to the United States. Black Manafort Stone and Kelly (often simply Black Manafort) was a lobbying firm based in Washington D Washington DC ( formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D George Herbert Walker Bush (born June 12 1924 served as the forty-first President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 Savimbi paid Black, Manafort, Stone, and Kelly, a lobbying firm based in Washington, D. C. , $5 million to lobby the Federal government for aid, portray UNITA favorably in Western media, and acquire support among politicos in D. The federal government of the United States is the central United States Governmental body established by the United States Constitution. This article is about the newspaper For the description of a person see Politico. C. Savimbi reaped huge rewards. ^[95]

Senators Larry Smith and Dante Fascell, a senior member of the firm, worked with the Cuban American National Foundation, Representative Claude Pepper of Florida, Neal Blair's Free the Eagle, and Howard Phillips The Conservative Caucus to repeal the Clark Amendment in 1985. Larry Smith is the name of Larry Smith, current president of the Montreal Alouettes Larry Smith (basketball, retired professional basketball Dante Bruno Fascell ( March 9, 1917 &ndash November 28, 1998) served an American Politician from the state The Cuban American National Foundation (CANF is a non-profit organization dedicated to overthrowing the Cuban government of Fidel Castro and a transition to capitalism Claude Denson Pepper (September 8 1900 – May 30 1989 was an American politician of the Democratic Party, and a spokesman for liberalism and the elderly Florida ( is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the Neal B Blair (born 1939 is a political lobbyist. He has served as the President of RUFFPAC, Free the Eagles is a conservative lobbying group based in Washington D Howard Phillips (born February 6 1941 has served as the Chairman of The Conservative Caucus, a Conservative public policy advocacy group since 1974 The Conservative Caucus, or TCC, is an American public policy organization and lobbying group emphasizing grassroots citizen activism and headquartered in Vienna, The Clark Amendment was an amendment to the US Arms Export Control Act of 1976 named for its sponsor Senator Dick Clark (D-Iowa ^[96] From the amendment's repeal in 1985 to 1992 the U. S. government gave Savimbi $60 million per year, a total of $300 million. A sizable amount of the aid went to Savimbi's personal expenses. Black, Manafort filed foreign lobbying records with the U.S. Justice Department showing Savimbi's expenses during his U. For animal rights group see Justice Department (JD The United States Department of Justice ( DOJ) is a Cabinet department S. visits. During his December 1990 visit he spent $136,424 at the Park Hyatt hotel and $2,705 in tips. Hyatt is an international brand of hotels within the Global Hyatt Corporation that operates numerous properties He spent almost $473,000 in October 1991 during his week-long visit to Washington and Manhattan. Manhattan Island, in New York Harbor, is much the largest part of the Borough of Manhattan, one of the Five Boroughs which form the City of New York He spent $98,022 in hotel bills, at the Park Hyatt, $26,709 in limousine rides in Washington and another $5,293 in Manhattan. Paul Manafort, a partner in the firm, charged Savimbi $19,300 in consulting and additional $1,712 in expenses. He also bought $1,143 worth of "survival kits" from Motorola. Motorola Inc ( is an American, multinational Fortune 100, Telecommunications company based in Schaumburg Illinois. When questioned in an interview in 1990 about human rights abuses under Savimbi, Black said, "Now when you're in a war, trying to manage a war, when the enemy. . . is no more than a couple of hours away from you at any given time, you might not run your territory according to New Hampshire town meeting rules. New Hampshire ( is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. "^[95]

Bicesse Accords

Main article: Bicesse Accords

President dos Santos met with Savimbi in Lisbon, Portugal and signed the Bicesse Accords, the first of three major peace agreements, on May 31, 1991, with the mediation of the Portuguese government. The Bicesse Accords, also known as the Estoril Accords, laid out a transition to multi-party Democracy in Angola under the supervision of the United Lisbon (Lisboa liʒˈboɐ is the Capital and largest city of Portugal. Events 1279 BC - Rameses II (The Great (19th dynasty becomes pharaoh of Ancient Egypt. Year 1991 ( MCMXCI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The accords laid out a transition to multi-party democracy under the supervision of the United Nations' UNAVEM II mission with a presidential election in a year. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The United Nations Angola Verification Mission II ( UNAVEM II) established May 1991 and lasting until February 1995, was the second United Nations The agreement attempted to demobilize the 152,000 active fighters and integrate the remaining government troops and UNITA rebels into a 50,000-strong Angolan Armed Forces (FAA). The Angolan Armed Forces ( FAA) is headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defense The FAA would consist of a national army with 40,000 troops, navy with 6,000, and air force with 4,000. ^[97] While UNITA largely did not disarm, the FAA complied with the accord and demobilized, leaving the government disadvantaged. ^[98]

Angola held the first round of its 1992 presidential election on September 29–30. The Angolan presidential election of 1992 was the first multi-party election held in Angola since independence in 1975. Dos Santos officially received 49. 57% of the vote and Savimbi won 40. 6%. As no candidate received 50% or more of the vote, election law dictated a second round of voting between the top two contenders. Savimbi, along with many other election observers, said the election had been neither free nor fair, but he sent Jeremias Chitunda, Vice President of UNITA, to Luanda to negotiate the terms of the second round. Jeremias Kalandula Chitunda (1942- November 2, 1992) served as the Vice President of UNITA until his assassination in Luanda, on November 2 1992 ^[99][100] The election process broke down on October 31, when government troops in Luanda attacked UNITA. Events 445 BC – Ezra reads the Book of the Law to the Israelites in Jerusalem (see Nehemiah 91 NLTse Civilians, using guns they had received from police a few days earlier, conducted house-by-house raids with the Rapid Intervention Police, killing and detaining hundreds of UNITA supporters. The government took civilians in trucks to the Camama cemetery and Morro da Luz ravine, shot them, and buried them in mass graves. A mass grave is a grave containing multiple usually unidentified human corpses Assailants attacked Chitunda's convoy on November 2, pulling him out of his car and shooting him and two others in their faces. Events 1570 - A Tidal wave in the North Sea devastates the coast from Holland to Jutland, killing more than 1000 ^[100]

Then, in a series of stunning victories, UNITA regained control over Caxito, Huambo, M'banza Kongo, Ndalatando, and Uíge, provincial capitals it had not held since 1976, and moved against Kuito, Luena, and Malange. Caxito is a town located in northwestern Angola and administrative capital of Bengo Province. For Huambo the location in Amazonas, Peru, see Huambo District Huambo is the capital of Huambo province in M'banza-Kongo, formerly known as São Salvador (in Portuguese) is the capital of Angola 's northwestern Zaire Province. N'dalatando (pre-1975 Vila Salazar) is a town located in northwestern Angola. Uíge (pre-1975 Carmona) is the capital city of Uíge Province in Angola. Although the U. S. and South African governments had stopped aiding UNITA, supplies continued to come from Mobutu in Zaire. ^[101] UNITA tried to wrest control of Cabinda from the MPLA in January 1993. Edward DeJarnette, Head of the U. S. Liaison Office in Angola for the Clinton Administration, warned Savimbi that, if UNITA hindered or halted Cabinda's production, the U. The United States Presidency of Bill Clinton, also known as the Clinton Administration, was the executive branch of the Federal S. would end its support for UNITA. On January 9, UNITA began a 55-day long battle over Huambo, the War of the Cities. Events 475 - Byzantine Emperor Zeno is forced to flee his capital at Constantinople. Hundreds of thousands fled and 10,000 were killed before UNITA gained control on March 7. Events 161 - Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius dies and is succeeded by co-Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus The government engaged in an ethnic cleansing of Bakongo, and, to a lesser extent Ovimbundu, in multiple cities, most notably Luanda, on January 22 in the Bloody Friday massacre. Ethnic cleansing is a Euphemism referring to the persecution through imprisonment expulsion or killing of members of an ethnic minority by a majority to achieve ethnic homogeneity The Bakongo or the Kongo people (meaning "hunter" also sometimes referred to as Congolese, live along the Atlantic coast of Africa The Ovimbundu are an ethnic group consisting of traders farmers and herders who live on the Bié Plateau of central Angola. Events 565 - Eutychius is deposed as Patriarch of Constantinople by John Scholasticus. UNITA and government representatives met five days later in Ethiopia, but negotiations failed to restore the peace. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page ^[102] The United Nations Security Council sanctioned UNITA through Resolution 864 on September 15, 1993, prohibiting the sale of weapons or fuel to UNITA. Events 668 - Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II is assassinated in his bath at Syracuse Italy. Year 1993 ( MCMXCIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar) Perhaps the clearest shift in U.S. foreign policy emerged when President Clinton issued Executive Order 12865 on September 23, labeling UNITA a "continuing threat to the foreign policy objectives of the U. The foreign policy of the United States is highly influential on the world stage as it is a Superpower. executive order in the United States is a Directive issued by the President, the head of the executive branch of the federal government Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English S. ". ^[103] By August 1993, UNITA had gained control over 70% of Angola, but the government's military successes in 1994 forced UNITA to sue for peace. By November 1994, the government had taken control of 60% of the country. Savimbi called the situation UNITA's "deepest crisis" since its creation. ^{[93][104][105]}

Lusaka Protocol

Main article: Lusaka Protocol

Savimbi, unwilling to personally sign an accord, had former UNITA Secretary General Eugenio Manuvakola represent UNITA in his place. The Lusaka Protocol, signed in Lusaka, Zambia on October 31, 1994, attempted to end the Angolan Civil War by integrating and disarming Eugenio Manuvakola is the leader of UNITA Renovada a breakaway faction of the UNITA political party in Angola. Manuvakola and Angolan Foreign Minister Venancio de Moura signed the Lusaka Protocol in Lusaka, Zambia on October 31, 1994, agreeing to integrate and disarm UNITA. The Lusaka Protocol, signed in Lusaka, Zambia on October 31, 1994, attempted to end the Angolan Civil War by integrating and disarming Lusaka is the capital and largest city of Zambia. It is located in the southern part of the central plateau of the country at an elevation The Republic of Zambia (ˈzæmbɪə is a Landlocked country in Southern Africa. Events 445 BC – Ezra reads the Book of the Law to the Israelites in Jerusalem (see Nehemiah 91 NLTse Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola ( União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola) is the second-largest Political party in Angola. Both sides signed a ceasefire as part of the protocol on November 20. Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, ^[104][105] Under the agreement the government and UNITA would ceasefire and demobilize. 5,500 UNITA members, including 180 militants, would join the Angolan National police, 1,200 UNITA members, including 40 militants, would join the rapid reaction police force, and UNITA generals would become officers in the Angolan Armed Forces. An officer is a member of an armed force who holds a position of authority The Angolan Armed Forces ( FAA) is headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defense Foreign mercenaries would return to their home countries and all parties would stop acquiring foreign arms. The agreement gave UNITA politicians homes and a headquarters. The government agree to appoint UNITA members to head the Mines, Commerce, Health, and Tourism ministries, in addition to seven deputy ministers, ambassadors, the governorships of Uige, Lunda Sul, and Cuando Cubango, deputy governors, municipal administrators, deputy administrators, and commune administrators. The government would release all prisoners and give amnesty to all militants involved in the civil war. ^[104][105] Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe and South African President Nelson Mandela met in Lusaka on November 15, 1994 to boost support symbolically for the protocol. This page contains a list of presidents of Zimbabwe. Canaan Banana was a "figurehead" president but Mugabe has been an executive The President of South Africa, in full the President of the Republic of South Africa is the Head of state and Head of government under South Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (xolíɬaɬa mandéːla born 18 July 1918 is a former President of South Africa, the first to be elected in fully representative Events 655 - Battle of Winwaed: Penda of Mercia is defeated by Oswiu of Northumbria. Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Mugabe and Mandela both said they would be willing to meet with Savimbi and Mandela asked him to come to South Africa, but Savimbi did not come. The agreement created a joint commission, consisting of officials from the Angolan government, UNITA, and the UN with the governments of Portugal, the United States, and Russia observing, to oversee its implementation. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Violations of the protocol's provisions would be discussed and reviewed by the commission. ^[104] The protocol's provisions, integrating UNITA into the military, a ceasefire, and a coalition government, were similar to those of the Alvor Agreement that granted Angola independence from Portugal in 1975. The Alvor Agreement, signed on January 15, 1975, granted Angola independence from Portugal on November 11, ending the war for Many of the same environmental problems, mutual distrust between UNITA and the MPLA, loose international oversight, the importation of foreign arms, and an overemphasis on maintaining the balance of power, led to the collapse of the protocol. The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola - Party of Labour (Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola - Partido do Trabalho is an Angolan political party ^[105]

Arms monitoring

In January 1995, United States President Bill Clinton sent Paul Hare, his envoy to Angola, to support the Lusaka Protocol and impress the importance of the ceasefire onto the Angolan government and UNITA, both in need of outside assistance. William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III, August 19 1946 served as the forty-second President of the United States ^[106] The United Nations agreed to send a peacekeeping force on February 8. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Events 421 - Constantius III becomes co- Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. ^[20] Savimbi met with South African President Nelson Mandela in May. The President of South Africa, in full the President of the Republic of South Africa is the Head of state and Head of government under South Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (xolíɬaɬa mandéːla born 18 July 1918 is a former President of South Africa, the first to be elected in fully representative Shortly after, on June 18, the MPLA offered Savimbi the position of Vice President under dos Santos with another Vice President chosen from the MPLA. Events 618 - Coronation of the Chinese governor Li Yuan as Emperor Gaozu of Tang, the new Emperor of China, initiating three centuries Savimbi told Mandela he felt ready to "serve in any capacity which will aid my nation," but he did not accept the proposal until August 12. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon - Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid ^[107][108] The United States Department of Defense and Central Intelligence Agency's Angola operations and analysis expanded in an effort to halt weapons shipments,^[106] a violation of the protocol, with limited success. The United States Department of Defense ( DOD or DoD) is the federal department charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all The Angolan government bought six Mil Mi-17 from Ukraine in 1995. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. ^[109] The government bought L-39 attack aircraft from the Czech Republic in 1998 along with ammunition and uniforms from Zimbabwe Defence Industries and ammunition and weapons from Ukraine in 1998 and 1999. The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. ^[109] U. S. monitoring significantly dropped off in 1997 as events in Zaire, the Congo and then Liberia occupied more of the U. S. government's attention. ^[106] UNITA purchased more than 20 FROG-7 scuds and three FOX 7 missiles from the North Korean government in 1999. The FROG-7 is the final version of the FROG family of unguided spin-stabilized short-range artillery rockets ^[110]

The UN extended its mandate on February 8, 1996. Events 421 - Constantius III becomes co- Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Year 1996 ( MCMXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar) In March, Savimbi and dos Santos formally agreed to form a coalition government. ^[20] The government deported 2,000 West African and Lebanese Angolans in Operation Cancer Two, in August 1996, on the grounds that dangerous minorities were responsible for the rising crime rate. ^[111] In 1996 the Angolan government bought military equipment from India, two Mil Mi-24 attack helicopters and three Sukhoi Su-17 from Kazakhstan in December, and helicopters from Slovakia in March. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Slovakia (long form Slovak Republic; Slovak:, long form, is a Landlocked country in Central Europe with a population of over five million ^[109]

The international community helped install a Government of Unity and National Reconciliation in April 1997, but UNITA did not allow the regional MPLA government to take up residence in 60 cities. The UN Security Council voted on August 28, 1997 to impose sanctions on UNITA through Resolution 1127, prohibiting UNITA leaders from traveling abroad, closing UNITA's embassies abroad, and making UNITA-controlled areas a no-fly zone. Events 475 - The Roman General Orestes forces western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos to flee his Capital Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar A no-fly zone is a territory over which Aircraft are not permitted to fly The Security Council expanded the sanctions through Resolution 1173 on June 12, 1998, requiring government certification for the purchase of Angolan diamonds and freezing UNITA's bank accounts. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1173 (1998 addressed the Angolan Civil War, condemning the UNITA rebels but also urging certain reforms on the government Events 1381 - Peasants' Revolt: in England, rebels arrive at Blackheath. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) ^[101]

The UN spent $1. 6 billion from 1994 to 1998 in maintaining a peacekeeping force. ^[20] The Angolan military attacked UNITA forces in the Central Highlands on December 4, 1998, the day before the MPLA's fourth Congress. "December 4th" redirects here For the song by Jay-Z, see December 4th (song. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) Dos Santos told the delegates the next day that he believed war to be the only way to ultimately achieve peace, rejected the Lusaka Protocol, and asked MONUA to leave. In February 1999, the Security Council withdrew the last MONUA personnel. In late 1998, several UNITA commanders, dissatisfied with Savimbi's leadership, formed UNITA Renovada, a breakaway militant group. UNITA Renovada is a militant group that broke away from mainstream UNITA in Angola in late 1998 when several UNITA commanders dissatisfied with the leadership of Thousands more deserted UNITA in 1999 and 2000. ^[101]

The Angolan military launched Operation Restore, a massive offensive, in September 1999, recapturing N'harea, Mungo and Andulo and Bailundo, the site of Savimbi's headquarters just one year before. Operation Restore ( Restaurar da Operaçao) is a highly successful military operation that the Angolan government conducted against UNITA rebels in Autumn The UN Security Council passed Resolution 1268 on October 15, instructing United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan to update the Security Council to the situation in Angola every three months. Events 533 - Byzantine General Belisarius makes his formal entry into Carthage, having conquered it from the The Secretary-General of the United Nations is the head of the Secretariat, one of the principal organs of the United Nations. Kofi Atta Annan, GCMG (born 8 April 1938 is a Ghanaian Diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations Dos Santos offered an amnesty to UNITA militants on November 11. Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare By December, Chief of Staff General João de Matos said the Angolan Armed Forces had destroyed 80% of UNITA's militant wing and captured 15,000 tons of military equipment. The Angolan Armed Forces ( FAA) is headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defense ^{[112][101][113]} Following the dissolution of the coalition government, Savimbi retreated to his historical base in Moxico and prepared for battle. ^[114]

Diamonds

Main articles: Economy of Angola and Blood diamonds#Angola

UNITA's success in mining diamonds and selling them abroad at an inflated price allowed the war to continue even as the movement's support in the Western world and among the local populace withered away. The Economy of Angola is the fastest-growing Economy in Africa, but is still recovering from the Angolan Civil War that plagued Angola from independence in 1975 In relation to diamond trading blood diamond (also called a converted diamond, conflict diamond, hot diamond or a war diamond) refers to a diamond The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings De Beers and Endiama, a state-owned diamond-mining monopoly, signed a contract allowing De Beers to handle Angola's diamond exportation in 1990. De Beers and the various companies within the De Beers Family of Companies engage in exploration for diamonds, diamond mining diamond trading and industrial diamond manufacture Endiama (Empresa de Diamantes de Angola is the national Diamond company of Angola and it is the exclusive concessionary of mining rights in the domain In Mineralogy, diamond is the allotrope of carbon where the carbon atoms are arranged in In Economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos, alone or single + polein, to sell exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient ^[115] According to the United Nation's Fowler Report, Joe De Deker, a former stockholder in De Beers, worked with the government of Zaire to supply military equipment to UNITA from 1993 to 1997. The Republic of Zaire (pronunciation; République du Zaïre was the name of the present Democratic Republic of the Congo between October 27, 1971 De Deker's brother, Ronnie, allegedly flew from South Africa to Angola, directing weapons originating in Eastern Europe. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. In return, UNITA gave Ronnie bushels of diamonds worth $6 million. De Deker sent the diamonds to De Beer's buying office in Antwerp, Belgium. ||-||-||-||} Antwerp ( Dutch:, French: Anvers) is a City and Municipality in Belgium and the capital of the The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those De Beers openly acknowledges spending $500 million on legal and illegal Angolan diamonds in 1992 alone. The United Nations estimates Angolans made between three and four billion dollars through the diamond trade between 1992 and 1998. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security ^[103][116] The UN also estimates that out of that sum, UNITA made at least $3. 72 billion, or 93% of all diamond sales, despite international sanctions. ^[117]

Executive Outcomes (EO), a private military company. Executive Outcomes was a Private military company founded in South Africa by former Lieutenant-Colonel of the South African Defence Force A private military company ( PMC) provides specialized expertise or services of a military nature sometimes called or classified as Mercenary ("soldiers for hire" EO played a major role in turning the tide for the MPLA with one U. S. defense expert calling the EO the "best fifty or sixty million dollars the Angolan government ever spent". Heritage Oil and Gas, and allegedly De Beers, hired EO to protect their operations in Angola. ^[118] Executive Outcomes trained 4,000 to 5,000 troops and 30 pilots in combat in camps in Lunda Sul, Cabo Ledo, and Dondo. ^[119]

Cabinda separatism

Cabindan rebels kidnapped and ransomed off foreign oil workers throughout the 1990s to in turn finance further attacks against the national government. FLEC militants stopped buses, forcing Chevron Oil workers out, and setting fire to the buses on March 27 and April 23, 1992. Events 196 BC - Ptolemy V ascends to the throne of Egypt. 1309 - Pope Clement V excommunicates Events 215 BC - A temple is built on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to Venus Erycina to commemorate the Roman defeat at Year 1992 ( MCMXCII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar) A large-scale battle took place between FLEC and police in Malongo on May 14 in which 25 mortar rounds accidentally hit a nearby Chevron compound. Events 1264 - Battle of Lewes: Henry III of England is captured in France making Simon de Montfort the ^[120] The government, fearing the loss of their prime source of revenue, began to negotiate with representatives from Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda-Renewal (FLEC-R), Armed Forces of Cabinda (FLEC-FAC), and the Democratic Front of Cabinda (FDC) in 1995. The Forças Armadas de Cabinda (FAC or Armed Forces of Cabinda is the armed wing of the political Cabindan nationalist group the Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda Democratic Front of Cabinda ( Portuguese: Frente Democratica de Cabinda; abbreviated to FDC) is a separatist rebel group that fights for the independence Patronage and bribery failed to assuage the anger of FLEC-R and FLEC-FAC and negotiations ended. Patronage is the support encouragement privilege and often financial aid given by a person or an organization Bribery, a form of pecuniary corruption is an act usually implying money or gift given that alters the behaviour of the recipient in ways not consistent with the duties of that person In February 1997, FLEC-FAC kidnapped two Inwangsa SDN-timber company employees, killing one and releasing the other after receiving a $400,000 ransom. FLEC-FLAC kidnapped eleven people in April 1998, nine Angolans and two Portuguese, released for a $500,000 ransom. FLEC-R kidnapped five Byansol-oil engineering employees, two Frenchman, two Portuguese, and an Angolan, on March, 1999. While militants released the Angolan, the government complicated the situation by promising the rebel leadership $12. 5 million for the hostages. When António Bento Bembe, the President of FLEC-R, showed up, the Angolan army arrested him and his bodyguards. António Bento Bembe is the Secretary-General of the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda, a minister without portfolio in the Angolan government, and The Angolan army later forcibly freed the other hostages on July 7. Events 1456 - A retrial verdict acquits Joan of Arc of heresy 25 years after her death By the end of the year the government had arrested the leadership of all three rebel organizations. ^[121]

2000s

Main articles: 2000s in Angola, Angolagate, and Second Congo War

Illicit arms trading characterized much of the last years of the Angolan war. The 2000s in Angola saw the end of a 27-year-long civil war (1975-2002 and economic growth as foreign nation's began to invest in Angola's untapped Petroleum reserves Angolagate, also known as the Mitterrand-Pasqua affair, is an international political scandal over the secret sale and shipment of arms from Eastern Europe to the The Second Congo War, also known as Africa's World War and the Great War of Africa, began in August 1998 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Each side tried to gain the upper hand by buying arms abroad in Eastern Europe and Russia. Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending A Russian freighter delivered 500 tons of Ukrainian 7. 62 mm ammunition to Simportex, a division of the Angolan government, with the help of a shipping agent in London on September 21, 2000. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Events 1217 - The Estonian tribal leader Lembitu of Lehola was killed in a battle against Teutonic Knights. 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. The ship's captain declared his cargo "fragile" to minimize inspection. ^[122] The next day, the MPLA began attacking UNITA, winning victories in several battles from September 22–25. The government gained control over military bases and diamond mines in Lunda Norte and Lunda Sul, hurting Savimbi's ability to pay his troops. ^[20]

Angola agreed to trade oil to Slovakia in return for arms, buying six Sukhoi Su-17 attack aircraft on April 3, 2000. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Ground-attack aircraft are military aircraft designed to attack targets on the ground and are often deployed as Close air support for and in proximity to their own ground forces Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England. 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. The Spanish government in the Canary Islands prevented a Ukrainian freighter from delivering 636 tons of military equipment to Angola on February 24, 2001. The Canary Islands ( English pronunciation kəˈnæriː ˈaɪləndz Spanish: Islas Canarias, ˈizlas kaˈnarjas are a Spanish Events 303 - Galerius, Roman Emperor, publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. The captain of the ship had inaccurately reported his cargo, falsely claiming the ship carried automobile parts. The Angolan government admitted Simportex had purchased arms from Rosvooruzhenie, the Russian state-owned arms company, and acknowledged the captain might have violated Spanish law by misreporting his cargo, a common practice in arms smuggling to Angola. JSC Rosoboronexport ( Russian: OAO Рособоронэкспорт is the sole state intermediary agency for Russia 's exports/imports of defense–related ^[122]

UNITA carried out several attacks against civilians in May in a show of strength. UNITA militants attacked Caxito on May 7, killing 100 people and kidnapping 60 children and two adults. Events 558 - In Constantinople, the dome of the Hagia Sophia collapses UNITA then attacked Baia-do-Cuio, followed by an attack on Golungo Alto, a city 200 kilometres (124 mi) east of Luanda, a few days later. For the mystic of the Han Dynasty see Luan Da. Luanda (formerly called Loanda) is the The militants advanced on Golungo Alto at 2:00 pm on May 21, staying until 9:00 pm on May 22 when the Angolan military retook the town. Events 878 - Syracuse Italy is captured by the Muslim sultan of Sicily. Events 334 BC - The Greek army of Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of the Granicus. They looted local businesses, taking food and alcoholic beverages before singing drunkenly in the streets. More than 700 villagers trekked 60 kilometres (37 mi) from Golungo Alto to Ndalatando, the provincial capital of Cuanza Norte, without injury. N'dalatando (pre-1975 Vila Salazar) is a town located in northwestern Angola. According to an aid official in Ndalatando, the Angolan military prohibited media coverage of the incident, so the details of the attack are unknown. Joffre Justino, UNITA's spokesman in Portugal, said UNITA only attacked Gungo Alto to demonstrate the government's military inferiority and the need to cut a deal. ^[123] Four days later UNITA released the children to a Catholic mission in Camabatela, a city 200 kilometres (124 mi) from where UNITA kidnapped them. The national organization said the abduction violated their policy towards the treatment of civilians. In a letter to the bishops of Angola, Jonas Savimbi asked the Catholic church to act as an intermediary between UNITA and the government in negotiations. A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight Jonas Malheiro Savimbi ( August 3, 1934 &ndash February 22, 2002) led UNITA, an anti-Communist rebel group that fought against ^[124] The attacks took their toll on Angola's economy. At the end of May, De Beers, the international diamond mining company, suspended its operations in Angola, ostensibly on the grounds that negotiations with the national government reached an impasse. De Beers and the various companies within the De Beers Family of Companies engage in exploration for diamonds, diamond mining diamond trading and industrial diamond manufacture In Mineralogy, diamond is the allotrope of carbon where the carbon atoms are arranged in ^[125]

Militants of unknown affiliation fired rockets at United Nations World Food Program (UNWFP) planes on June 8 near Luena and again near Kuito a few days later. Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable Luena can refer to Luena Moxico Province, Angola the Luena River Angola which rises near it and the Luena people, and ethnic group in the Kuito (also Cuito) is a city located in central Angola. It is the administrative capital of Bié Province. As the first plane, a Boeing 727, approached Luena someone shot a missile at the aircraft, damaging one engine but not critically as the three man crew landed successfully. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The plane's altitude, 5,000 metres (16,404 ft), most likely prevented the assailant from identifying his target. As the citizens of Luena had enough food to last them several weeks, the UNFWP temporarily suspended their flights. When the flights began again a few days later, militants shot at a plane flying to Kuito, the first attack targeting UN workers since 1999. ^[126] The UNWFP again suspended food aid flights throughout the country. While he did not claim responsibility for the attack, UNITA spokesman Justino said the planes carried weapons and soldiers rather than food, making them acceptable targets. UNITA and the Angolan government both said the international community needed to pressure the other side into returning to the negotiating table. Despite the looming humanitarian crisis, neither side guaranteed UNWFP planes safety. Kuito, which had relied on international aid, only had enough food to feed their population of 200,000. Kuito (also Cuito) is a city located in central Angola. It is the administrative capital of Bié Province. ^[127] The UNFWP had to fly in all aid to Kuito and the rest of the Central Highlands because militants ambushed trucks. Further complicating the situation, potholes in the Kuito airport strip slowed aid deliveries. Overall chaos reduced the amount of available oil to the point at which the UN had to import its jet fuel. ^[128]

Government troops captured and destroyed UNITA's Epongoloko base in Benguela province and Mufumbo base in Cuanza Sul in October 2001. ^[129] The Slovak government sold fighter jets to the Angolan government in 2001 in violation of the European Union Code of Conduct on Arms Exports. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in ^[130]

Death of Savimbi

Government troops killed Savimbi on February 22, 2002, in Moxico province. Events 1495 - King Charles VIII of France enters Naples to claim the city's throne See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ^[131] UNITA Vice President Antonio Dembo took over, but died from diabetes 12 days later on March 3, and Secretary-General Paulo Lukamba became UNITA's leader. Events 1284 - Statute of Rhuddlan incorporated the Principality of Wales into England 1575 - Indian General Paulo Lukamba "Gato" (born Armindo Lucas Paulo on May 13, 1954) led UNITA, an Anti-Communist rebel group that fought ^[132] After Savimbi's death, the government came to a crossroads over how to proceed. After initially indicating the counter-insurgency might continue, the government announced it would halt all military operations on March 13. This article describes three distinct but related terms military operations Operations as military events and operational level of war Events 1138 - Cardinal Gregorio Conti is elected Antipope as Victor IV, succeeding Anacletus II. Military commanders for UNITA and the MPLA met in Cassamba and agreed to a cease-fire. However, Carlos Morgado, UNITA's spokesman in Portugal, said he UNITA's Portugal wing had been under the impression General Kamorteiro, the UNITA general who agreed to the ceasefire, had been captured more than a week earlier. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Morgado did say that he had not heard from Angola since Savimbi's death. The military commanders signed a Memorandum of Understanding as an addendum to the Lusaka Protocol in Luena on April 4, Dos Santos and Lukambo observing. The Lusaka Protocol, signed in Lusaka, Zambia on October 31, 1994, attempted to end the Angolan Civil War by integrating and disarming Luena can refer to Luena Moxico Province, Angola the Luena River Angola which rises near it and the Luena people, and ethnic group in the Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I. ^[133][134]

The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1404 on April 18, extending the UNAVEM III mission by six months. Events 1025 - Bolesław Chrobry is crowned in Gniezno, becoming the first King of Poland. The United Nations Angola Verification Mission III is a Peacekeeping mission that existed began operating in Angola in 1995 during the civil war. Resolutions 1412 and 1432, passed on May 17 and August 15 respectively, suspended the UN travel ban on UNITA officials for 90 days each, finally abolishing the ban through Resolution 1439 on October 18. Events 1521 - Edward Stafford 3rd Duke of Buckingham, is executed for Treason. Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed Events 1009 - The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, a Christian church in Jerusalem, is completely destroyed by the Fatimid UNAVEM III, extended an additional two months by Resolution 1439, ended on December 19. Events 324 - Licinius abdicates his position as Roman Emperor. ^[135]

UNITA's new leadership declared the rebel group a political party and officially demobilized its armed forces in August 2002. August 2002: January - February - March - April - May - June - July - August - September ^[136] That same month, the United Nations Security Council replaced the United Nations Office in Angola with the United Nations Mission in Angola, a larger, non-military, political presence. ^[137]

Legacy

The civil war spawned a disastrous humanitarian crisis in Angola, internally displacing 4. 28 million people, one-third of Angola's population. The United Nations estimated in 2003 that 80 percent of Angolans lacked access to basic medical care, 60 percent lacked access to water, and 30 percent of Angolan children would die before the age of 5, with an overall life expectancy of less than 40 years of age. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Life expectancy is the average number of years of life remaining at a given age ^[138] The government spent $187 million settling IDPs between April 4, 2002 and 2004, after which the World Bank gave $33 million to continue the settling process. Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I. See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. The World Bank is an internationally supported Bank that provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries for development programs (e The UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) estimated that fighting in 2002 displaced 98,000 people between January 1 and February 28 alone. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule The IDPs, unacquainted with their surroundings, frequently and predominantly fell victim to these weapons. IDPs comprised 75% of all landmine victims. Militant forces laid approximately 15 million landmines by 2002. A land mine is an Explosive device designed to be placed on or in the ground to explode when triggered by an operator or the Proximity of a vehicle person ^[137] The HALO Trust charity began demining in 1994, destroying 30,000 by July 2007. The HALO Trust is a registered British charity and American Non-profit organization whose purpose is to remove the debris left behind by war There are 1,100 Angolans and seven foreign workers who are working for HALO Trust in Angola, with operations expected to finish sometime between 2011 and 2014. ^[139][140]

Human Rights Watch estimates UNITA and the government employed more than 6,000 and 3,000 child soldiers respectively, some forcibly impressed, during the war. Human Rights Watch is a United States -based international Non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on Human rights. The military use of Children takes three distinct forms children can take direct part in hostilities (child soldiers or they can be used in support roles such as porters spies messengers Human rights analysts found 5,000 to 8,000 underage girls married to UNITA militants. Some girls were ordered to go and forage for food to provide for the troops. If the girls did not bring back enough food as judged by their commander, then the girls would not eat. After victories, UNITA commanders would be rewarded with women who were often then sexually abused. The government and U. N. agencies identified 190 child soldiers in the Angolan army and relocated 70 of them by November 2002, but the government continued to knowingly employ other underage soldiers. ^[141]

Cultural influence

Main articles: Red Dawn and Red Scorpion

John Milius's 1984 film Red Dawn explores a future in which the United States loses a nuclear war with the Soviet Union and is invaded by a joint Cuban-Soviet force, similar to the contemporary reality in Angola. Red Dawn is a 1984 war film by John Milius about a fictional invasion of the United States by the Soviet Union, Cuba and Red Scorpion is a 1989 film starring Dolph Lundgren. The film is noted for its association with future Lobbyist Jack Abramoff John Frederick Milius (born April 11, 1944) is an American Screenwriter, director, and producer of Motion pictures Red Dawn is a 1984 war film by John Milius about a fictional invasion of the United States by the Soviet Union, Cuba and One of the officers depicted in the film, a Cuban named Bella, is said to have fought in the Cold War conflicts in Angola, El Salvador, and Nicaragua. El Salvador ( República de El Salvador,) is a country in Central America. Nicaragua (ˌnɪkəˈrɑgwə officially the Republic of Nicaragua () is a representative democratic republic and the largest nation in Central America ^[142][143]

Now-disgraced lobbyist Jack Abramoff wrote and co-produced the film Red Scorpion with his brother Robert in 1989. Jack Abramoff (born February 28 1959 is a former Lobbyist, and a businessman who was a central figure in a series of high-profile political scandals. Red Scorpion is a 1989 film starring Dolph Lundgren. The film is noted for its association with future Lobbyist Jack Abramoff Events Actress Kim Basinger and her brother Mick purchase Braselton Georgia for $20 million Dolph Lundgren played Nikolai, a Soviet agent sent to assassinate an African revolutionary in a country modeled on Angola. Dolph Lundgren (born Hans Lundgren on November 3, 1957 in Stockholm, Sweden is a Swedish Actor, director ^{[144][145][146]} The film has a strongly anti-Communist message, and goes to great lengths to depict the sadism and violence of the Soviets, including a scene in which chemical weapons are used. Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of Chemical substances to kill injure or incapacitate an enemy. ^[147] The South African government financed the film through the International Freedom Foundation, a front-group chaired by Abramoff, as part of its efforts to undermine international sympathy for the African National Congress. The International Freedom Foundation (IFF was a self-described Anti-communist group established in Washington D The African National Congress (ANC has been South Africa 's governing party supported by its Tripartite alliance with the Congress of South African Trade Unions ^[148]

Produced by Fernando Vendrell, and directed by Zézé Gamboa, the 2004 film The Hero is about the life of average Angolans after the civil war. The Hero ( O Herói) is a film about the life of average Angolans after the Angolan Civil War. The film follows the lives of three individuals: Vitório, a war veteran crippled by a landmine who returns to Luanda; Manu, a young boy searching for his soldier father; and Joana, a teacher who mentors the boy and begins a love affair with Vitório. A veteran (from Latin vetus, meaning "old" is a person who has or is working in the armed forces For the mystic of the Han Dynasty see Luan Da. Luanda (formerly called Loanda) is the The Hero won the 2005 Sundance World Dramatic Cinema Jury Grand Prize. Sundance is a popular Ski resort located near Provo Utah. It was bought by the Actor Robert Redford in 1968 presumably because Redford's wife A joint Angolan, Portuguese, and French production, Gamboa filmed The Hero entirely in Angola. ^[149]

See also

• Republic of Cabinda
• Cuba in Angola

Further reading

• Brittain, Victoria. The Republic of Cabinda is the name adopted by the currently unrecognized secessionist government of Cabinda, presently an exclave of Angola. Death of Dignity, Red Sea Press, 1998. ISBN . An account of the conflict from the MPLA's point of view.
• Stockwell, John. John R Stockwell is a former CIA officer who became a critic of United States government policies after serving in the Agency for thirteen years serving In Search of Enemies: A CIA Story, W.W. Norton, 1978. W W Norton & Company is an American book publishing company that has remained independent since its founding
• Kapuściński, Ryszard. Ryszard Kapuściński ( IPA: kapuɕ'ʨiɲski; March 4 1932 - January 23, 2007) was a popular Polish Journalist Another Day of Life, Penguin, 1975. ISBN 014118678X. A Polish journalist's account of Portuguese withdrawal from Angola and the beginning of the civil war.
• Une Odyssee Africaine (Frankreich, 2006, 59mn) Regie: Jihan El Tahri
• ICAIC (Instituto cubano del arte e industria cinematograficos)
• Gleijeses, Piero: Kuba in Afrika 1975–1991. In: Bernd Greiner /Christian Th. Müller / Dierk Walter (Hrsg. ): Heiße Kriege im Kalten Krieg. Hamburg, 2006, ISBN
• Gleijeses, Piero: Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, (The University of North Carolina Press)
• Saney, Isaac, "African Stalingrad: The Cuban Revolution, Internationalism and the End of Apartheid," Latin American Perspectives, Vol. 33, No. 5 (September 2006): pp. 81–117.
• Nelson Mendela & Fidel Castro, How Far We Slaves Have Come! (New York:Pathfinder Press, 1991)
• Pazzanita, Anthony G, "The Conflict Resolution Process in Angola. " The Journal of Modern African Studies Vol. 29 No 1(March 1991): pp. 83–114.

References

External links

• Armed Conflict Events Data: Angolan Civil War 1975–1991
• Excerpts from In Search of Enemies: A CIA Story by John Stockwell (the CIA officer who headed up the CIA's Angola Task Force)
• "Savimbi's Elusive Victory in Angola", by Michael Johns, U. Michael Johns (born September 8, 1964 in Allentown Pennsylvania) is an American Health care executive former Federal government S. Congressional Record, October 26, 1989. Events 740 - An Earthquake strikes Constantinople, causing much damage and death Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar)
• Arte TV: Fidel, der Che und die afrikanische Odyssee
• Departement Sozialwissenschaften der Universität Hamburg über den Krieg in Angola (Hamburg University)
• Afrika-Bulletin Nr. 123, August/September 2006 mit Schwerpunktthema Angola
• Deutsches Auswärtiges Amt zur Geschichte Angolas (German foreign ministry)
• Welt Online: Wie Castro die Revolution exportierte
• Christine Hatzky: Kuba in Afrika (Duisburg University)
• The National Security Archive: Secret Cuban Documents on Africa Involvement

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